EE 220 : Signals and Systems

Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineerng

Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
Monsoon 2022

Topic 2 : Classifications of signals

Instruction and notes by : Manish

1 Periodic functions
A continuous signal x(t) is called periodic if there is a strictly-positive real constant T such that

x(t) = x(t + T ) , for all t. Such a T is called the period of the signal.

- For sequences, similar periodicity condition can be written as (for strictly-positive integer
N ) x(n) = x(n + N ) for all n (where n is an integer)

• A function/sequence that is not periodic is said to be aperiodic.

• A T-periodic function x is said to have frequency 1/T and angular frequency ω = 2πf =
2π/T

• An N-periodic function x is said to have frequency 1/N and angular frequency Ω = 2πf =
2π/N

• The period of a periodic signal is not unique. A signal that is periodic with period T is
also periodic with period kT , for every strictly positive integer k.

• The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the fundamental period and
its corresponding frequency is called the fundamental frequency.

• For two periodic functions x1 and x2 with fundamental periods T1 and T2 : the sum
y = x1 + x2 is periodic if and only if the ratio T 1/T 2(= q/r) is a rational number. The
fundamental period will be T0 = rT1 = qT2

• For periodicity of a signal which is summation of of k signals (where k > 2) can be

handled by applying the above point repeatedly (k-1) times

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2 Right and Left sided signals
Right sided function:

A function x is said to be right sided if, for some (finite) real constant T , the following
condition holds:
x(t) = 0 for all t < T
(i.e., x is only potentially nonzero to the right of T ).

A signal x is said to be causal if x(t) = 0 for all t < 0. A causal signal is a special case of a
right-sided function. A causal signal is not to be confused with a causal system. In these two
contexts, the word “causal” has very different meanings.

Figure: Example of (a) right sided (continuous time) and (b) left sided (discrete time) signals

Left sided functions::

A function x is said to be left sided if, for some (finite) real constant t0 , the following
condition holds:
x(t) = 0 for all t > t0
A signal x is said to be anticausal if x(t) = 0 for all t > 0. An anticausal signal is a special
case of a left-sided signal. An anticausal signal is not to be confused with an anticausal system.

Finite duration and two sided functions:

A function that is both left sided and right sided is said to be finite duration (or time
limited).
A function that is neither left sided nor right sided is said to be two sided.

Figure: Example of (a) right sided (continuous time) and (b) left sided (discrete time) signals

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3 Elementary Operations on the Independent Variable
t
Time scaling:

Suppose an original signal is y = x(t). Yesterday, we have seen scaling it to y = ax(t).

Today, we are going to do similar operations but inside the brackets i.e. with t. Examples:
Time scaling: y = x(at); where a is a strictly positive real number

• If a > 1, y is compressed along the horizontal axis by a factor of a, relative to x.

• If a < 1, y is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the horizontal axis by a factor of 1/a ,
relative to x.

Time Shift:

Suppose y(t) = x(t − b) where b is a real constant.

• If b > 0 , the shift is a right shift in time, or a time delay.

• If b < 0, we have a left shift, or a time advance.

Time reversal:

This operation is defined as:

y(t) = x(−t).
Geometrically, the output y is a reflection of the input about the vertical axis (or line t = 0).

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Figure: Time shifting properties of a signal

Combination of Scale and Shift:

Suppose y(t) = x(at − b). It is tempting to think about this as two operations in sequence
– a scale followed by a shift, or a shift followed by a scale. This is dangerous in that a wrong
choice leads to incorrect answers. The recommended approach is to ignore shortcuts, and fig-
ure out the result by brute-force graphical methods: substitute various values of t until y(t)
becomes clear.

Homework: For the x(t) signal drawn in previous figure; draw the sketch for the following
new operation: y(t) = x(2t − 1).
Time scaling and time shifting do not commute, and we must be particularly careful about
the order in which these transformations are applied. y(t) = x(at − b) has two distinct but
equivalent interpretations:

• first, time shifting x by b, and then time scaling the result by a. Or:

• first, time scaling x by a, and then time shifting the result by b/a.

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Figure: Time shifting and scaling together

4 Bounded functions
A function x is said to be bounded if there exists some (finite) positive real constant A such
that
|x(t)| ≤ A for all t
(i.e., x(t) is finite for all t).

For example, the sine and cosine functions are bounded as | sin t| ≤ 1 for all t and | cos t| ≤ 1
for all t.

The tangent function is unbounded since

lim | tan t| = ∞
t→π/2

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4.1 Absolute integrability
An absolutely integrable function is a function whose absolute value is integrable (i.e. the
integral is finite) : Z ∞
|x(t)|dt < ∞
−∞

Clearly,

• Absolutely integrable function has finite area under the curve

• Unbounded signals can never be absolutely integrable. Example x(t) = t

• Some bounded signals maynot be absolutely integrable. Example x(t) = sin(t)

Homework:
Is x(t) = e−|t| absolutely integrable?

5 Energy and power signals

5.1 Total Energy:
The total energy of a continuous-time signal x(t) , where x(t) is defined for −∞ < t < ∞, is
given as:
Z ∞ Z T
2
E= x (t)dt = lim x2 (t)dt (1)
−∞ T →∞ −T

This quantity is proportional to a physical notion of energy. (Amplitude square).

If a signal has finite energy, then the signal values must approach zero as t approaches
positive and negative infinity. (commonly also described as area under the curve be finite)

Energy signal:
An energy signal is a signal with finite energy. Examples: x(t) = e−|t| ; x(t) = 0 etc.
We also say that any energy signal has 0 average power (we will see later why).

5.2 Average Power:

The average power (or time-average power) of a signal is
Z T
1
Pavg = lim x2 (t)dt (2)
T →∞ 2T −T

For example a constant signal x(t) = 1 (for all t) has average power = 1.

Power signal:
A power signal is a signal with finite, nonzero average power. For a power signal, the
total energy tends to be infinite. Example: x(t) = sin t;

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 Example: Find total energy and average power of a rectangular pulse limited between
[-1,1]. Is it an energy signal? If it is an energy signal, is the average power 0? Verify!

Homework:
Find average power of x(t) = tan(t). Is it a power signal? What is the energy? Is it infinite?
Verify!

5.3 Discrete time Energy and Power Signals

The total energy of a discrete-time signal is defined by
∞
X N
X
2
E= x [n] = lim x2 [n] (3)
N →∞
N =−∞ n=−N

The average power is defined by

N
1 X
Pavg = lim x2 [n] (4)
N →∞ 2N + 1
n=−N

Energy signal and power signals are defined in the same way as continuous case.

Examples
Q1. The unit step function defined as u[n] = 1 for n > 0; and u[n] = 0 for n < 0. Is it an
energy signal or power signal?
Answer: Power signal, since average power is finite (Pavg = 1/2) and E = ∞.

Q2. A signal is defined as x(t) = t(−1/2) for t ≥ 1 and x(t) = 0 for t < 1. What is the total
energy and average power? Is it neither energy nor power signal?
Answer. Yup. E = ∞ and Pavg = 0.

2π
Remark: A discrete sinusoidal signal is periodic only if Ω
is rational.

6 Some popular elementary signals

Let’s see some popular signals that we use commonly in this course:

6.1 Sinusoidal signal

x(t) = A cos(ωt + ϕ)
all continuous time sinusoids are periodic with fundamental period = T = 2π/ω

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 Q3. What is the fundamental period of sin(3t)?
Answer:
sin 3(t + T ) = sin 3t
3T = 2kπ ∀k ∈ Z; (T should be +ve)
T = 2kπ/3

Thus, fundamental period = 2π/3

Discrete version of sinusoidal signal

Unlike continuous time sinusoidal signals, not all discrete time sinusoidal signals are periodic.

For sin[Ωn] to be periodic: 2π/Ω must be rational. Period N = 2πm

Ω
N, m ∈ Z.
Fundamental period No = smallest value of m that makes N an integer. Let’s see this with
an example:

Q4. What is the fundamental period of x[n] = sin [3n]?

Answer: Not periodic.

sin 3[n + N [ = sin 3n

3N = 2kπ ∀k, N ∈ Z
but N = 2kπ/3

which is not integer, which is contradictory with N ∈ Z. Hence, not periodic.

6.2 Exponential signal

x(t) = ejωt
or in more general form we can write as

x(t) = ceat where c, a ∈ C

A convenient way to write this can be

c = |c|ejϕ0

This is called polar form of c; where ϕ0 = ∠c

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 Remarks: Period of an exponential signal = 2π/ω.
Sum of two exponential signal is periodic iff the ratio ω1 and ω2 is rational. i.e.
ω1 k
=
ω2 l
and fundamental frequency = ω0 = ω1 /k = ω2 /l.

6.3 Step signal

(
1, ∀t ≥ 0
u(t) =
0 otherwise
Since there is a discontinuity at t = 0, sometimes at t = 0, u(t) value is also given as either
0 or 1/2. Any such convention is fine, as long as we follow it uniformly in our context.

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Example
Q. (
1, 0 ≤ n ≤ 9
x[n] =
0 otherwise
Write x[n] in forms of u[n].
Answer: x[n] = u[n] − u[n − 10].

Q. A rectangular pulse x(t) is defined as

(
A, 0 ≤ |t| < 0.5
x(t) =
0 |t| > 0.5

Draw the pulse and write in the form of u(t).

Answer: x(t) = A[u(t + 0.5) − u(t − 0.5)].

6.4 Impulse signal

In continuous time, the delta function (also known as the Dirac delta function or unit-
impulse function), denoted δ, is defined as the function with the following two properties:

δ(t) = 0, ∀t ̸= 0
and Z ∞
δ(t)dt = 1
−∞

In discrete time, the definition is shown in the figure.

Remarks:

• δ[n] = u[n] − u[n − 1].

• In continuous time, δ(t) = dtd u(t)

Rt
• Conversely, u(t) = −∞ δ(τ )dτ

• And, u[n] = ∞
P
k=0 δ[n − k]

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6.4.1 Properties of delta function
The equivalence property:

x(t)δ(t − t0 ) = x(t0 )δ(t − t0 )

The shifting property:
Z ∞
g(t)δ(t − t0 )dt = g(t0 )
−∞

The scaling property:

1
δ(at)dt = δ(t)
|a|
Hint: We can notice that
Z ∞
1
x(t)δ(at)dt = x(0); a ̸= 0
−∞ |a|

From shifting property Z ∞

1 1
x(0) = x(t)δ(t)dt
|a| |a| −∞

Comparing the above two equation will get you the desired result.

The replication property:

g(t) ∗ δ(t) = g(t)

⋆ The unit impulse function is also called as basic singularity function. Because:
Z ∞
x(t)δ(t)dt = x(0)
−∞

It is because of this property, we invented δ(t) function.

6.5 Ramp signal

Integral of the step function u(t) is a ramp function, defined as: r(t) = tu(t)

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Reference material
1. Textbook: Signals and Systems by Simon Haykin
2. Lecture notes are inspired from the course materials of JHU 520.214; MIT 6.003; Purdue
ECE-301; UVic ECE-260; and Imperial College E2.5

[Please report any typos in the notes by sending an email to the instructor.]

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