Practical Research 1 (2nd Quarter - 1st Semester)

Lesson 1.1: Qualities of Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research
- Deals with numerical values and how they can describe a phenomenon or infer a relationship.
- It is the go-to approach for scientific inquiry because of its ability to test hypotheses.
- The basis of formulating and testing hypotheses are variables, which are traits that numerically
describe or give meaning to an object, phenomenon, or group of
people.

Variables - Are the ones that are usually identified, examined, described, or correlated to answer
a scientific inquiry.

Types of Variables:
• Independent Variable - Is the variable that is manipulated, especially in experiments.

• Dependent Variable - Depends on the independent variable.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research:

• Controllability - Quantitative research should be in an environment where all variables are
identified and can be controlled.

• Generalizability - Generalizability is from larger sample sizes that the results

are based on as a representative of the population.

• Objectivity - The results of the data are observable and measurable using structured
instruments.

• Replicability - The research study should be replicable by other teams of researchers that will
eventually come up with similar outcomes.

Strengths of Quantitative Research:

• Analysis of data is assisted with statistical methods.
• Large-scale research can be undertaken.
• Data can be presented in graphical or tabular form.

Weaknesses of Quantitative Research:

• A large sample size requires a lot of time and effort.
• Statistical analysis of data requires an expert to perform.
• Quantifying and reducing observations to numerical values makes it too simplistic.

Lesson 1.2: Kinds of Quantitative Research

Non-Experimental Research
- Describe a situation or phenomenon.
- Researchers collect data without making changes or introducing treatments.
Types of Non-Experimental Research:
• Descriptive
- Describe the nature, characteristics, and components of the population or a phenomenon.
- Manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect is not applicable.

• Correlational
- Its primary objective is to compare two variables then identify the relationship
between them.
- A research design investigates relationships between two variables.
- Measures the degree of their relationship or associations.
- There are 3 types of Correlational Research: Positive Correlation, Negative Correlation, and
No Correlation.
- Positive Correlation - An increase in one variable leads to increase the other variable. A
decrease in one variable will also decrease in the other variable.
- Negative Correlation - If there is an increase in one variable, the second variable will show a
decrease and vice versa.
- No Correlation - A change in one variable may not necessarily see a difference in the other
variable.

Experimental Research
- This kind of research is centrally concerned with constructing research that is high in causal
validity.
- A scientific approach.
- Researchers collect data with making changes or introducing treatments.

Types of Experimental Research:

• True Experiment
- The primary objective of a true experimental research design is to identify a cause-effect
relationship between the variables where the samples are randomized.
- According to Prieto, et al., it offers the highest internal validity of all the designs.
- Randomly formed groups.
- Manipulation of the treatment.
- Comparison among groups.

• Quasi Experimental
- Quasi-experimental research mirrors experimental research but it is not true
experimental research where a causal relationship can be determined with the use of
dependent and independent variables.
- Quasi-experiments do not use random samples but assigned samples.
- This kind of research is almost the same as that of True Experimental Design. The only
difference is the absence of random assignments of subjects to other conditions.
- One Group Posttest Only Design - A single group of individuals is measured on some
dependent variable after an intervention has taken place.
- Two Groups Posttest Only Design
- Pretest - Posttest Design
Lesson 2: Variables in Quantitative Research

Variables - Are anything that can be observed by the researchers. A variable may
be a person, thing, place, situation, or phenomenon.

Different Roles of Variables:

• Independent Variables
- Also called causal variable, is presumed to cause the change towards another variable, which
is known as the dependent variable or the outcome variable.
- The independent variable may influence another variable to change. In experimental research,
independent variables may also be manipulated to examine the specific effect they may have
toward the dependent variable.

• Dependent Variables - The dependent variables are the variables that are influenced by the
independent variables.

• Mediating Variables - Mediating variables are also known as intervening variables

since they intervene between the independent and dependent variables to show their
connection.

• Moderating Variables - Moderating variables are variables that have a strong conditioned
effect, which may modify the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

• Extraneous Variables - Extraneous variables are variables that should be mainly excluded from
the research study as they may interfere and compromise with the
experiment and research results.

Level of Measurement
- The measurement level, also called scales of measure, gives you an idea of the type of data
you have.
- Level of measurement can be classified into two: categorical and continuous measures of
variables.
- A categorical variable is further categorized into nominal and ordinal levels, while a continuous
variable is categorized into interval and ratio levels.

Categorical Variable Classification:

• Nominal Variable - A nominal variable is any variable that represents different types of data,
which may be divided into groups or categories. There is no intrinsic order; hence, its
frequencies can only be counted.

• Ordinal Variable - An ordinal variable is any variable that may also be divided into groups or
categories, but it has intrinsic order or rank. Its frequencies can be
both counted and ranked in which the distance between categories is not equivalent.

Continuous Variable Classification:

• Interval Variable - An interval variable is a variable that has a numerical value. It can be
counted and ranked, and the differences between the ranked categories are meaningful. There
is no true zero point.
• Ratio Variable - A ratio variable is an interval value, but unlike the interval variable, it has a true
zero. It has numerical value and meaning which can
also be counted, ranked, and has a meaningful difference between values. There is a true zero
point, which means that nothing exists for that variable and that zero simply means none.

Lesson 3: Identifying a Quantitative Research Problem and Writing a Research Title

Steps in Identifying the Area of Inquiry: (BRMDRF)

• Brainstorm for Ideas
- When brainstorming, it is more advisable to concentrate on topics that interest you. It is also
helpful if you focus on your field.

• Read, read, and read

- It gives you a preview of the possible availability of related literature for your topic of interest.

• Make your Matrix

- Look into the research gaps when reading different resources and previous researches.
- Research gaps - are areas of the study that remain unanswered, hence its openness to be
researched about.
- Identifying research gaps may prevent the replication of the exact topics that were already
studied before. It helps you to get over the “so what” question.
- Research gaps are helpful in exploring for potential research topics. For instance, you may
look into the recommendations to future researchers in previous studies.
- It is also useful to review the scope of the study to help you identify possible research gaps.

• Describe your topic of interest briefly

- Describing your topic briefly may give you an overview if the topic is feasible to be researched
about.

• Read again
- You must check the availability of the literature of your chosen topic as you may encounter
modification in research writing.
- It may include changing the topic itself, the variables and others as there may be too much or
too little available literature.

• Formulate your working title

- Your working title focuses on the direction of your study. It helps you determine your variables
and may give you a preview of its possible dynamics within your research.
- Working titles may change as the research writing also progresses.

Designing a Research Useful in Daily Life

- It is up to you to decide on what interests you and what you view as relevant and present in
your specific field of specialization.
- The following are topics in different fields that may be used in research writing:
• Accounting
• Business Management
• Environmental and Earth Science
• Health Science
• Education
• Social Sciences
• Humanities

Writing your Research Title

- A research title concisely summarizes the content of the study. It is important to ensure that it
differentiates the study from other existing research.

Characteristics of a Well-Structured Research Title: (FFBCP)

• Focused and Direct
- Should include the variables and the field of inquiry of the study.
- Provides an idea of the study’s contents.

• Formal
- Formal tone.
- Should not contain abbreviations, jargons, or colloquial terms unless these are the main focus
of the study.

• Brief but Substantial

- Usually composed of 16 essential words.
- Consists of the most important information about the study.
- A research title should be able to summarize the study in the fewest possible words.

• Clear
- Benefits those who do not know much about the field of inquiry.
- Helps those looking for references.

• Proper Grammar and Capitalization

- First letter of every word is capitalized except for some words.
- Proper use of coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and articles.

Steps in Writing a Good Research Title: (PMDF)

1. Put the details of the research into segments.
2. Make a list of keywords based on the segments of the research details.
3. Draft sentences that contain the keywords.
4. Formulate your research title.

Lesson 4: Research Instrument, Validity, and Reliability

Quantum Research Instrument

- Instrument - Can be defined as a tool such as a questionnaire or a survey that measures
specific items to gather quantitative data.

- Research Instruments - are basic tools researchers use to gather data for specific
research problems.
Types of Research Instruments: (DPABF)
• Demographic Forms
- Used to collect basic information such as age, gender, ethnicity, and annual income.

• Performance Measures
- Used to assess or rate an individual’s ability such as achievement, intelligence, aptitude, or
interests.

• Attitudinal Measures
- Instruments used to measure an individual’s attitudes and opinions about a subject.

• Behavioral Observation Checklists

- Used to record individuals’ behaviors and are mostly used when researchers want to measure
an individual’s actual behavior.

• Factual Information Documents

- Accessed to tell information about the participants’ documents, such as available public
records.

Questionnaire
- In quantitative research, questionnaires use the following approaches:
a. Scale (usually Likert scale).
b. Conversion of responses into numerical values.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument:

- Adopting an instrument.
- Modifying an existing instrument.
- The researcher made his own instrument.

How to Construct Research Instrument:

1. State your research objectives.
2. Ask questions about your objectives.
3. Gather the required information.
4. Formulate questions.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument: (CSVE)

- Concise
- Sequential
- Valid and reliable
- Easily tabulated

Validity - A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it supposed to measure.

Types of Validity of Instrument: (CCFC)

• Construct Validity
- Evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing we are interested in
measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a method.
- Construct - Refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly observed, but can be
measured by observing other indicators that are associated with it.
- It can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job satisfaction, or
depression; they can also be broader concepts applied to organizations or social groups, such
as gender equality, corporate social responsibility, or freedom of speech.

• Content Validity
- Ability of the test items to include important characteristics of the concept intended to be
measured.
- To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey, or measurement method must cover all
relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are missing from the
measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is threatened and the research
is likely suffering from omitted variable bias.)

• Face Validity
- considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the surface. It’s similar to content
validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective assessment.
- As face validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest form of validity.
However, it can be useful in the initial stages of developing a method.

• Criterion validity
- Tells whether a certain research instrument can give the same result as other similar
instruments.
- To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of your
measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high correlation, this
gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends to measure.

Reliability - Refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument.

Reliability of Instrument: (TIPI)

• Test-retest Reliability – Measures the consistency of results when you repeat the same test on
the same sample at a different point in time. You use it when you are measuring something that
you expect to stay constant in your sample.

• Interrater Reliability/Interobserver Reliability - Measures the degree of agreement between

different people observing or assessing the same thing. You use it when data is collected by
researchers assigning ratings, scores, or categories to one or more variables.

• Parallel Forms Reliability - Measures the correlation between two equivalent versions of a test.
You use it when you have two different assessment tools or sets of questions designed to
measure the same thing.

• Internal Consistency - Assesses the correlation between multiple items in a test that are
intended to measure the same construct.
Lesson 5: Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Background of the Study - The research background is a brief and general discussion of the
study based on existing literature and should introduce its purpose and its relevance to the field.
It also highlights the research problem.

Characteristics of a Research Background:

• The research background should be written in formal and academic language.
• It is concise.
• It is evidence-based.
• It is focused on the research problem.
• It explains the goals of the study.
• It introduces the variables of the study.
• It cites related literature in the discussion.

The Background Study answers the following questions:

1. What is already known about the topic?
2. What is not known about the topic?
3. Why do you need to address those gaps?
4. What is the rationale of your study?

Research Gap - Is a problem that has not been addressed or answered in previous
studies in the form of books, journal articles, or reports.

Statement of the Problem

- Is an integrative but brief discussion of the research problem, its context, and the questions of
the study.
- It is written as part of the introduction and provides a concise overview of the topic in relation
to the research questions.

Research Question - Identifies the specific aspects of the topic that the current study seeks to
investigate and may vary depending on the extent of their focus.

- A statement of the problem usually begins with introducing your general problem
statement followed by the specific research questions that aim to address the
research problem.

Characteristics of Good Research Questions: (RSCAM)

• Relevant - All research questions must be relevant to the research problem.
• Specific - It must not be too broad or too detailed.
• Clear - Research questions should use simple language to be comprehensible.
• Analytical - It does not simply ask “yes or no” questions but needs complex analysis.
• Measurable - The measurability of research questions indicate their feasibility and is measured
through standardized tests or experiments.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study:

• Scope - Specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or participant, and
timeline.
• Delimitation - Cites factors of your study that are not included or excluded or those you will not
deal in your study.

Components of Scope and Delimitation of the Study:

• Topic of the Study. What are the variables to be included and excluded?
• Objectives or Problems to be Addressed. Why are you doing this study?
• Time Frame. When are you going to conduct this study?
• Locale of the Study. Where are you going to gather your data?
• Characteristics of the Respondents. Who will be your respondents?
• Method and Research Instruments. How are you going to collect the data?

Benefits and Beneficiaries of Research:

How to Write Significance of the Study?
1. Identify the beneficiary or beneficiaries.
2. Describe the benefit or benefits that will be derived from the research or study.

If you have many beneficiaries, you can use the following format:
• 1st paragraph – Why is it important to conduct this study?
• 2nd paragraph – The main beneficiary - either a group or an organization.
• 3rd paragraph – The secondary beneficiary.
• 4th paragraph – The importance of the study to the researchers.
• 5th paragraph – The importance to future researchers.

Definition of Terms
- Also called as Operational Definition of Variables (ODV).
- The word operational refers to how the word/term was used in the study.

Guidelines on How to Write the Definition of Terms:

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It must shortly describe the content of the definition of
terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that the
variables and key terms found in the title are included).
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
4. Indention should be applied to each term.
5. The term should be followed with a period.
6. It can be underlined or not.
7. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point).
8. Acronyms/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first, followed
by the acronym/initials in open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
9. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study).
10. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your paper.

Examples of Writing the Definition of Terms:

Conceptual Definition:
• Face to face - It is when the people involved are being close together and looking directly at
each other.
• Module - It is any in a series of standardized units used together, such as an educational unit
that covers a single subject or topic.

• Online - It is controlled by or connected to another computer or network.

Operational Definition:
• Face to face - This refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which the
teacher and students should be in the same place or setting, such as the classroom.

• Module - Teaching modules are guides of the topics and lessons of a specific subject given to
students under the modular method. It is also an alternative distance learning delivery in which
students are required to read and answer the activities specified in the module.

• Online - It refers to another form of distance learning wherein the teacher and students will
have their lessons using internet connectivity.

Lesson 6: Research Framework and Hypothesis

Framework
- Skeleton, basic structure, or frame of reference designed to support something.
- A guide and a foundation of a study.

Research Framework
- Illustrates the structure or blueprint of the research plan.
- Consists of the key concepts and assumed relationships of the research project.
- It can be presented using visual (diagrams, charts, etc.) and narrative (paragraph stating
the concepts and relationships of the study) forms.

Types of Research Framework:

● Conceptual Framework
- Offers an illustration of how the entire research process will be explored and
explains the relationships of the concepts in the study.
- It is primarily a conception or model of what is out there that the researcher plans
to study

How to Construct a Conceptual Framework?

1. Finalize the research topic. Choose a topic that is based on your interest and academic
strand.
2. Conduct a literature review. The literature review must be credible and scientific.
3. Decide which variables are to be investigated. Distinguish the main variables to be
studied and identify possible relationships based on the gathered literature.

4. Construct the conceptual framework. Create the conceptual framework using the related
studies. Main variables and the research process must be emphasized.
Common Type of Research Paradigm:
● IV-DV Model - This model is used in experiment-based studies.

Theoretical Framework
- Theories that serve as the building blocks or skeleton for the foundation or bases of the
study.
- The researcher cites and discusses related theories that serve as the foundation of the
variables and their relationship, to make the study more scientific and understandable to
readers.

How to Write Theoretical Framework:

1. Examine the research problem and consider the key variables in your research.
2. Review your related literature and choose the theory applicable to your study.
3. Discuss the theory and its relation to your present study.

Include these in your paragraph:

A. title of the theory
B. author/proponent
C. theoretical principle
D. relationship/relevance to present study

Examples of Prompts:
- The study is anchored on ...
- The study is supported by the theory of...
- The study is founded on the theory on ...
- The theoretical underpinning of this study is …

Research Frameworks:
- Theoretical Framework - refers to the theory where the researcher based their study.
- Conceptual Framework - is the synthesized ideas and concepts from different related
sources.

Differences between Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks:

Theoretical Framework:
- Based on an existing theories from other studies
- Applies to a wider range of ideas related to the study.
- Evaluates the theory if it applies to the research problem.

Conceptual Framework:
- Formulated by the researcher to explain different ideas related to the study.
- Narrower and more specific concepts applicable to the study.
- Encourages theory development about new concepts.

REMEMBER!
- A theoretical framework is based on an established theory whereas the conceptual
framework is an illustration of the researcher’s viewpoint of the study.
Hypothesis of the Study
- Is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
- It is a specific and testable prediction on what you expect to happen with the variables in
your study.
- A predicted answer to your research questions.
- An intelligent guess on the relationship between your variables.

How to Formulate a Good Research Hypothesis:

1. State the research problem explicitly.
2. Consider the “if-then” statement in writing the hypothesis.
3. Define the variables to be studied.

Types of Research Hypothesis:

● Null - There is no relationship or no difference between variables.
● Alternative - There is a relationship or difference between variables.

REMEMBER!
- If the result of the experiment is the same as the hypothesis = hypothesis is accepted.
- If the result of the experiment is the exact opposite of the hypothesis = hypothesis is
rejected.

Lesson 7: The Criteria in Selecting, Citing, and Synthesizing Literature

Literature Review
- A review of writings, or literature, on a particular subject/topic.
- A review of the most relevant, recent, and scholarly work in the subject/topic area.
- A piece of writing that supports, evaluates, and critiques your research topic.
- Provides an overview of what has been written about a specific topic.

It can cover a range of sources, namely:

● Journal articles
● Thesis and dissertations
● Empirical studies
● Historical records
● Statistical handbooks

Guidelines in Selecting Literature:

1. Select literature based on your Statement of the Problem (SOP).
2. Select literatures that are related to your specific topic and field of interest.
3. Select literature that uses evidence.
4. Select literature that are current.
5. Select literature published locally and internationally.
Characteristics of a Good Literature Review:
- Materials must be as recent as possible.
- Materials must be as objective and as unbiased as possible.
- Materials must be relevant to the study.
- Materials must not be too few but nor too many.

Types of Sources:
1. Primary Sources of Data
- This refers to literature that contains first-hand evidence.
- Primary sources of data can give authoritative and credible support for the
findings of your study.

Examples of Primary Sources of Data:

- Original publication of research, thesis, and dissertation.
- Field notes of field researchers.
- Spreadsheets with raw data.
- Experimental results.

Important Note: Primary sources of data can be used to support the findings of your study in
Chapter 4.

2. Secondary Sources of Data

- This refers to interpretation of data and summaries of results from primary
sources.
- This kind of source of data helps researchers in gaining a wider background of
knowledge.

Examples of Secondary Sources of Data:

- Textbooks
- Encyclopedia
- Magazine and newspaper clippings
- Interpretation of Surveys
- Biographies

Citing Related Literature Using Standard Style

Citation - Is an organized way of acknowledging literature sources used in specific parts of the
research paper.

Contents that Need Citations:

● Theories and Principles - General concepts explained in the background of the study.
● Ideas, Hypothesis, and Results - Hypotheses of published research.
● Methods - Data collection and analysis techniques developed by other people.
● Data Sources - Complementary data figures, tables, and graphs.
Types of In-Text Citations:
● Parenthetical Citations - Are placed at the end of the sentence of the paragraph in the
body text of your research paper.

● Narrative Citation - is another way of inserting citations in the body text of your research
paper.

In-Text Citation Styles:

● APA (American Psychological Association) - APA stands for American Psychological
Association. It is one of the most commonly used citation formats in academic writing,
especially in the field of life and physical science, and Psychology.

● MLA (Modern Language Association) - MLA stands for Modern Language Association.
It is a commonly used citation format in the field of humanities like Language, Arts, and
History.

● CMOS (Chicago Manual of Style)

- CMOS refers to the Chicago Manual of Style. It is another most used citation
formats. It is also a style used by multiple fields like Social Sciences, Humanities,
and other hard sciences.
- In-text citations for the CMOS style comes in two forms: the notes-bibliography
system and the author-date system.

● Bibliography - Refers to the section of a research paper that shows a list of all sources
used in the research paper. Another term for the bibliography is a “list of references”
.

Summarizing - Is a process of explaining the content of any material in a brief and coherent
manner.

Synthesis - Links multiple summaries coming from various sources in order to form a coherent
and logical explanation of an idea or argument.

Differences Between Summary and Synthesis:

Summary
- Presents information from different parts of the individual source.
- Highlights the important points of an individual source.
- Excludes personal analysis.

Synthesis
- Combines information from different parts of each individual source into a single
narrative.
- Highlights the important points of multiple sources.
- Includes personal analysis.
Starting a Summary
- Writing a summary involves identifying essential information from the source material. A
good summary is essential to creating a synthesized discussion in the literature review.
 - The summary is an essential component of a synthesis. Make sure that the summary
highlights key ideas, arguments, or findings from the chosen sources relevant to your
research topic.

Ethical Standards in Writing a Literature Review

- Ethical standards guide the researcher in knowing the right and wrong ways in
constructing the synthesis of literature sources.
- Ethical standards are based on general research ethics that tackles the “dos” and
“don’ts” in conducting a research project.

Do’s:
- Collect relevant literature sources.
- Review the data presented and extract essential information.
- Summarize the essential information from each source using your own words.
- Paraphrase the contents of the source while retaining the main thoughts of the content.
- Attribute ideas accordingly by providing in-text and bibliographical citations.
- Provide complete and correct information of the literature sources in the bibliography.

Don’ts:
- Avoid main use of secondary literature.
- Avoid directly copying the content of the literature source.
- Avoid directly using tables and figures presented in the literature source.
- Avoid redirecting the main idea of the literature and including your own perspective on
the topic.
- Avoid missing relevant citations in the literature review.
- Avoid incomplete or wrong information of the literature source in the bibliography.

Plagiarism
- Plagiarism refers to the “act of copying or using works from another person and
presenting it as your own”.

Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines or R.A. no. 8293 - Protects the intellectual works
and property of people such as books and inventions through registered copyrights.

Types of Plagiarism:
● Direct Plagiarism
● Inadequate Paraphrasing
● Self-Plagiarism
● Incomplete Citations

- Academic credibility is crucial in the field of research. Committing plagiarism can

severely damage the academic credibility of the author which could influence the validity
and overall reception of the scholarly work.

Avoiding Plagiarism:
1. Summarize - A good summary provides and is limited to the main points of the source
material.
 2. Paraphrase - Paraphrasing is the process of expressing the essential ideas of the source
using your own words.

3. Citation - In-text citations are attributions to owners of the literature source located within
the body of the paper.

4. Avoid Self-plagiarism - Self-plagiarism refers to the act of recycling your own work
without adding proper attribution.

5. Avoid fabricated citations - A false citation refers to incorrect reference information.

Lesson 8.1: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Population
- The population is the totality of all the objects, elements, persons, and characteristics
- under consideration.
- There are two types of population:
• Target Population - Actual Population.
• Accessible Population - The portion of the population in which the researcher has
reasonable access.

Sampling
- Sampling pertains to the systematic process of selecting the group to be analyzed in the
research study. The goal is to get information from a group that represents the target
population.
- It contains a few members of the population. They were taken to represent the
characteristics or traits of the whole population.

Approaches in Identifying the Sample Size:

● Literature Review
- This approach is by reading similar or related literature and studies to your current
research study. Using this approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure.

● Formulas
- Formulas are also being established for the
computation of an acceptable sample size.
The common formula is Slovin’s Formula.
Probability Sampling
- In probability sampling, every member of the population has the chance of being
selected. It involves principle or randomization or chance.

Probability Sampling in Quantitative Research:

● Simple Random Sampling - It is a way of choosing individuals in which all members of
the accessible population are given an equal chance to be selected.

● Systematic Sampling - This procedure is as simple as selecting samples every nth

(example every 2nd, 5th) of the chosen population until arriving at a desired total number
of sample size. Dividing the population size by the sample size, the interval will be
obtained.

● Stratified Random Sampling - The same with simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling also gives an equal chance to all members of the population to be chosen.

● Cluster Sampling - This procedure is usually applied in large-scale studies, geographical

spread out of the population is a challenge, and gathering information will be very
time-consuming. It is a method where multiple clusters of people from the chosen
population will be created by the researcher in order to have homogenous
characteristics.

Non-probability Sampling - In non-probability sampling, not every member of the population has
the equal chance of being selected. It can rely on the subjective judgement of the researcher.

Non-probability Sampling:
● Convenience Sampling
- Selecting a sample based on the availability of the member and/or proximity of
the researcher.
- Also known as accidental, opportunity, or grab sampling.

● Purposive Sampling - Samples are chosen based on the goals of the study. They may
be chosen based on their knowledge of the study being conducted or if they satisfy the
traits or conditions set by the researcher.

● Quota Sampling - Proportion of the groups in the population were considered in the
number and selection of the respondents.

● Snowball Sampling - Participants in the study were tasked to recruit other members for
the study.
Lesson 8.2: Chapter 3: Research Methodology

- Discusses the overall plan of the research and how the researchers will carry out the
data collection methods.

Components of Chapter 3:
● Research Design
- Quantitative Research Design: Descriptive Research Design, Correlational
Research Design, and Experimental Research Design.

● Participants and Sampling Techniques

- Slovin’s Formula
- Sampling Techniques

● Data Gathering Procedure

- Narrate how the researchers administered the test/survey.

● Description of Research Instrument

- Device used to collect data from the respondents/participants.
- Questionnaire
- Rating Scales (5-point or 4-point Likert Scale)
- Interview Guide
- Observation Forms

● Statistical Treatment of Data

- Explains all the relevant formulas for the analysis and interpretation of data.
- Verbal interpretations for the computed values may also be summarized in
tables.