PART I

The Architecture of the ancient Greece and Rome

The Roman architecture and Greek architecture are somewhat similar. Barroso (2018) states that
the ancient Greeks and Romans built magnificent structures using architectural forms and ideas
whose influence reached worldwide dimensions and can still be seen in diverse structures all
over the world, despite not having access to our modern-day breakthroughs in technology and
machines. The distinct architectural styles that the Greeks and Romans produced are together
referred to as classical architecture, and they continue to have an influence on contemporary
designers.

The Parthenon

The Parthenon is a Greek Doric temple that follows the traditional 9:4 ratio. It has eight columns
on the façade and seventeen columns on the wings. This ratio determined the temple's vertical
and horizontal proportions as well as many other structural connections, such as the distance
between and height of the columns (Parthenon, no date). The temple was constructed using an
estimated 13,400 stones (History, 2022).
 Figure 3. History of
Architecture – The
Parthenon (Mramba,
2021).

Figure 1. History of Architecture –

The Parthenon (Mramba, 2021)

Figure 2. History of Architecture – The

Parthenon (Mramba, 2021)

Figure 1 shows the original illustration of the Parthenon with Doric pillars supporting the
pediment, triangular shaped gables on each end of the building which make the building look
perfectly symmetrical and straight. It is looks perfect in a way because of “an effect the temple’s
builders deliberately created—through techniques like beveling or angling the blocks of the
steps, tilting the columns slightly inward and making the corner columns slightly thicker than the
others” (Pruitt 2019). Figure 2 illustrates how the ruin of Parthenon looks today. A few columns
are destroyed from the side of ancient temple due to “a battle between the Turks and the
Venetians when it was used to store gunpowder and shelter civilians” (Diffen, 2022). Figure 3
displays the large statue of Athena, a Greek goddess housed in the temple. The back chamber
housed Athena's wealth and had four columns in the Ionic style supporting its roof. Although the
monument is no longer there, it is estimated to have stood roughly 12 metres tall (History, 2022).
The massive, entirely made of marble building was built around a massive statue of Athena
Parthenos (Kousser, 2009). The cella was exceptionally big to fit the gigantic statue of Athena,
restricting the front and back porch to a considerably smaller than typical size (Parthenon, no
date). Gorgons, lion heads, and other bronze relief ornaments were often used to embellish the
doors that lead to the cella (The Parthenon, no date). The Parthenon is shaped in a rectangular
form, it contains 23 inner columns and 46 outer columns as displayed on the rectangular floor
plan on figure 4 and the side and front elevations on figure 5. The temple comprises of a frieze; a
broad, decorative horizontal band that spans the inner chamber walls of the Parthenon (the cella).
Because the frieze was carved in bas-relief, the sculpted figures are somewhat raised from the
background (History, 2022). The diameter of the corner columns is marginally bigger than the
other columns which makes the Pantheon a great example of a Greek architecture because it
“contains no straight lines and no right angles” (History, 2022). Figure 6 displays the closer view
of the pillars close to the entrance of the building and figure 7 shows the different angle views
and sections. The Parthenon was sacred to the ancient Greeks. Its décor is mostly devoted to
extolling the virtues of its patron god (Robertson, 1963).
 Figure 5. The Parthenon, Side and Front views (2014).

Figure 4. 3D-laser scanning of

the Parthenon west frieze blocks
(no date)

Figure 7. The Parthenon:

Athens (no date)
Figure 6. 3D-laser scanning of the
Parthenon west frieze blocks (no
date)

Figure 7. The Parthenon:

Athens (no date)
 The Pantheon

The Pantheon is a Roman temple and it is a bit similar to the Parthenon but the structure is not a
rectangular temple, but it did have the same features as the contemporary structure: a portico
with high columns and a pediment, and a rotunda (circular hall) behind it (Ranogajec 2015). The
building has a straight front that leads to an extremely large shadowy interior domed space.
According to Ranogajec (2015), “The Pantheon has one of the most perfect interior spaces ever
constructed—and it’s been copied ever since”. The building is cylindrical in shape with columns
under a pediment. It contains a concrete dome with a central opening at the top that allows
excess amount of light into the building. A perfect sphere with the same diameter would fit just
perfectly inside the inner rotunda, which has a height and diameter of 43.3 m (Asc 1, 2004). As
noted by Asc 1 (2004), “the oculus serves as the main source of light inside the Pantheon”. The
oculus also lets in rain and snow, creating various atmospheric conditions as the seasons change
(Asc 1, 2004). Asc 1 (2004) also points out that pantheon maintains its own originality while also
including design elements that were prominent at the time it was built. Greek architecture is
adopted for the porch and the middle block, with an entablature supported by sixteen columns.
After going through the portico, one arrives at the spacious rotunda, which is built in the Roman
architectural style as a result of the massive dome's support from straining on the cylinder's
walls. On figure 8, the floor's design, which comprises of squares and circles, represents the
order of the Roman Empire. The Pantheon still has a 19th-century replica of the ancient floor
(Asc 1, 2004).
 Oculus

Figure 9. Views of the Pantheon from the 1897 (no date)

Figure 8. Views of the Pantheon

from the 1897 (no date)

Fig. 10. Pantheon,

Rom (Ege, no date)
Figure 9 shows the side elevation and the front elevation of the temple displaying eight large
columns at the rectangular porch with two groups of four columns behind under a pediment that
are connected to a massive round shaped domed cella. Figure 10 portrays multiple illustrations of
the interior of the Pantheon. Despite having a circular design, the interior wall is divided into
sixteen evenly spaced sections. The entrance door is located in the northernmost sector, and as
you move clockwise, pedimented niches and columned recesses interchange with one another.
Fourteen blind windows in the upper attic level, directly below the offset between the cylinder
and the dome, correspond to this floor level section (Virtual Roman Pantheon in Blue Mars /
CryEngine, no date).

The Pantheon was built in Rome after the Parthenon while the Parthenon was built in Greece.
They were all ancient temples built at different centuries. The Romans had great architects and
engineers but their buildings were heavily influenced by already existing Greek architecture.
They both typically used marble or limestone to construct their buildings, but the Romans
mastered the use of concrete in architecture, enabling them to build more fluid structures
(UKEssays, 2018). The Parthenon takes a lot of inspiration from the Parthenon for its external
style and it is an Ionic-columned Doric temple entirely made of marble and limestone. The
Pantheon is supported by elaborate Corinthian columns with a large concrete dome. The majority
of Greek building that still stands was created to worship the gods and the interiors are less
elaborate. More types of Roman structures are still standing today and have more decorated
interior due to the Romans' breakthroughs in other materials usage. The ancient Greek architects
created three different styles of columns called the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders. “Each
style has its own flare and can be most easily identified by its type of column” (Barroso, 2018).
Figure 11 displays the illustration of the differences of each order. The Greeks preferred to use
the Doric and the Ionic while the Romans preferred using the more stylish Corinthian order. The
earliest and most basic type of column is Doric. This column is fluted, which means it lacks a
plinth and has a smooth, rounded capital with vertical grooves. Instead, the column rests on a
stylobate, a level surface that supports rows of columns. Ionic columns sit on rounded bases and
feature spiral, scroll-shaped decorations at the capital. Corinthian columns are inspired by leaves
and flowers on the capital Egyptian columns. Corinthian columns rest on a base and have fluted
sides (Romualdez, 2017).
Figure 11. The Pantheon
(Rome) (Ranogacej, 2015)
 Bibliography

3D-laser scanning of the Parthenon west frieze blocks and their digital assembly based on
extracted characteristic geometrical details (no date). Available at:
https://m.facebook.com/07sketches/posts/317966309904724/?locale=he_IL (Accessed:
29 December 2022).

Asc 1. (2004) ‘The Pantheon’, Honors Program in Rome, Vol. 1, pp. 1 - 7. Available at:
https://depts.washington.edu/hrome/Authors/asc1/ThePantheon/pub_zbarticle_view_print
able.html (Accessed: 2 January 2023).

Barroso K. (2018) ‘Similarities & Differences of Greek & Roman Architecture’, Classroom, pp.
1 - 4. Available at: https://classroom.synonym.com/similarities-differences-greek-roman-
architecture-8073431.html (Accessed: 28 December 2022).

Differen (2022). Pantheon vs Parthenon. Available at:

https://www.diffen.com/difference/Pantheon_vs_Parthenon (Accessed: 29 December
2022).

History (2022). Pantheon. Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-

greece/parthenon (Accessed: 1 January 2023).

History of Architecture – The Parthenon (2021). Available at:

https://m.facebook.com/07sketches/photos/a.317966299904725/317966176571404/?type
=3&source=57&locale2=he_IL&__tn__=EH-R (Accessed: 30 December 2022).

Kousser R. (2009) ‘Destruction and Memory on the Athenian Acropolis, The Art Bulletin, Vol.
91(3), pp. 263 - 282. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40645507 (Accessed: 3
January 2023).

Pruitt, S. (2019) How the Ancient Greeks Designed the Parthenon to Impress—And Last.
Available at: https://www.history.com/news/parthenon-acropolis-ancient-greece-
engineering (Accessed: 29 December 2022).

Ranogajec P. (2015) The Pantheon (Rome). Available at: https://smarthistory.org/the-pantheon/

(Accessed: 2 January 2023).
Robertson M. (1963) ‘Supplement: Parthenos and Parthenon’, The Sculptures of the Parthenon,
Vol. 10, pp. 46 - 60. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/826895 (Accessed: 2
January 2023).

Romualdez V. (2017) ‘Parts of a Column’, Classroom, pp. 1 - 2. Available at:

https://classroom.synonym.com/parts-of-a-column-12000121.html (Accessed: 5 January
2023).

Ege S. (no date) Pantheon, Rom. Tværsnit og grundplan. Available at:

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/5699937014607903/ (Accessed: 3 January 2023).

The Pantheon (no date) Available at: https://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1345.htm (Accessed: 2

January 2022).

The Parthenon (no date) Available at: https://www.ancient-

greece.org/architecture/parthenon.html (Accessed: 28 December 2022).

The Parthenon: Athens (no date) Available at

:https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/exploringarchitectureandlandscape/chapter/parthenon/
(Accessed: 29 December 2022).

The Parthenon, Side and Front views (2014). Available at:

https://www.deviantart.com/a01421/art/The-Parthenon-Side-and-Front-views-446354411
(Accessed: 29 December 2022).

UKEssays. (2018). Difference Between Greek and Roman Architecture of Antiquity [online].
Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/architecture/the-differences-between-
the-greek-and-roman-architecture.php?vref=1 (Accessed: 3 January 2023).

Virtual Roman Pantheon in Blue Mars / CryEngine (no date). Available at:
https://idialab.org/virtual-roman-pantheon-in-blue-mars-cryengine/ (Accessed: 3 January
2023).
 PART II

Le Corbusier

Le Corbusier is considered as the most important architect of the modern age. He created a
number of ground-breaking structures across the world and a number of significant urban
development concepts. He produced stunning works of art, including collages, sculptures,
enamels, tapestries, paintings, and engravings (Les Couleurs, no date). He has shaped the modern
architecture and also contributed to the definition of modernity. Le Corbusier has developed
some architectural theories that establish his architecture. They are called ‘The Five Points of a
New Architecture’. Studio2A (no date) summarizes the theories:

Pilotis: Replacement of ground floor supporting walls by a grid of reinforced concrete

columns that bear the structural load is the basis of the new aesthetic.

The free design of the ground plan: Raised on free-standing columns with the absence of
supporting walls, means the ground floor is unrestrained in its internal use.

The free design of the façade: Separating the exterior of the building from its structural
function sets the façade free from conventional structural constraints.

Horizontal windows: The absence of load-bearing walls allows for windows of any size.
Large horizontal windows increase the sense of space and lights rooms equally.

Roof garden: A flat roof can serve a domestic purpose while providing essential
protection to the concrete roof.

An example of a building designed by Le Corbusier that reflect his five principles is the Villa
Savoye. Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret completed the building together. Figure 12 portrays
the building with the illustrations of the five principles. Hoffman (2009) explains that Le
Corbusier repeatedly used his formula to create many sorts of structures throughout the globe,
including the concrete apartment buildings he constructed as a utopian "machine" for mass
housing in multiple locations. Thus creating the brutalist architectural movement.
Figure 12. 5 Points of
Architecture in Villa Savoye by
Le Corbusier (no date)
Le Corbusier was influenced by classical architecture and other ancient architecture. According
to Curtis (2011), some of his earlier works, inspired by artists like Schinkel and Palladio, more
overtly explored the classical language and its resonances with the vernacular, they also
contained deeply ingrained archetypes of the Pompeii houses he had drawn, the monastic cells he
had admired at the Monastery at Ema, and the condensed memories of Greek and Roman ruins.
His study of the classical architecture ruins influenced him in using and asserting universal
principles of the past and enhancing his current works. Guerra (2021) points out that the
"soliloquies among the ruins" and "glacial dialogues with silent stones" that he created inspired
his historical aesthetics in favour of asserting universal truths and timeless forms, such as the
rigid relationship between these volumes and the surrounding landscape and the unchangeable
horizon line. He was inspired by other elements such as cars and steam ships. He even referred
his designs as “‘a house is a machine for living in’ – and to show an affinity with the latest and
most adventurous engineering design” (Glancey, 2019). Le Corbusier designed and developed
one of his famous works, a modernist residential building in Marseille called the Unite
d’habitation which influenced many architects today. Figure 13 displays the side elevation with
illustration of the plan of some floors. Le Corbusier also developed ‘The Five Points of a New
Architecture’ in the design. Marmot (1981) affirms that the residences were double-storeyed and
accessed through an interior street, that the building was lifted above the ground on pilotis, and
that the floor plans were separate from the structure; The building's facades are completely open
to light, air, flora, and views of the sea and mountains.
 Figure 13. Unite d'habitation Marseille
(Martinez, no date)
The Unite d’habitation built in Marseille by Le Corbusier was underpinned by other works such
as the Narkomfin building by Moise Guinzbourg, concept of the ‘vertical city’ by Ludwig
Hilberseimer and The Bergpolderflat in Rotterdam by W. de Tijen, Brinkman and Van der Vlugt
(Declad, no date). A theory and concept designed by Le Corbusier that influenced the building
was based on the dimensions of the human body called the Modulor Measurement System.
According to Lueder (2021), the human body as a metaphor for architectural and urban structure
is connected to Le Corbusier's obsession with aerial perspectives and his research of a "vertical
city" whose façade shows its structure in the façade of its single, upright volume. The coherence
of the urban body, which is made possible by simple geometry, and the strong association of a
human subject's body with constructed enclosures. Figure 14 displays the modulor system of
figures in different positions. The modulor system has a number of scales and measures that
could be used to provide the dimensions for every part of design as well as to create a convenient
and efficient environment for humans.

Figure 14. Le Corbusier's The

Modulor. (Tomas, 2009)
He also used a concept of an ocean liner to design the Unite d’habitation. Le Corbusier
frequently travelled by steamboat. The Normandie (a steam boat) had a significant influence on
Le Corbusier's perception of architecture. He was fascinated by a ship's capacity to be both
useful, attractive and has refined design (Declad, no date). Le Corbusier translated his fascination
for ocean liners into his design.

Le Corbusier's architectural work changed the field of architecture by displaying the creation of a
new architectural language that broke the past in an outstanding and ground-breaking way. He
has impacted many architects’ works as his “Architectural Work marks the birth of three major
trends in modern architecture: Purism, Brutalism and sculptural architecture” (UNESCO, 2016)
used by architects today. His principles and ideas are been applied to many building projects
worldwide. According to Ali (2017), Le Corbusier has to be researched in order to properly
study architecture from the 20th century and now (1887–1965). From Paris to Algeria to the
Punjab, his buildings can be found and his impact has lasted for many decades. Le Corbusier has
impacted famous architects in the twenty first century including Zaha Hadid. The Notre Dame du
Haut influenced her typical style of architectural design (Engel&Volkers, no date). Figure 15
displays an example the Zaha Hadid’s Regium Waterfront floor plan with a morphological
similarity to the Notre Dame du Haut chapel’s floor plan.
 Figure 10. Someone Has Built It
Before (2012)

Le Corbusier undoubtedly had a significant impact on the creation and evolution of modern
architecture and has influenced residential architecture.
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