GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT.

OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: - ADVANCE SURVEYING LAB SUBJECT CODE: - 2015407

SL.NO LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Use plane table survey to prepare plans of a plot of seven-sided
closed traverse by Radiation Method.
2. Use plane table survey to prepare plans, locate details by
Intersection Method.
3. Use plane table survey to prepare plans, locate details by Traversing
Method.
4. Use transit theodolite to measure Horizontal and Vertical angle by
Direct Method.
5. Use Theodolite as a Tacheometer to compute reduced levels and
horizontal distances.
6. Set out a circular curve by Rankine’s Method of Deflection Angles.
7. Use EDM to measure horizontal distance.
8. Use Total station instrument to measure horizontal distances.

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GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT NO.-1
AIM: Use plane table survey to prepare plans of a plot of seven-sided closed
traverse by Radiation Method.
 RADIATION METHOD OF PLANE TABLE SURVEYING:
The radiation method is one of the four methods of plane table surveying.
Those methods of plane table surveying are –
(a) Radiation method
(b) Intersection method
(c) Traversing method
(d) Resection method.
Among these four methods, the first two methods are used for finding the
location details of various objects. The other two methods are employed
for establishing the plane table stations.
RADIATION METHOD:
In the radiation method, the instrument is generally set up at a single point,
from where all the details which are to be plotted are clearly visible. The
rays are drawn from the instrument station to the points which are to be
plotted. The distance between the instrument’s station and the point is
measured with a tape or chain. After that, the distance is plotted in the
drawing sheet to some suitable scale along with their respective rays.
This method is generally suitable for a survey when the distances are small
and can be measured with a tape length. But if we measure the distance
with a telescopic alidade which works on the principle of the tachometer,
the radiation method can be applied to a greater distance.
INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED FOR RADIATION METHOD OF
SURVEYING:
The instruments required for this type of surveying are as follows:
1. The drawing board of size 75 cm x 60 cm consists of a circular
plate for attaching the tripod stand.
2. The plane or telescopic alidade
3. Spirit level.
4. The through compass or circular box compass

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GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

5. U-fork with plumb bob

6. Ranging rods
7. Tape
8. Arrows
9. Drawing sheets
10. Pencils
The process of setting up a plane table in radiation method:
The setting up of a plane table over a station in a plane table survey includes
a number of steps. In general, there are five steps that are followed.
 Step-1 Fixing the tripod stand with the Plane table
At first, the tripod stand is attached to the bottom of the board by a wing
nut. The wing nut is generally attached to a circular plate attached to the
bottom of the board.
 Step-2 Level the plane table
After fixing the tripod stand the table is leveled by adjusting the tripod legs.
The level of the table is checked with the help of a spirit level. The spirit
level is placed at a different place on the board to check its inclinations.
The bubble should be at the center at every position of the plane table.
 Step-3 Center the plane table exactly over the station
After the leveling operation, a drawing sheet is fixed on the board. A pin
is fixed on the station. Plot this station on the drawing sheet with the help
of a U-fork and plumb bob. After that, the board is clamped and proper
precautions are taken not to disturb it.
 Step-4 Marking the N-S line
After centering the table and fixing a drawing sheet on the board, the north-
south line is drawn on the sheet. This N-S line is found with the help of a
through compass or circular box compass. This N-S line is very useful for
the orientation of the plane table.
 Step-5 Orientation
The orientation operation is not performed in the radiation method of plane
table surveying. Because in this method all the rays are drawn from a single

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central station. So, there is no chance of shifting the plane table over several
stations.
PROCEDURE OF THE RADIATION METHOD:
The following are the necessary steps to conduct a survey in the radiation
method:
1. Suppose T is the station on the ground from where all the station
points A, B, C, D, E and F are clearly visible.
2. The plane table is set at T. Now transfer the point “T” onto the
drawing sheet with the help of a U-fork and plumb bob. Thus Point
“t” on the drawing sheet represents the station T on the ground.
3. The next step is to fix the table by clamping it to the tripod stand.
4. Now set a point at point “t”. while touching the pin at t with the
alidade, sight to A. Now draw the rays on the drawing sheet along
the fiducial edge of the alidade.
5. Similarly sight all the points B, C, D, E, F with the help of the alidade
and draw the corresponding rays.
6. Now the distances between the stations and the instrument (TA, TB,
TC, TD, TE, TF) are measured in the field.
7. Finally, those distances are plotted in the drawing sheet along with
their corresponding rays for establishing a, b, c, d, e, f on the drawing
sheet.

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PRECAUTION ARE TAKEN DURING RADIATION METHOD:

For successfully conducting a radiation method few precautions are to be
taken into consideration. Those precautions are as follows:
1. The plane table must not be disturbed. So, surveyor should be
careful while working on the board.
2. The drawing sheet should be fixed properly. In case it gets
disturbed the whole work may need to be repeated.
3. The leveling with a spirit level is done properly at different
positions on the board, most importantly on the corners.
4. The N-S mark must be drawn on the drawing sheet. It helps in easy
orientation and execution of the drawing on the field.
ADVANTAGES OF RADIATION METHOD:
1. The radiation method is very fast and suitable for locating objects
from a single station.
2. There is no need for multiple instruments set up, hence fewer
chances of error than other plane table methods.
3. As this method is conducted from a single station, no orientation
work is needed.
4. The radiation method is the most rapid and useful method for filling
in details.
5. As there is no need for orientation, fewer magnetic errors are there.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE RADIATION METHOD:
1. The radiation method does not provide very accurate results.
2. The radiation method is not suitable for surveying work in a wet
climate.
3. This method is not suitable where the stations are not visible.
4. If in any case, the surveyor missed a measurement, the replotting of
the survey work turns impossible. Then the whole radiation method
is to be conducted again.
5. As there is no field book, replotting the map to a different scale is
not possible.

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GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT NO.-2
AIM: Use plane table survey to prepare plans, locate details by Intersection
Method.
 In this method, the positions of the points are fixed on the sheet by the
intersection of the rays drawn from two instrument-stations. The line
joining these stations is termed as base line. The only linear measurement
required in the method is that of the base line.
This method is largely employed for locating detail and for locating the
points to be used subsequently as instrument stations. This may also be
used for plotting the distant and inaccessible objects, the broken boundaries
of the river etc. It is much suitable for surveying hilly country where it is
difficult to measure the horizontal distances.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Select two-point A and B so that all points to be plotted are visible
from both of them and no triangle formed by joining any point to be
located and the end points of the base line is bad conditioned.
(ii) Set up and level the plane table at station A and mark a suitable point
a on the paper so that it is vertically above the instrument station A
on the ground.
(iii) Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian on the top corner of
the sheet by means of a trough compass.
(iv) With the alidade centered on the point a, sight the station B and
other points 1, 2, 3 etc. to be plotted and draw rays towards them.

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Mark the respective lines by letters b and 1, 2, 3 etc. to avoid

confusion.
(v) Measure the base line AB accurately with a steel tape and cut off AB
to scale along the ray drawn from a to B, thus fixing the position b
on the sheet of the station B on the ground.
(vi) Shift the instrument and set it up and level at B, so that the point b
is exactly above the point B on the ground.
(vii) Orient the table by placing the alidade along ba, tuning the table until
the line of sight strikes A, and then clamp it.
(viii) With the alidade pivoted on b, draw rays sighting towards the same
objects. The intersections of these rays with the respective rays from
a determine the positions of the objects 1, 2, 3 etc. on the sheet.

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GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT NO.-3
AIM: Use plane table survey to prepare plans, locate details by Traversing
Method.
 This is the main method of plane tabling and is similar to that of compass
or theodolite traversing. It is used for running survey lines of a closed or
open traverse. The detail may be located by offsets taken in the usual
manner or by the radiation or by intersection method of plane-tabling.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Select the traverse stations A, B, C etc.
(ii) Set up the table over one of them say A. Select the point a suitably
on the sheet. Level and centre the table over A.
(iii) Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian on the top corner to the
sheet by means of the trough compass.
(iv) With the alidade touching a, sight B and draw the ray.
(v) Measure the distance AB and scale off ab, thus fixing the position of
b on the sheet, which represents the station B on the ground.
(vi) Locate the nearby details by offsets taken in the usual manner or by
radiation and the distant objects by intersection.
(vii) Shift the table and set it up at B, with b over B and orient it by placing
the alidade along ba, turning the table until the line of sight strikes
A, and then clamp it.
(viii) With the alidade touching b sight C and draw a ray.
(ix) Measure the line BC and cut off be to scale.

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(x) Locate the surrounding detail as before.

(xi) Proceed similarly at other stations, in each case orienting by each
sight before taking the forward sight until all the remaining stations
are plotted.
CHECK:
(i) Intermediate checks should be taken whenever possible. Thus if A
is visible from C, the work done up to C can be checked thereby
sighting A with the alidade against c and noting if the edge touches
a. Similarly other check lines DB, EC etc. can be used to check the
work.
(ii) When no other Stations visible from the station occupied, some well-
defined object such as a corner of a building, which has been
previously fixed on the sheet can be used to check the work.
If the traverse is a closed one, the work can be checked by plotting
the starting point say (A) from the last station say (E) of the traverse
and finding the closing error, the closing error if any can be adjusted
graphically as in compass traversing.
PLANE TABLE AND COMPASS TRAVERSING:
Plane table traversing becomes similar to compass traversing if each
orientation is performed only by compass. This is less accurate than back
sight orientation particularly if the area to be surveyed is affected by local
attraction.
Since the compass errors tend to compensate, however, the method is
useful for surveying long narrow strips, and proves rapid when the plane
table is set up at alternate stations only. A traverse plane table (a table with
a trough compass recessed in (to the board) is sometimes used for such
work.

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GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT NO.-4
AIM: Use transit theodolite to measure Horizontal and Vertical angle by Direct
Method.
 OBJECTIVE:
To measure the horizontal distance between two points by direct ranging.

INSTRUMENTS:

Sl.No. Particulars Quantity

1. Tape 01
2. Ranging Rods 04
3. Arrows 05

THEORY:
When a survey line is longer than a chain length, it is necessary to align
intermediate points on chain line so that the measurements are along the
line. The process of locating intermediate points on survey line is known
as ranging. There are two methods of ranging: (i) Direct Ranging, (ii)
Indirect (or) Reciprocal Ranging.
DIRECT RANGING:
Is done when the two ends of the survey lines are intervisible. In such cases,
ranging can either be done by eye or through some optical instruments. The
above figure shows the ranging by eye method.

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INDIRECT RANGING:
Is restored to when both the ends of the survey line are not intervisible
either due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between them.
TABLE 1.1 CODES OF SIGNALS FOR RANGING
Sl.No. Signal by the Surveyor Action by the Assistant
1. Rapid sweep with right Move considerably to the
hand right
2. Slow sweep with right hand Move slowly to the right
3. Right arm extended Continue to move to the right
4. Right arm up and moved to Plumb the rod to the right
the right
5. Rapid sweep with left hand Move considerably to the left
6. Slow sweep with left hand Move slowly to the left
7. Left arm extended Continue to move to the left
8. Left arm up and moved to Plumb the rod to the left
the left
9. Both hands above head and Correct
then brought down
10 Both arms extended Fix the rod
forward horizontally and
the hands depressed briskly

PROCEDURE:
1. Let A and B be the two points at the ends of a survey line.
2. One ranging rod is erected at the point B while the surveyor stands
with another ranging rod at point A.
3. The assistant then goes with another ranging rod and establishes the
rod at a point approximately in the line with AB (by judgement) at a
distance not greater than one chain length from A.
4. The surveyor at A then signals the assistant to move transverse to
the chain line, till he is in line with A and B.
5. Similarly, other intermediate points can be established. 6. Measure
the distance between the points A and B.

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RESULTS:
The distance between AB =………………………………. meters.

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GOVT. POLYTECHNIC ARARIA DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

EXPERIMENT NO.-5
AIM: Use Theodolite as a Tacheometer to compute reduced levels and
horizontal distances.
 Tacheometric surveying is defined as a method of angular surveying in
which a tachometer is used to determine the horizontal and vertical distance
between two points. Thus, eliminating the tedious process of chain
surveying to measure horizontal distance.
Tacheometric surveying is preferred over chain or tape surveying. It is
faster and more convenient, especially in hard terrains such as broken
grounds, deep ravines, swampy areas, stretches of water bodies, etc. The
accuracy of this surveying technique ranges from 1/1000 to 1/10000.
PRINCIPLE OF TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING:
The principle of tacheometric surveying is based on the property of an
isosceles triangle i.e., the ratio of the distance of the base from the apex
and the length of the base is always constant.
The formula for the horizontal distance is determined using:

H= K*s* cos ² θ
NOTE:
The additive constant is 0.00, and the multiplying constant is 100.00.
The formula for the vertical distance for the same tacheometer is:

V= (K*s*sin2θ)/2 = Htanθ
Where,
s= staff intercept = Top Reading – Bottom Reading
K= Multiplying Constant (generally taken as 100)
θ = Vertical angle on the theodolite
Thus, after computing the vertical distance value, the reduced level of the
instrument station (R.L.), the height of the instrument (H.I.), central wire
reading (R), and the R.L. of any point under observation can be calculated
as:
R.L of Point = R.L of Instrument Station + H.I ± V-R

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PROCEDURE FOR TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING:

1. Set up the instrument above the specified station and precisely level
it with reference to the altitude level.
2. Set the vertical circle's vernier to zero. Then, with the altitude level
in the middle of its run, use a measuring tape to precisely measure
the instrument's height (the vertical distance from the top of the peg
to the center of the objective).
3. Alternatively, the height may be found by keeping the stadia rod first
before the telescope and reading through the object-glass.
4. Orient the instrument by following the steps listed below:
 The magnetic meridian or the real meridian can be used as the
reference meridian.

 When the reference meridian is a magnetic meridian, set one of the

verniers to zero and rotate the telescope around the vertical axis,
relaxing the bottom clamp until the compass needle points north.

 The correct bearing of a reference point or another station of the

traverse with reference to the first station must be known in order to
orient the instrument with reference to the real meridian.

 Set up the vernier to read this bearing, and then rotate the telescope
about the outer axis until the station or reference object is bisected.
5. Take the bearing, the vertical angle, and the top, bottom, and axial
hair readings while holding the staff on the benchmark (the line of
sight may be horizontal or inclined).
6. If there is no local benchmark, fly level from the nearest accessible
Bench Mark (B.M.), and a temporary B.M. may be constructed near
the region.
7. The bearings, vertical angles, and staff readings are used to find all
representative locations under the instrument station's command (to
the top, bottom, and the axial hairs). "Side shots" are the phrase for
these observations.

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8. Take a glance at the second station when all the representative spots
have been identified from the first station. Record the vertical angle
and the staff readings relating to the top, bottom, and axial hairs.
9. Change the station of the instrument to the second. As before, set up,
center, and level the instrument and measure its height.
10. Take a back sight to the first station. Also, pay attention to the
bearings, the vertical angle, and the staff reading the top, bottom,
and axial hairs.
11. Since each station is sighted twice, two values for the station's
distances and altitudes are produced, which must be within the legal
limits; otherwise, the operation must be redone.
METHODS OF TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING:
The horizontal distance between an instrument Station "A" and a staff
Station "B" is determined by the angle subtended at point "A" by a known
distance at point "B" and the vertical angle from point "B" to point "A"
correspondingly.
Tacheometric surveying is further classified into two methods:
1. STADIA METHOD OF TACHEOMETRY:
The stadia technique of tacheometry is a popular method adopted for
calculating horizontal distance and vertical elevation.
The horizontal distance between the staff station and the instrument
station and the elevation of the staff station along the instrument's
line of sight is computed using this approach with only one
observation from the instrument station.
This method of surveying can be further classified into the following
two types:
A. FIXED HAIR METHOD:
The device used for taking observations in this form of surveying is
a telescope with two extra cross-hairs, one above and one below the
center hair.
Thus, stadia hairs are ones that are equally spaced from the center
hair.

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When observed via the instrument's telescope, the stadia hairs are
seen to intercept a specific length of the staff.
This is the most often used tacheometric surveying approach.

Fixed Hair Method

B. MOVABLE HAIR METHOD:
In contrast to the stadia hair technique, the telescope connected to
the instrument in the movable hair method comprises moveable
cross-hairs.
The center hair can also be used to fix the moveable cross-hairs.
The stadia interval is customizable in this manner for different staff
positions. The horizontal distance is then calculated. The gadget is
used with two fixed-distance targets.

Movable Hair Method

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2. TANGENTIAL METHOD OF TECHOMETRIC

SURVEYING:
Tangential tacheometric surveying necessitates two observations
between the staff station and the instrument station. The horizontal
distance and elevation difference between the collimation line and
the staff station is calculated in this manner.
The most significant advantage of this procedure is that it may be
performed with a standard transit theodolite. Due to the sheer
sluggish rate of work, this approach is used less in comparison to the
stadia system.
Errors and Precautions in Tacheometric Surveying:
The commonly occurring errors in the tacheometric survey are due to the
following reasons.
1. Instrumental Errors:
Instrumental mistakes can occur as a result of faulty permanent
modifications in the instrument or inaccurate graduations on the
stadia rod.
2. Manipulation and Sighting Error:
The inaccuracies caused by manipulation and sight are determined
by the surveyor's efficiency and expertise. These are the result of
faulty instrument centering and leveling, as well as erroneous stadia
readings.
3. Natural Causes:
Natural sources of inaccuracies include wind, asymmetrical
expansion of instrument components, visibility, and unequal
refraction. The last of these is the most crucial.
ADVANTAGES OF TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING:
The following are some of the advantages of tacheometric surveying:
 The speed with which such a survey is conducted is quick.
 The procedure does away with the usage of tapes and chains. As a
result, it is less time-consuming.
 It is a low-cost way of surveying.

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 The precision of this approach is also good enough for the

compilation of topographic maps, hydrological surveys, and cross-
checking measurements from other methods, among other things.

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EXPERIMENT NO.-6
AIM: Set out a circular curve by Rankine’s Method of Deflection Angles.
 INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED:
Theodolite, Ranging rods, Chain, Arrows and pegs.
PRINCIPLE:
The deflection angle to any point on a circular curve is measured by one –
half the angle subtended by the arc from point of curve to that point. It is
assumed that the length of the arc is approximately equal to its chord.
GIVEN DATA:
Chaingae of curve, angle of intersection (D) and radius of curve ( R ).
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare a table of deflection angles for the first subchord, normal
chord and last subchord.
2. Set up a theodolite over T1. Direct the telescope to bisect the point
of intersection (V), with both plates clamped to zero.
3. Release the vernier plate and set angle ∆1on the Vernier. The line
of sight is thus directed along chord T1A
4. Point the zero end of the tape at T1 and an arrow held at a distance
C1 along it and swing the tape around T1 till the arrow is bisected
by the cross hairs to fix point A.
5. Set the deflection angle ∆2 = ∆1 + 𝛿 2
Where,
𝛿2 = 1718.9 × C2 / R min., so the line of sight is along T1V.
6. With zero end of the tape pinned at A and an arrow held at distance
AB=C2 along it and swing the tape around A till the arrow is
bisected by the cross hairs thus fixing the point B.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 till the last point T2 is reached.
CHECK:
The last point so located must coincide with the point of tangency (T2)
fixed independently by measurements from the point of intersection.

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RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT NO.-7
AIM: Use EDM to measure horizontal distance.
 PRINCIPLE:
Two principles of measuring distance.
(i) It takes two points to form a line.
(ii) The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.

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DISTANCE:
In surveying, the term “distance” has two uses.

The common use is to measure the displacement (distance) between two

or more points.

Distance can also be used to define the dimensions of an object.

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SELECTING THE BEST METHOD:

The best distance measuring method/device to use is influenced by many
factors.
 Environment
 Personal Preference
 Use of the data
 Topography
 Equipment Available
 Clients Specifications
 Expertise of Individuals
 Regulation
 Standard Practice
The most important factor is the intended use of the data.
EXAMPLE – SELECTING BEST METHOD / DEVICE:
What unit of measure should be used to determine the size of a wetland?

 Decimal Feet?
 Foot?
 Miles?
 Acres?

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What unit of measure should be used to determine the size of a chemical

spill?
DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS / DEVICES:
 Pacing
 Odometer
 Chaining
 Stadia
 Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS- PACING:
 Measuring distance by counting steps (paces).
 Distance is calculated by multiplying the number of paces by the
individuals pace factor.

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 Advantages
- Simple
- Low Tech
- No Specialized Equipment
 Disadvantages
- Topography affects accuracy.
- Requires practice to take a consistent pace.
- Must be able to traverse the distance.
- Only measures slope distance.
With practice, accuracy is about 2% of distance paced.
DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS – ODOMETER WHEEL:

 An odometer is a mechanical revolution counter.

 An odometer wheel is a wheel which uses an odometer to count the
rotations of the wheel.
 The gear ratio of the odometer is usually designed to provide a
measurement of the distance in standard units--feet, decimal feet,
feet and inches and/or meters.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Easy to use Accuracy is influenced by surface
conditions.
Low tech Must be able to traverse distance.
Only measures slope distance.

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Error 1% of distance.
DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS – CHAINING:
 Traditional method of measuring distance.
 Usually 100-foot lengths.
 Two common types.
- Add (extended foot)
- Cut (first foot)
 Available in steel and cloth.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. High precision 1. Multiple people
2. 0.001-foot accuracy 2. Must have a clear, travelable route.
3. Can be used to measure 3. High precision requires temperature
horizontal distances. and tension correction.

Error 0.1% of distance.

STEEL CHAIN TEMPERATURE CORRECTION:
Steel expands and contracts at fixed rate dependent upon the temperature.
The temperature correction for a steel tape is:

Ct = L ( T - Ts )
Ct = correction (ft or M)
L = Length of tape (ft or M)
= coefficient of thermal expansion
(6.5 10-6 ft / o F)
(1.15 10-5 ft / oC)
T = Measurement temperature (oF or oC)
Ts = Tape standardized temperature (oF or oC)

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EXAMPLE:
 Determine the correction for a steel tape when used to measure a distance
of 250 feet when the air temperature was 100oF and the standardized
temperature is 72oF.

Ct = L × 𝛼 × (T-TS)
= 250ft × 6.5 E – 6 × (100 – 72)
= 0.0455 ft
= 0.5 in
DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS – STADIA:
Distance by stadia requires an instrument with stadia cross hairs.

The distance between the stadia crosshairs is designed so that the

divergence of the sights across the two stadia crosshairs is 1.0 feet
when the instrument is 100 feet from the rod. (Assuming an
instrument stadia factor of 100.)

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DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS – STADIA ~ Cont.

 The distance between the TSR and BSR is called the stadia
interval.
 This results in the equation:

Hor. Dist. = SI × SF
SI = Stadia Interval
SF = Stadia Factor
ADVANTAGES OF STADIA DISADVANTAGES OF STADIA
- Works by line of sight. Not – Must have instrument with stadia
necessary to walk distance. crosshairs.
– Distances can be measured with the – May require multiple instrument setups.
same setup used to record elevations.
The accuracy is 1.0 ft when direct reading and 0.1 ft when using the
target.

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DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS – STADIA ~ Cont.

Because SI = TSR - BSR, the more common equation is:

Hor. Dist. = TSR - BSR × SF
 For modern instruments the stadia factor (SF) is 100.
 What is the stadia distance for the illustration?
Dist = TSR - BSR × SF
= 6.01 - 5.47 × 100
= 0.54 × 100
= 54 ft

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DISTANCE MESURING METHODS – STADIA ~ Cont.

 Determine the distance for the stadia reading in the illustration using
the target and Vernier scale?

Dist = TSR - BSR × SF

= 7.844 - 4.619 ×100
= 3.225 × 100
= 322.5 ft

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HORIZONTAL DISTANCE – 1 / 2 STADIA:

When the top or bottom stadia hair rod reading is obscured, a process called
1/2 stadia can be used.
When I/2 stadia is used the elevation crosshair, and which ever stadia
crosshair that can be read, is used.
Because this stadia interval is 1/2 of the standard interval, it is multiplied
by two.
EXAMPLE:
Determine the horizontal distance when the TRS = 7.34 and the elevation
= 6.21.
Horizontal Distance = TSR - Elev x 2 × 100
= 7.34 - 6.21 x 2 × 100
= 226 ft

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DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS – EDM:

 EDM = Electronic Distance Measuring.

 The term EDM is used to describe a category of instruments that
measure distance using an electronic signal.
 The instrument broadcasts a focused signal that is returned by a
prism or reflection from the object.

 How the process works can be shown using the velocity equation.
Velocity = Distance
Time
Rearranging the equation for distance results in:
Distance = Velocity × Time
DISTANCE MEASURING METHOD – EDM ~ Cont.
Therefore, if the speed of the signal is known (speed of light), and the time
for the signal to travel to the target and back is known, the distance can be
calculated.
ADVANTAGES OF EDM’S DISADVANTAGES OF EDM’S
1.Precise measurement of distance. 1.Electronic = batterers
2.Line of sight instrument 2.Accuracy affected by atmospheric
conditions.
3.Capable of measuring long 3.Can be expensive
distances
4.Reflectorless are single person
operation
Error ± (2 mm + 2 ppm x D)

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DISTANCE MEASURING METHOD – GPS:

 GPS (global Positioning System) is a system of 21-24 satellites in

orbit around the earth.
 Each satellite knows its position and uses a unique signal to
continuously broadcasts this information.
 Along with the position information is a time signal.
 When a GPS receiver receives a signal from at least four (4) satellites
it can compute its position by trilateration.
 The receiver position can be expressed in degrees of latitude and
longitude, or distance (meters) using Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) coordinates.
DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS- GPS~ Cont.
 Because UTM distances are based on a x-y coordinate system distances
between points can be determined by simple math.

EXAMPLE:
Determine the distance between Stillwater and Oklahoma City when the
UTM coordinates for Stillwater are 675087E & 3998345N and the UTM
coordinates for Oklahoma City are 639982E & 3925518N.

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DISTANCE MEASURING METHODS - GPS~ EXAMPLE:

 Subtracting the coordinates gives the two sides of a right triangle.

 The hypotenuse of the triangle is the distance between the two towns
(44.6 mi).

HD = √399962 722552
= 82586211 m
= 44.6 mi
NOTE:
This is the plane distance between these points not the surface distance.

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SLOPE VS. HORIZONTAL DISTANCE:

 Distances can be measured in two ways:

1. Horizontal distance
2. Slope (surface) distance
 The horizontal distance between two points is the distance between
those points measured on a horizontal plane.
 The slope distance between two points is a distanced measured along
the surface of the earth.

 When should horizontal distance be used?

 When should slope distance be used?

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE:
When horizontal distance is required, the individual has two choices.
1. Use equipment and techniques that record horizontal distance.
2. Record slope distance and collect the additional information
required to calculate horizontal distance.
MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCE:
 Chain
 Stadia
 EDM

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HORIZONTAL DISTANCE- Cont. CHAINING:

To measure horizontal distance with a chain, a level and plumb bob must
be used.
– The chain is held level, horizontal, and the measurement at the elevated
end is transferred using a plumb bob.
– This method is limited to slopes of 5% or less.

When horizontal distances are measured by chaining on slopes > 5%, the
technique called “breaking chain” must be used.
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE- Cont. BREAKING CHAIN:
 “Breaking Chain” is used whenever the slope is > 5% because
when a 100-foot chain is used on a 5% slope, the elevated end will
be 5 feet above the ground.
 “Breaking the Chain” into shorter segments reduces the height of the
elevated end of the chain.
 Using a standard distance reduces the change of errors.
 A standard distance was not used in the illustration.

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HORIZONTAL DISTANCE – Cont. STADIA:

 The stadia method measures distance by line of sight through an

instrument.
 When the instrument is level, the distance measured is a horizontal
distance.
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASURING (EDM):
 The signal from an EDM travels in a straight line.
 When the instrument is level the distances is horizontal.
 If the instrument is not level, the distance is slope measurement.

NOTE:
Some instruments, such as total stations, measure slope distance and
vertical angle and will output horizontal distance, vertical distance or slope
distance.

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CALCULATING HORIZONTAL DISTANCE:

 To calculate horizontal distance, you must know the slope distance and
one additional bit of information for each measurement.
 You must know either one of the following.
– % slope
– Change in elevation
– Vertical angle

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EXPERIMENT NO.- 8
AIM: Use Total station instrument to measure horizontal distances.
 The total station in surveying is an instrument that is primarily designed as
a combination of electronic transit theodolite, an electronic distance meter
(EDM), and software that runs on a computer which is referred to as the
data collector.

The surveyor can use the total station for various purposes such as
determining the angles, measurement of distances, etc.
Total Station is widely used in modern surveying, archaeology, mining,
private accident reconstructions, etc.

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 By the use of triangulations and trigonometric calculations; the

measured angles and the distances can be used to determine the actual
position of the required points or even the position of the total station
from the known points in absolute terms.
 Most of the total stations these days consist of a GPS interface that
combines the two aforementioned technologies.
The interface design is done such that the advantages of both the
technologies are ensured (i.e., In GPS; the line of sight is not required
between the consecutive measurement points.
While in the traditional total station; high precision measurement is
required especially in the vertical axis in comparison to the GPS).
 The total station is the survey instrument that measures the angles by
making use of the electro-optical scanning of the extremely precise
digital bar-codes that are attached to rotating glass cylinders or discs
present within the instrument.
The high-quality total station is even capable of measuring the angles down
to 0.5 arc-second whereas the inexpensive total stations can mostly
measure angles down to 5 or 10 arc seconds.
(A) WORKING OF TOTAL STATION:
In the total station, measurement of distance is accomplished utilizing a
modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal which is generated by a
small solid-state emitter within the instrument’s optical path which is
bounced back to the object to be measured. Then, the onboard computer
provided in the total station reads and interprets the returning signal. The
distance is then duly determined by receiving and emitting the multiple
frequencies.
Most of the total stations consist of a purpose-built glass Porro Prism that
serves as a reflector for the EDM signal and is capable of measuring the
distance up to a few kilometres.
A typical total station’s EDM is capable of measuring the distance
accurately up to about 3 millimetres or 1/100th of the foot.
Nowadays, the robotic type of total station is also in use. Such a type of
total station allows the operator to control the instrument from a distance
utilizing a remote control. This helps to avoid the need for an assistant staff
member to hold the reflector prism over the point to be measured. It allows

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the operator to hold the reflector himself or herself and to control the total
station from the observed point.
(B) PRINCIPLE OF TOTAL STATION:
The basic principle of the total station is that the distance between any two
points can be known once the velocity and the time taken by the light to
travel are known.
Distance = Velocity × Time
The following relation is already programmed in the memory of the total
station along with the correction factors that are used to calculate the
required horizontal distance and is finally displayed on the LCD screen of
the instrument.
(C) OBJECTIVES OF USING TOTAL STATION:
The major objectives of using the total station in surveying can be listed
as follows:
(i) To determine the angles between the points or average of the
multiple angles measured.
(ii) To determine the horizontal distance between the points or average
of the multiple distances measured.
(iii) To determine the elevation of various points.
(iv) To determine all three coordinates of various points.
(D) FEATURES OF MODERN TOTAL STATION:
Some of the new features that the modern total station exhibit are as
follows:
(i) It is capable of surveying dark and wet surfaces even for long
ranges.
(ii) It can conduct the surveying from the poles without the use of
radios.
(iii) It is capable of measuring narrow objects as well as tight corners.
(iv) It can provide remote locations in case any point or unit is lost or
stolen.
(v) The software inbuilt in the modern total station is instant and can
provide the firmware updates in the field itself.

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(E) OPERATION PERFORMED BY A TOTAL STATION:

The important operations that can be performed using a total station can
be listed as follows:
(i) Measurement of Distance:
An essential component of the total station is Electronic Distance
Measuring (EDM) which is responsible for the distance
measurement.
The measuring range of the EDM can vary from 2.8km to 4.2km.
A typical EDM is capable of measuring the distance with an
accuracy ranging between 5mm to 10mm per km of measurement.
The EDM is equipped with an automatic target recognizer. The
distance measured by the total station is always the sloping distance
from the instrument station to the object.
(ii) Measurement of Angle:
Another important operation performed by the total station is
the measurement of angle.
Usually, any suitable direction must be taken as the reference
direction for the measurement of the horizontal angles.
While, in the case of the vertical angles, the vertically upward
direction i.e. the zenith is taken as the reference direction.
(iii) Processing of Data:
The processing of data in the total station is done utilizing the
microprocessor that is inbuilt into it.
The inbuilt microprocessor is capable of averaging the multiple
observations taken.
The microprocessor can compute the horizontal distance as well as
the location coordinates (X, Y, Z).
In the modern total station, the microprocessor can apply even the
pressure corrections and the temperature corrections when the
temperature and the pressure values are provided.

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(iv) Display Output:

The output or the computed results are displayed in the total station
utilizing the electronic display unit.
The display unit can display the computed horizontal distance,
vertical distance, horizontal and vertical angles, elevation
differences between points, and the location coordinates of the
required points.
(v) Electronic Record-Keeping (Electronic Book):
The total station is capable of storing the data in an electronic book
which is similar to a compact disc of the computer.
Such an electronic book can store data ranging from 2000 points to
4000 points.
The data stored in the electronic book of the total station can be
unloaded by the surveyor to a computer.
F. COMPONENTS OF A TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING:
- A total station comprises an EDM, theodolite, and an inbuilt
microprocessor.
- For storing the data, a memory card is also provided.
- It consists of a battery that is provided in the battery socket.
- A typical total station consists of the following components:

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1. Handle
2. Handle Screwing Screw
3. Data Input/ Output Terminal
4. Instrument Height Mark
5. Battery Cover
6. Operation Panel
7. Tribrach Clamp/ Shifting Clamp
8. Base Plate
9. Leveling Foot Screw
10. Circular Level Adjusting Screws
11. Circular Level
12. Display
13. Objective Lens
14. Tubular Compass Slot
15. Optical Plummet Focusing Ring
16. Optical Plummet Reticle Cover
17. Optical Plummet Eyepiece
18. Horizontal Clamp
19. Horizontal Fine Motion Screw
20. Data Input/ Output Connector
21. External Power Source Connector
22. Plate Level
23. Plate Level Adjusting Screw
24. Vertical Clamp
25. Vertical Fine Motion Screw
26. Telescope Eyepiece
27. Telescope Focusing Ring

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28. Peep Sight

29. Instrument Center Mark
G. ACCESSORIES OF TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING:
In addition to the major components, the total station also requires some
additional accessories.
Such accessories include the keyboard, control panel, data collectors,
reflectors, memories, etc which have been described in brief below.
(i) Keyword:
The keyboard is an essential accessory required for giving the
command to the microprocessor inbuilt in the total station as it
contains various keys.
Such keys include command keys, switching keys, lighting keys,
power keys, etc.
The different types of keys incorporated into the keyboard with
their function have been listed as follows:
Power Key:
To switch on or off the total station.
Star Key:
To switch from one mode to another and to change the
settings of the total station.
Illuminator Key:
To turn on/off the laser pointer and the guiding light, to light the reticle as
well as select the screen backlight brightness.
Esc Key:
To return to the previous screen or cancel the input data.
Tab Key:
To switch to another item.
B.S Key:
To delete an item on the left side.

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S.P Key:
To input a blank space.
FUNC Key:
To switch between the observations.
ENT Key:
Select or accept any input value or observation.
Shift Key:
To switch between lowercase and uppercase characters.
Target Keys:
To switch between the different targets.
PRG Key:
To switch between different modes of the program.
(ii) Data Collector:
As the name itself implies, the data collector collects and stores the
observed data or observations.
The entire operation of taking in and storing the data is controlled
by the data collector.
The data collector stores the data either in binary form or ASCII.
Data collectors can be further divided into external data collectors
and internal data collectors.
(iii) Memory:
The total station is equipped with inbuilt memory cards to process
and store the data or observations.
The memory card provided in the total stations is generally up to the
PCMCIA standards.
The memory card can have a capacity ranging from 5000 to 10,000
coded points.
The data held by the memory card can be unloaded on any
computing device.

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(iv) Reflector:
The reflector is one of the most essential accessories of the total
station. This is because the total station functions or takes the
measurements utilizing the reflected rays.
The reflector comprises a specially built reflecting prism made up of
cubes or blocks of reflecting glasses.
(v) Software:
In most of the total stations, the operating system used is Windows
CE.
H. SUITABILITY OF TOTAL STATION:
It is desirable to use a total station in surveying when any of the following
conditions exist:
i. When two points have been provided.
ii. When only one of the coordinates has been provided.
iii. When no coordinates have been given and arbitrary sets of
coordinates have to be used.
I. ACCURACY OF TOTAL STATION:
The accuracy of a total station depends on the type of total station used. It
is the degree of closeness between the measured value and the actual
value.
Usually, the angular accuracy of a total station ranges from 1” to 20”.
The distance accuracy mainly depends upon the instrumental error and
the error due to the length of measurement.
The instrumental error may vary between +/- 10mm to +/- 2mm.
The error due to the length of measurement may vary between +/- 10mm
to +/- 2mm per kilometre in case of 1 prism, 2.5 to 2.7 km in case of two
prisms & 5 to 7 km in cases of 3 prisms.
J. LEAST COUNT OF A TOTAL STATION:
In the total station; the least count of the angle is 1” (1 second) and the
least count of distance is 1 mm.

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K. FIELD PROCEDURE OF SURVEYING USING TOTAL

STATION:
The field procedure of surveying by total station includes the
following series of steps:
i. Setting up the Tripod:
The tripod legs are adjusted such that they are spaced equally.
The head of the tripod must also be leveled.
The adjustment must be done so that the head of the tripod lies
exactly over the station mark.
ii. Mounting total station on the Tripod:
After the tripod has been set, the total station is then mounted on
the tripod.
With one hand, the instrument is braced over the tripod while with
the other hand, the centering screw must be secured.
iii. Centering:
Centering is the process of bringing the vertical axis of the theodolite
exactly over the station mark. It is done by employing the optical or
laser plummet.
iv. Levelling the Total Station:
Then, the leveling foot screws are adjusted such that the survey
point lies centrally on the optical plummet reticle.
The tripod legs are further adjusted so that the bubble lies centrally
on the circular level.
Firstly, the bubble is aligned parallel to the two-foot screws and
brought to the center by turning both the screws in the same
direction.
Then, the bubble is aligned parallel to the remaining foot screw and
brought to the center by rotating the screw.
The procedure is repeated until the bubble remains central in all
directions.

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v. Verifying the Leveling Electronically:

Firstly, the instrument is switched on by pressing and holding the
“ON” button.
An audible beep is heard once the instrument is turned on.
After the opening screen is displayed, the function is selected.
The foot level screws are then adjusted so that the electronic bubble
is also centered.
The instrument is rotated at 90 degrees and the process is repeated.
vi. Adjusting the Image & Focusing the Reticle (Cross-Hair):
The horizontal and vertical clamps are then released and the
telescope is pointed at any light background that is featureless.
Then, the reticle or the cross-hair is adjusted until the reticle image
becomes distinctly focused.
The telescope is then focused on the target and the focus ring is
adjusted until the target is distinctly focused.
The removal of parallax is then checked by moving the head slowly
to one side.
vii. Taking the Measurements:
Once the above steps have been completed, the total station can be
used to take the measurements or observations.
L. USES OF TOTAL STATION:
i. Distance Measurement:
One of the most important uses of the total station is a distance
measurement.
It can be used for the measurement of distance by employing a
modulated carrier infrared signal. This signal can calculate the
distance after it is bounced back or reflected by the object under
consideration.
Such infrared carrier signal is generated by the total station
employing a solid-state emitter and the interpretation of the reflected
signal is carried out by using the computing chip inbuilt in the total
station itself.

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ii. Angle Measurement:

Another important use of the total station is the measurement of
angles between the points.
Such angular determinations are accomplished using the electrical
and optical scanning system of the telescope. This system is
provided with rotating glass that comprises the bar codes. Such glass
makes it easier to read the angles.
In the case of digital total stations, the readings are directly recorded
and stored in the main memory of the total station. The data stored
can also be transferred to a computer.
iii. Coordinate Determinations:
An essential application of the total station is to determine the
location of the required points i.e. it can be used to compute the X,
Y, and Z coordinates of the survey points.
iv. Land Surveying & Alignment Surveying:
Land surveying can be done easily using a total station.
In land surveying, the total station can be used to measure the
distances, angles as well as location coordinates which can be further
used for the preparation of topographical maps and plans.
Total stations can also be used for demarcating the property lines
and the boundary lines.
It can also be used for determining the alignment of canals, tunnels,
roads, bridges, etc.
v. Mining:
Before the commencement of any mining work, a mining survey has
to be done. The total station is an essential instrument used for this
purpose. It can also be used to determine the mining points and to
prepare the mining maps.
Such points and maps can be used by the miners to locate the points
with abundant minerals.
The total station is also used for determining the location and the
alignment of the mining tunnels.

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vi. Civil Engineering Construction Works:

Almost all types of civil engineering construction and related works
can be done using the total station.
The total station can be used for the measurement of construction
parameters such as distances, angles, elevations of points,
coordinates, etc.
It can be used for the preparation of maps and plans, demarcating
the property lines, land surveying, determining the alignment of
roads, bridges, tunnels, etc.
vii. Automatic Target Aiming:
Most modern total stations are provided with automatic target
systems to increase the degree of efficiency of the total station.
Such a system is provided to ensure better and faster targeting and
locating of any point on the surface of the earth.
The system is so quick that the entire process of measurement,
processing, and computing of the distance, angles, and coordinates
takes place very quickly within seconds.
Thus, the entire work can be completed easily and fastly.
viii. Electrical and Mechanical Construction:
The layouts for the electrical as well as the mechanical constructions
can be determined easily utilizing the total station.
Various works such as underground pipe laying, laying of utilities
and cables, etc can be done using the total station.
M. PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A TOTAL
STATION:
The precautions that must be taken while using a total station can
be listed as follows:
i. The total station must be handled properly and held by both hands.
ii. The tripod must be held on a stable surface as far as practicable.
iii. The battery pack must be stored with the battery discharged.
iv. The clamping screws must not be tightened extremely.

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v. The tripod with the total station mounted on it must not be carried
from one station to another.
vi. Care must be taken when the tribrach has been removed from the
total station.
N. ADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION:
The total station offers the following major advantages:
i. The total station helps to complete the fieldwork quickly in a lesser
period.
ii. The setting up of the total station is also easier as it can be done
easily by using the laser plummet.
iii. The degree of accuracy of the total station is relatively higher than
other survey instruments.
iv. The computed values can be directly stored in the total station and
can also be easily transferred to a computing device.
v. The total station is also advantageous in the computerization of old
maps.
vi. Since all the observations and computations are done digitally, error
due to omission of data, wrong reading or noting of observation, etc
is omitted.
viii. It can also help in contouring and map preparation.
ix. When the atmospheric pressure and temperature are provided, the
pressure and temperature corrections can also be applied
automatically.
x. The entire survey work and office work can be completed easily.
O. DISADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION:
Some of the disadvantages of the total station can be listed as
follows:
i. While using the total station, it may be difficult for the surveyor to
recheck the work.
ii. Skilled manpower or experienced personnel is required for operating
the instrument.

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iii. The total station is costlier than other conventional survey

equipment.
iv. The total station is incorporated with several electronic accessories
and parts that may be affected by moisture.
P. REMOTELY OPERATED TOTAL STATION (ROBOTIC
TOTAL STATION):
The remotely operated total stations are the modern type of total
stations that are designed such that they can be operated by the
surveyor from a certain distance utilizing a remote control.

The robotic total station is capable of automatically locating the

target. It offers the highest degree of precision and accuracy among
all types of surveying instruments.
The use of remote-control technology prevents the need for a second
person to hold the reflector. Only one surveyor at the target station
is sufficient for taking the measurements.
Thus, robotic total stations reduce the number of personnel required
for taking the measurements. It also increases the speed of work.
Some of the salient features of the remotely operated total
station can be listed as follows:
i. Robotic total stations comprise a hassle-free cable-less design that
can be handled easily.

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ii. Such total stations have an in-built quick-lock tracking technology.

iii. The reflector system of the robotic total station is very powerful and
has the longest range.
iv. This type of total station consists of a field controller interface.
v. The robotic total station is lighter in weight in comparison to the
conventional total stations. Thus, such total stations are portable and
easy to handle.
vi. The operating system of the robotic total station is advanced and
offers enhanced graphics. Due to this reason, this total station is also
known as a graphical windows mobile instrument.

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