Power System Protection

Introduction
Introduction
 Power systems may experience faults at some time

 Protection systems ensure safe, reliable and efficient

operation of the power system

 Objective of protection system is to

 Limit damage to the faulted equipment

 Minimize disruption of supplies to adjacent un-faulted

equipment
Introduction
Risks of power system faults :
Severe damage to the faulted equipment :
 Excessive current may flow
 Causes burning of conductors or equipment windings
 Arcing - energy dissipation
 Risk of explosions for oil-filled equipments, or when in
hazardous environments

 As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly

 Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply
 Introduction
Risks of power system faults
Danger to staff or the public :
 Risk of shock from direct contact with the faulted equipment
 Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed metal work that
is accessible to touch
 Fumes released by burning insulation
 Burns etc

Disruption to adjacent plant :

 Prolonged voltage dips cause motors to stall
 Loss of synchronism for synchronous generators / motors
Faults in Power System
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5
Faults in power system

Underground Cables

 Diggers
 Overloading
 Oil Leakage
 Ageing
Faults in power system

Overhead Lines
 Lightning
 Kites
 Trees
 Moisture
 Salt
 Birds
 Broken Conductors
Faults in power system

Machines

 Mechanical
Damage
 Unbalanced Load
Faults in power system

Types of Fault a
b
Ø/E
c
e

a
b
Ø/Ø/E
c
e

a
b
Ø/Ø
c
a
a
b
3Ø b 3Ø/E c
c
e
Faults in power system

Open circuit + ø/e Fault between adjacent

parallel Lines
a
b
c

e
Faults in power system

Evolving fault in cable

a

b c
Faults in power system
Fault signals

Fault Currents

5000
4000
3000
2000
Ia
1000
Amps

Ib
0
Ic
-1000
-2000 In
-3000
-4000
-5000
Time
Faults in power system
Fault signals
Fault Voltages

600

400

200
Va
Volts

0 Vb
Vc
-200

-400

-600
Time
 Faults in power system
A typical fault occurrence & its effect
Faults in power system

Factors influencing protection system design

 Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected
against

 Quantities available for measurement

 Types of protection available

 Speed

 Fault position discrimination

 Dependability / Reliability

 Security / Stability
Faults in power system

Factors influencing protection system design

 Overlap of protections

 Phase discrimination / Selectivity

 Instrument transformers (CTs & VTs)

 Auxiliary supplies

 Back-up protection

 Cost

 Duplication of protection
 Attributes of
Protection System
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18
Attributes of protection system

 Reliability / Dependability

 Stability / Security

 Speed

 Discrimination (Zones, Phases)

 Cost
Attributes of protection system

 Dependability
 Protection must operate when required to

 Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and

disruptive

 Faults are rare : Protection must operate even after years

of inactivity

 Improved by use of : Back-up protection and duplicate

protection
Attributes of protection system

 Security
 Protection must not operate when not required to, e.g. due
to:

 Load switching

 Faults on other parts of the system

 Recoverable power swings

Attributes of protection system
Speed
Fast operation :
 Minimizes damage to equipment and personnel

Very fast operation :

 Minimizes system instability
Attributes of protection system

Discrimination
 Fault Position Discrimination
 Power system divided into PROTECTION ZONES

 Must isolate only the faulty equipment or section

Discrimination and security can be costly to achieve as it

generally involves additional signaling / communications
equipment.
Attributes of protection system
Zones Of Protection
Attributes of protection system
Zones Of Protection

 Overlap of Protections
 No blind spots

 Where possible use overlapping CTs

Attributes of protection system
Overlap of protection zones
BBP BBP
‘1’ ‘2’

H J

‘Z’

G LP LP K L
‘H’ ‘J’

LP LP
‘K’ ‘L’
Attributes of protection system

 Phase Discrimination
 Correct indication of phases involved in the fault

 Important for single phase tripping and auto re-closing

applications
Attributes of protection system
Example 1 – Dependability / Security
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7 F
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4

 Directional relays provided as shown

 Breakers marked as shown

 Fault at F
Attributes of protection system
Example 1 – Dependability / Security R5 lost its
Security
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7 F
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4

 Resulted in operation of R1, R2, and R5, which in turn tripped

their respective breakers

 Was there loss of dependability or security?

Attributes of protection system
Example 2 – Zone discrimination
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4

 System as shown with relays and breakers marked

Attributes of protection system
Example 2 – Zone discrimination
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4
 System as shown with relays and breakers marked
 A single fault has resulted in the operation of breakers B1, B2, B3
and B4.
 There was no loss of security or dependability
 Identify the location of the fault
Attributes of protection system
Example 2 – Zone discrimination
R6
R3 R5
B6 R2
R1
B3 B5
R7
B1 B2 R4
B7
B4

 Fault in the overlap zone at breaker B2 as shown

Attributes of protection system

Cost
 The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance policy against

damage to plant, and loss of supply and customer goodwill.

 Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical

factors. Cost of protection should be balanced against the cost

of potential hazards.

 There is an economic limit on what can be spent.

 MINIMUM COST : Must ensure that all faulty equipment is

isolated by protection.
Attributes of protection system
 TOTAL COST should take account of :

 Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring

 Setting studies

 Commissioning

 CTs and VTs

 Maintenance and repairs to relays

 Damage repair if protection fails to operate

 Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily

Types of Protection
Equipments
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37
Classification of Protection Equipments
 Fuses
LV Systems, distribution feeders and transformers, VTs, auxiliary supplies

 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Lighting and Small power distribution & Auxiliary supplies

 Moulded Case Circuit breaker (MCCB)

LV Systems, distribution feeders and transformers, VTs, auxiliary supplies

 LV ACBs with release (Direct acting AC Trip)

LV Systems, distribution feeders of large rating

 Protection Relays
All other protections
Classification of Protection Equipments

Switch Fuse Units

Classification of Protection Equipments

DP MCB TPN MCB

Earth
MCBs RCBO RCCB Leakage
Relay
Classification of Protection Equipments

SP : Single Pole

SPN : Single Pole with Neutral

DP : Double Pole

TP : Triple Pole

TPN : Triple Pole with Neutral

FP : Four Pole
Classification of Protection Equipments

MCCBs
Classification of Protection Equipments

LV Air Circuit Breakers

Classification of Protection Equipments
Fuses works on I2t principle (Energy = I2Rt, with R as constant for
given fuse). The fuse blows during the fault and can not be reused.

Bus

Power
Syste
m
Fuse
Classification of Protection Equipments
MCCB generally acts on Current limiting principle and can replace the
Fuses in Power System.
No need for replacement. Simply reset.

Bus

Power
Syste
m
MCCB
Classification of Protection Equipments
Releases are the devices which sense the abnormal conditions from
the power system, take trip decisions and trip the breaker by pulling
the lever (Manufacturer specific, can not be used with other makes
of ACBs)
Bus

Power CT
Syste
m CB
VT

Release
By Pulling the lever Other devices
Classification of Protection Equipments

Relays are the devices which sense the abnormal conditions from the
power system and take trip decisions. (Relay is independent, can be
used with any make of Breakers)
Bus

Power CT
Syste
m CB
VT

Relay
Other devices
Station
Battery
 Classification of
Protection Relays
1st June 2007
48
Classification of Protection Relays

 Over Current and Earth fault

 Widely used in all power systems
 Non-directional
 Directional (Voltage dependant

 Differential
 Feeders, busbars, transformers, generators, etc.

 High impedance or Biased (Low-impedance)

 Pilot wire

 Digital
Classification of Protection Relays
 Distance (Impedance)
 Distribution feeders and transmission and sub-
transmission circuits
 Also used as back-up protection for transformers and
generators

 Phase comparison
 Transmission lines

 Directional comparison
 Transmission lines
Classification of Protection Relays

 Miscellaneous
 Under and Over Voltage
 Under and Over Frequency
 Special relays for generators, transformers, motors, etc.

 Control relays
 Auto-Reclose, tap change control, etc.

 Tripping and auxiliary relays

Classification of Protection Relays
Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection
 No specific point downstream up to which protection will protect
 Will operate for faults on the protected equipment
 May also operate for faults on downstream equipment, which has
its own protection
 Need for discrimination with downstream protection, usually by
means of time grading.
Classification of Protection Relays

Unit, or Restricted Protection

 Has an accurately defined zone of protection
 An item of power system plant is protected as a unit
 Will not operate for out of zone faults, thus no back-up
protection for downstream faults.
Classification of Protection Relays

Types
 Electro-mechanical

 Static

 Digital

 Numerical
 Classification of Protection Relays

Electro-mechanical
Advantages
 Robust & Sturdy
 Easy to repair
 Aux supply not mandatory
 Immune to electrical interference

Disadvantages
 Requires frequent maintenance
 High burden for CTs/VTs
 Requires lot of space
 Continuous monitoring is not possible
 Classification of Protection Relays
Static
 No moving parts
 Uses Comparators
 Discrete devices / ICs

Advantages
 Compact design
 No frequent maintenance
 Low Burden
 Continuous monitoring

Disadvantages
 Requires reliable aux supply
 Susceptible to electrical interference
 Requires clean environment
 Classification of Protection Relays
Digital
 Uses A/D converters
 Use of Processors & Algorithms
 Communication ports provided
Advantages
 Compact design
 No frequent maintenance
 More functions in one relay
 Low Burden
 Remote Communication
 Continuous monitoring

Disadvantages
 Requires reliable aux supply
 Susceptible to electrical interference
 Requires clean environment
 Classification of Protection Relays
Numerical
 Uses Special DSPs
 Software tools for one box solution
 Communication ports provided

Advantages
 Compact design
 No frequent maintenance
 Functions as IED / BCU
 Low Burden
 Multiple tasking
 Remote Communication
Continuous monitoring

Disadvantages
 Requires reliable aux supply
 Susceptible to electrical interference
 Requires clean environment
Device Numbers (ANSI)

ANSI Standard identifies various components of Protection

System using Numbers.

Exp : Timer - 2
Impedance (Distance) - 21
Under voltage - 27
Reverse Power - 32
Low Forward Power - 37
Instantaneous O/C - 50
IDMT Over Current - 51
Circuit Breaker - 52
Differential - 87
Isolator - 89

etc.,
Protection System Application
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60
Protection System Application

Radial Feeders
Non directional IDMT Over current & Earth fault
Under voltage
Over voltage

Interconnected Feeders
Directional IDMT Over current & Earth fault
Under voltage
Over voltage
Protection System Application
Transformers / Reactors
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Differential
Backup IDMT O/C with Instantaneous feature
Mechanical protections (Buchholz, OT, WT, PRD)
Over fluxing
Backup impedance protection
Standby Earth fault

Busbar
Differential
Backup IDMT O/C
CT supervision
Protection System Application

Motors
Differential
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Backup IDMT O/C with Instantaneous feature
Mechanical protections
Loss of Field / Excitation (Synchronous motors only)
Earth fault
Locked Rotor
Unbalance or Negative sequence
Thermal or overheating
Protection System Application
Overhead lines / Cables
Differential or Distance or Both
Backup IDMT O/C
Overvoltage
Auto re-close / synchro check
Power swing blocking
Distance to Fault recording
Broken conductor/wire detection

Capacitor Bank
Overvoltage
Under voltage
Neutral Displacement for earth faults
Back up Over current
Protection System Application

Common
Breaker fail protection
Trip circuit supervision
Stub protection
Auto re-close / synchro check
Disturbance recording
Event Loggers
Frequency relay with df/dt feature
Protection System Application
Generators
Differential
Restricted Earth Fault (REF)
Backup IDMT O/C (Voltage restraint/Voltage controlled)
Reverse power & Low forward power
Mechanical protections
Loss of Field / Excitation
Stator & Rotor Earth fault
Over-fluxing
Over voltage/Under voltage
Under frequency / over frequency
Unbalance or Negative sequence
Accidental Energisation
Pole slipping
Thermal or overheating
Protection System Building Blocks
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Protection System Building Blocks

Relays are the devices which sense the abnormal conditions from the
power system and take trip decisions.
Bus

Power CT
Syste
m CB
VT

Relay
Trip Coil of
Station Breaker
Battery
Protection System Building Blocks

Circuit breakers

A CB is defined in ANSI standards as a mechanical switching

device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions. Also capable of making and
carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under
specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of a short
circuit
Circuit Breakers

 Requirements - General
 Perfect conductor – when closed
 Perfect insulator – when open
 Fast - when closing
 Fast – when opening

 Requirements – From protection aspect

 Interruption of high short circuit current
Protection System Building Blocks

Current Transformer
Current Transformer

 Current transformers (CT) are critical for proper functioning of

the protection system.

 CTs have to faithfully reproduce the primary current at

secondary.

 Custom designed CTs are specified for different protection

applications
 Current Transformer
 Ratio : Primary load current / 1A or 5A
 Burden : Secondary load (in VA or Ohms)
 Types : Protection & Metering
 CT sec. winding resistance : In Ohms
 Vk : 4.44 *f * N * A* Bmax
Current Transformer

Metering CT
Accuracy Limit Factor Current up to
Burden which Error limit
is guaranteed

Protection CT
Amplitude & Phase angle Error
Maximum Current limit for the above
5P10
Burden
Combined Error
in Percentage

Special Class (PS)

Vk > volts
Imag < mA at Vk or Vk/2 or Vk/4
Rct < ohms
 Current Transformer
IP NP
+10% Vk

Exciting Voltage (VS)

N= NP/Ns
Vk
NS
Ip*N +50% Iek
Vk

Ie
Ze
IS
RCT ZB
Iek
Vs = ISZB = Vk - ISRCT
Exciting Current (Ie)

 For faithful reproduction of the primary current in the secondary, the

CT has to operate in the linear region of its magnetizing characteristics
 Thus the Vk of the CT has to be specified depending on the application.
 From the above diagram we can write that
 Vk = Is * (ZB+RCT)
Example 1
 Specification of CT:
 Turns ratio : 1200:5
 CT Class: 10 P 20

 This means,
 Currents up to 100A (5*20) are reproduced faithfully at the
secondary within 10% error
Voltage Transformers

 Electromagnetic voltage transformers

 Capacitive voltage transformers

Voltage Transformers

Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Rp Lp Rs Ls

Burden
Ze

Primary Secondary
Voltage Transformers
 System voltage (Vp) is applied across the input terminals.

 Secondary voltage Vs need to be an accurate replica of the

primary voltage over a specified range of output.

 Voltage drop in windings are small.

 Flux density in the core designed to be well below the

saturation level.
Voltage Transformers
 Ratio Error
(K n Vs − Vp )
x100%
Vp

 Kn is the nominal ratio

 Vp – Actual primary voltage

 Vs – Actual secondary voltage

 Phase Error
 Phase difference between the reversed secondary and the
primary voltage vectors

 Normally neglected for protective relaying purposes.

Capacitive Voltage Transformers
Structure of a CVT

Line voltage

C1 Ferro resonance
L Suppression circuit

Compensating
reactor Relay voltage
C2

Step down
transformer
Capacitive Voltage Transformers

 Ferro resonance suppression circuits

 The active ferro resonance suppression circuit acts like a

band pass filter and introduces extra time delay in the CVT

secondary output.

 The energy storage element contribute to the severity of

the transient characteristics.

Capacitive Voltage Transformers

 Connected burden
 CVT transient characteristics Influenced by the magnitude

and angle of the connected burden.

 Static and numerical relays have nearly resistive burdens

 Estimate total burden of all devices connected to the CVT

 Protection System
Design Considerations
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Protection System Design
Considerations

Instrument Transformer Circuits

 Never open circuit a CT secondary circuit, so never fuse CT
circuits

 VTs must be fused or protected by MCB

 Do wire test blocks in circuit (both VT and CT) to allow

commissioning and periodic injection testing of relays

 Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only

 Wire gauge > 2.5mm2 recommended for mechanical strength.

Protection System Design
Considerations
Auxiliary Supplies
 Required for : TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKERS
CLOSING CIRCUIT BREAKERS
PROTECTION and TRIP RELAYS
 AC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are only used on LV and MV systems.
 DC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are more secure than AC supplies.
 SEPARATELY FUSED SUPPLIES used for each protection.
 DUPLICATE BATTERIES are occasionally provided for extra security.
 MODERN PROTECTION RELAYS need a continuous auxiliary supply.
 During un-operated (healthy) conditions, they draw a small ‘QUIESCENT’
load to keep relay circuits energized.
 During operation, they draw a larger current which increases due to
operation of output elements.
Protection System Design
Considerations
Trip output contacts

 Check that these are rated sufficiently to make and carry the
circuit breaker trip coil current. If not, a heavier duty tripping
relay will be needed.

 Use a circuit breaker normally open (52a) contact to interrupt

trip coil current. This extends the life of the protection relay
trip contacts.
Protection System Design
Considerations
Type of relay outputs

Close when energised, typically

Make (M) / Normally Open (NO)
used for tripping.

Break (B) / Normally Closed (NC) Close when de-energised.

Can be break before make (BBM)

Changeover (C/O)
or make before break (MBB).
Trip Relay Circuits
Trip Circuit Supervision