2020me111 Abdullah

Heat and Mass Transfer

(Lab Reports)

Name:
Abdullah
Reg no:
2020-me-111
Section:
C

Submitted to: Dr.Muhammad Zubair

University of engineering and Technology

Lahore
2020me111 Abdullah

Lab Session 01
TO INVESTIGATE FOURIER’S LAW FOR THE LINEAR CONDUCTION
OF HEAT ALONG A SIMPLE BAR.

Objectives
➢ Understanding Heat Transfer through Fourier's Law
➢ Finding Thermal Conductivity of Steel using Fourier's Law

Apparatus
➢ Heat Conduction Unit
1. Wattmeter
2. Cylindrical steel bars
➢ Thermocouple
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Figure 1. Available apparatus in the lab.

Introduction
In this experiment, our primary goal was to gain a fundamental understanding of how heat and
mass move from one place to another. There are three main ways this happens: conduction,
convection, and radiation. Conduction, which is our main focus here, is the primary method of
heat transfer in solid materials. It can be explained by Fourier's law, a principle that helps us
understand how heat travels through solids.

Theory
Conduction:
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer that occurs primarily in solids (though it can also happen
in liquids and gases to a lesser extent). It involves the transfer of heat energy through direct
contact between particles or molecules within a material. When you heat one end of a solid
object, such as a metal rod, the particles at that end gain kinetic energy and vibrate more. These
vibrating particles then collide with neighboring particles, transferring heat energy
progressively from one end of the material to the other. Think of it like a line of falling
dominoes, where each domino represents a particle transferring energy to the next one.
Convection:
Convection is the heat transfer method that typically occurs in fluids, such as liquids and gases.
It involves the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) due to differences in temperature. When one
part of a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks. This
creates a circulation pattern known as a convection current. Think of a pot of water on a stove:
as the bottom heats up, the heated water rises, and cooler water moves in to take its place,
creating a continuous flow of heat.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, without the need
for a medium (unlike conduction and convection). This method can occur in a vacuum or
through transparent mediums. An everyday example is the heat you feel from the sun or a warm
fireplace. In these cases, heat energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves, primarily
infrared radiation, and travels through space or air until it is absorbed by a surface. This transfer
2020me111 Abdullah

doesn't require direct contact or a material medium, as it's based on the emission and absorption
of electromagnetic waves.

Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction

The rate of heat transfer (Q) through a material is directly proportional to the cross-sectional
area (A) of the material, the temperature difference (ΔT) across the material, and inversely
proportional to the material's thickness (d). Additionally, the rate of heat transfer is also
influenced by a property known as thermal conductivity (k), which is specific to the material.

∆𝑇
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 … … … (1)
∆𝑥

Figure 2. Heat flow by conduction. For small ΔT and Δx the rate of heat flow is proportional to A ΔT/Δx. The rates of
heat flow across the two faces are equal provided that the temperatures T and T + ΔT are maintained constant. For
heat flow in the direction shown ΔT is negative.
Where:
q̇ is the rate of heat transfer
A is cross sectional area
T is the temperature difference
x is the distance between faces
k is the thermal conductivity of the material

Thermal Conductivity
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
Thermal conductivity is a fundamental property of materials that quantifies their ability to
conduct heat. It measures how efficiently a material can transfer heat through conduction,
which is one of the three main modes of heat transfer (the others being convection and
radiation). Thermal conductivity is expressed in units of watts per meter per degree Celsius
(W/(m·°C)) in the International System of Units (SI) or in other compatible units such as
watts per meter per Kelvin (W/(m·K)).

Procedure
• Start with the main switch turned off. Take a cylindrical piece of brass with a
25 mm cross-section and clamp it securely between two fixed bars, making
sure there are no gaps or air pockets.

• Connect a water supply so that water flows through the open end of a water pipe
into a drain. Check this flow periodically.
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• Turn on the power supply and main switch; this will light up the digital readouts.
• Set the heater power control knob on the control panel to the fully anticlockwise
position.
• Adjust the heat output by turning the knob until the Wattmeter shows 5 Watts.
Wait for at least 10 minutes for the system to reach a stable state.
• There are marks on the metal bar: 6 on the fixed bars (3 on each side) and 3 on
the middle, attached bar. These marks are 10 mm apart. Use a thermocouple to
measure the temperature at each point, starting from the one closest to the
heater. Record these temperatures in a table and note how they gradually
decrease.
• Create a graph with temperature change (ΔT in °C) on the vertical (y-axis) and
distance (Δx in mm) on the horizontal (x-axis). Also, draw a line that best fits
the curve, either theoretically or based on expectations, and calculate its slope.
• Calculate the thermal conductivity (k) using this formula:
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
• Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20 W and take
the average for the value of k.

Observations and Calculation

Material = steel
D = 25 mm = 0.025 m
D 2
A = πr = π ( ) = 0.00049 m2
2
2
Table 1. Data collected from the apparatus.
𝒒̇ Temperature measured from the thermocouple (C)
(W) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
5 57 56 55 40 38 38 33 33 33
10 61 61 61 41 38 38 33 33 32
15 88 81 71 46 43 42 34 34 33
20 91 91 87 51 48 46 34 334 33
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Graphs

Figure 3. This plot is for 5 watts and slope of the estimated line is -155 K/m.

Figure 4. This plot is for 10 watts and slope of the estimated line is -396.67 K/m.
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Figure 5. This plot is for 15 watts and slope of the estimated line is -828.34 K/m.

Figure 6. This plot is for 20 watts and slope of the estimated line is -1138.3 K/m.

Results
In this experiment, we explored how a linear metal bar responds to heat transfer through
conduction, following the principles outlined in Fourier's law. The graphical trends obtained
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from Figure 4, 5, 6, and 7 are depicted above. We conducted the experiment by varying the
heat input (q) and recorded four sets of measurements, which are presented below
Table 2. Giving the final results of the experiment.
Rate of heat transfer (𝒒̇ ) Slope (m) Thermal Conductivity (k)
(W) (𝐾⁄𝑚) (W⁄m2 K )
5 -353.333 28.428
10 -425 47.933
15 -736.667 41.571
20 -861.667 47.285
Average -594.167 41.279

Despite the mistake, the main objective was to comprehend the trend. Based on the findings
above, we can draw the following conclusions:

When heat transfer occurs at a faster rate, the material's thermal conductivity tends to decrease.
Essentially, as you transfer heat more rapidly, the material becomes less efficient at conducting
that heat.

When heat transfer rates are higher, the temperature change graph exhibits a steeper slope. This
implies that the temperature difference between different points on the material's surface
increases more quickly.

As you move along the material for a greater distance, the temperature gradually decreases in
a linear manner. To put it simply, as you progress further along the material, the temperature
decreases steadily.
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Lab Session 02:

TO calculate coefficients of thermal conduction using Fourier’s law

Objectives
➢ To grasp Thermal resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient through Fourier’s
law of heat conduction.
➢ To determine Thermal conductivity of steel in a composite bar.

Apparatus
➢ Heat Conduction Unit
1. Wattmeter
2. Cylindrical Brass bars and a Steel bar
➢ Thermocouple

Figure 7. Available apparatus in the lab.

Introduction
In this experiment, our primary goal was to gain a fundamental understanding of how heat and
mass move from one place to another. There are three main ways this happens: conduction,
convection, and radiation. Conduction, which is our main focus here, is the primary method of
heat transfer in solid materials. It can be explained by Fourier's law, a principle that helps us
understand how heat travels through solids.

Theory
Conduction:
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer that occurs primarily in solids (though it can also happen
in liquids and gases to a lesser extent). It involves the transfer of heat energy through direct
contact between particles or molecules within a material. When you heat one end of a solid
object, such as a metal rod, the particles at that end gain kinetic energy and vibrate more. These
vibrating particles then collide with neighboring particles, transferring heat energy
progressively from one end of the material to the other. Think of it like a line of falling
dominoes, where each domino represents a particle transferring energy to the next one.
Convection:
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Convection is the heat transfer method that typically occurs in fluids, such as liquids and gases.
It involves the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) due to differences in temperature. When one
part of a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks. This
creates a circulation pattern known as a convection current. Think of a pot of water on a stove:
as the bottom heats up, the heated water rises, and cooler water moves in to take its place,
creating a continuous flow of heat.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, without the need
for a medium (unlike conduction and convection). This method can occur in a vacuum or
through transparent mediums. An everyday example is the heat you feel from the sun or a warm
fireplace. In these cases, heat energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves, primarily
infrared radiation, and travels through space or air until it is absorbed by a surface. This transfer
doesn't require direct contact or a material medium, as it's based on the emission and absorption
of electromagnetic waves.

Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction

The rate of heat transfer (Q) through a material is directly proportional to the cross-sectional
area (A) of the material, the temperature difference (ΔT) across the material, and inversely
proportional to the material's thickness (d). Additionally, the rate of heat transfer is also
influenced by a property known as thermal conductivity (k), which is specific to the material
∆𝑇
𝑞̇ ∝ − ⋅𝐴
∆𝑥
∆𝑇
⇒ 𝑞̇ = −𝑘𝐴 … … … (1)
∆𝑥

Figure 8. Heat flow by conduction. For small ΔT and Δx the rate of heat flow is proportional to A ΔT/Δx. The rates of
heat flow across the two faces are equal provided that the temperatures T and T + ΔT are maintained constant. For
heat flow in the direction shown ΔT is negative.
Where:
q̇ is the rate of heat transfer
A is cross sectional area
T is the temperature difference
x is the distance between faces
k is the thermal conductivity of the material
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Thermal Conductivity (k)

𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
Thermal conductivity is a fundamental property of materials that quantifies their ability to
conduct heat. It measures how efficiently a material can transfer heat through conduction,
which is one of the three main modes of heat transfer (the others being convection and
radiation). Thermal conductivity is expressed in units of watts per meter per degree Celsius
(W/(m·°C)) in the International System of Units (SI) or in other compatible units such as watts
per meter per Kelvin (W/(m·K))..

Thermal resistance (Rth)

Thermal resistance is a measure of how effectively a material or component resists the flow of
heat. It is the property that describes the degree to which a substance hinders or slows down
the transfer of heat from one side to another. In essence, it quantifies how difficult it is for heat
to pass through a given material or structure.
𝑙
𝑅𝑡ℎ =
𝑘⋅𝐴
Where:
l is the thickness/length of material
k is thermal conductivity of the material
A is area of the plane

Overall Heat transfer coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient, denoted as U, is expressed in units of watts per square
meter per degree Celsius (W/(m²·°C)) or its equivalent in other units. It quantifies the rate of
heat transfer per unit area for a given temperature difference.

Figure 9. Showing heat transfer through multilpe materials

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The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is affected by two key factors: the thickness and
thermal conductivity of the materials involved in the heat transfer process. When the U-value
is higher, it means that heat can move more easily from the heat source to the object being
heated. In the context of a heat exchanger, you can express the connection between the overall
heat transfer coefficient (U) and the rate of heat transfer (q) using the following equation:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
Where:
q is heat transfer rate
A is heat transfer surface area
U is overall heat transfer coefficient
ΔT is temperature difference

Procedure
i. Begin by ensuring that the main power switch is turned off. Then, take a cylindrical
steel bar with a 25 mm cross-section and secure it between two fixed bars made of
brass. Make sure there are no gaps or air pockets between the connected surfaces.
ii. Turn on the water supply and ensure that water flows freely through the open end of
the water pipe, allowing it to drain away. Periodically check to make sure the water
flow is consistent.
iii. Switch on the power supply and the main switch, which should activate the digital
readout displays.
iv. Adjust the heater's power control knob to its fully anticlockwise position.
v. Choose a specific heat level (q) by turning the knob until the Wattmeter shows 5 Watts.
Allow the system to stabilize and reach a steady state, which may take at
least 10 minutes.
vi. Mark seven points along the metallic bar, with six points evenly spaced at 10 mm
intervals on the stationary bars and one point at the center of the attached bar. Use a
thermocouple to measure the temperature at each point, starting from the one closest to
the heater. Record these temperature readings in a table, and take note of the gradual
decrease in temperature.
vii. Create a graph that displays temperature (in °C) on the vertical (y-axis) and distance (in
mm) on the horizontal (x-axis).
viii. Determine the thermal conductivity values for both the brass and steel materials using
the following expression
𝑞̇
𝑘=−
𝐴(∆𝑇⁄∆𝑥)
ix. Find thermal resistance Rth of the whole composite bar by using this expression, where
k1, k2 and k3 are thermal conductivities in order.
𝐿 1 1 1
𝑅𝑡ℎ = [ + + ]
𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
x. Then find overall heat transfer coefficient U, by using this formula and then compare
both values.
𝑈 = 𝑞̇ 𝐴∆𝑇 = 𝑞̇ 𝐴(𝑇9 − 𝑇1 )
xi. Repeat the process for different values of q i.e., 5, 10, 15 and 20 W and take the average
for the value of k. (After each change, sufficient time must be allowed to achieve steady
state conditions.)

Observations and Calculation

Material of middle bar = Steel
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𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷 = 25 𝑚𝑚 = 0.025 𝑚
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 = 0.00049 𝑚2
Table 3. Data collected from the apparatus.
𝒒̇ Temperature measured from the thermocouple (C)
(W) Brass Steel Brass
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
5 40 40 39 34 33 32 32 31 31
10 43 43 42 36 35 34 33 31 31
15 56 56 53 41 39 37 33 31 31
20 68 68 67 48 44 42 34 32 31

Graphs
Data was collected in an Excel spread sheet and then imported in MATLAB for further
computing.
• All graphs are Temperature vs. Distance

Results
In this experiment, we gained insights into how heat transfer occurs through conduction in a
linear metallic bar comprising different materials. We observed and documented graphical
trends to better understand this heat transfer process. By altering the heat input values (q), we
conducted four separate measurements and recorded the results, which are presented below:
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Table 4. Giving the final results of the experiment.

Rate of heat Thermal Conductivity (k) Thermal Overall Heat
transfer (𝒒̇ ) Resistance (Rth) transfer Coefficient
(U)
(W) (W⁄m2 K ) (𝐾 ⁄𝑊 ) (𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝐾 )

5 203.71 101.85 203.71 1202.21 1697.5

10 407.43 203.71 203.71 751.364 2716
15 203.71 152.78 305.57 901.645 2264.24
20 814.07 135.81 271.62 751.422 2716.63
Average 407.23 148.53 246.15 901.66 2348.59

Error is due to several factors i.e.

• non-proper clamping of metallic bar
• non-conformities in the material
• faulty equipment
Despite the mistake made, our primary aim was to grasp the underlying pattern. Based on the
observations presented above, we can draw the following conclusions:

When heat transfer occurs at a higher rate, both thermal resistance and overall resistance tend
to decrease. In other words, as the rate of heat transfer increases, the material's resistance to
heat flow decreases.

Temperature exhibits a linear decrease as you travel a greater distance, such as length in this
context. Put simply, as you move further along the material, the temperature drops consistently.
2020me111 Abdullah

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
“To investigate the effect of change in cross sectional area on temperature
profile along a thermal conductor on conduction heat transfer unit.”

Objective
i. To investigate the effect of change in cross sectional area on temperature profile along
a thermal conductor on conduction heat transfer unit.

Apparatus
i. Heat Conduction Apparatus

Figure 9.1: Heat Transfer Apparatus

Heat conduction apparatus is used to determine the heat conduction rate through a bar made
up of same material or different materials. One end of the bar is heated by applying power to
it. A series of thermistors are attached with the bar separated by a distance of 3mm. A cable is
used to connect the thermistor with the Pasport Temperature array which displays the
temperature digitally. In order to cover the vars, foam insulators are used.

Introduction
The governing principle of heat conduction is Fourier’s law and can be verified for anybody
conducting heat under given assumptions. In this experiment, we will verify the Fourier’s law
for varying cross-sectional area. We will also study the effect of change in cross sectional
area on the heat transfer rate.

Theory
Conduction
“The mode of heat transfer in which the energy flows from the region of higher temperature
to the region of lower temperature because of interaction of particles is called Conduction.”
Conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases. In solids, it is mainly due to the
vibration of adjacent particles as well the motion of free electrons. In liquids and gases, it is
due to the diffusion of molecules.
Conduction is a molecular or atomic activity as depicted in Figure 9.2.
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Figure 9.2: Molecular activity during conduction

Fourier’s Law
The amount of heat conducted by through a medium per unit time depends on various factors
like:
(i) Material of medium
(ii) Temperature difference across the medium
(iii) Cross sectional area
(iv) Geometry of medium

Figure 9.3: Conduction through a large plane wall

Consider the case of conduction through a large plane wall of thickness Δx = L, cross
sectional area A and temperature difference ΔT=T2 – T1 as shown in Figure 1.3. It is verified
experimentally that the rate of heat transfer q is directly proportional to area A and
temperature difference ΔT but inversely proportional to thickness Δx i.e.,
ΔT
q  A Δx

OR,
ΔT
q = –kA Δx

where k is the constant of proportionality known as the thermal conductivity of material.

If Δx → 0, then above equation takes the form:
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dT
qcond = –kA dx

dT
This equation is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction. In this equation, dx is the
temperature gradient. The equation shows that heat flows in the direction of decreasing
temperature gradient.

Figure 9.4: Sign Convention

The negative sign is in accordance with the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

Procedure
(i) First of all, measure the diameter and length of the bar.
(ii) Turn on the power supply of heat conduction apparatus and apply specific value of
power to the bar. Before starting just make sure that the entire length of bar carries the
same material.
(iii) Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the bar to be heated properly and approximate steady
conditions to be achieved.
(iv) After 10-15 minutes, by turning the knob note the values of temperature at various
locations along the bar digitally.
(v) Tabulate the values of temperatures.
(vi) Plot the graph

Observations and Calculations

1 Table 5. Data collected from the apparatus.
𝒒̇ Temperature measured from the thermocouple (C)
(W)
T1 T2 T3 T5 T7 T8 T9
5 39 39 38 32 31 30 30
10 45 45 45 36 31 30 30
15 51 51 51 34 32 31 31
20 60 59 58 36 32 31 31
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Graph

Figure 9.5: q vs thermal conductivity

Figure 9.6: Temperature distribution along the q

Result
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2 Table 6. Data collected from the apparatus.

𝒒̇ Temperature measured from the thermocouple (C)
(W) Thermal Gradient Thermal Conductivity

5 -50 -350 -50 203.7 101.85 203.7

10 -50 -650 -50 407.4 115 407
15 -50 -900 -50 611 125 611
20 -50 -300 -150 407 115 814

that the temperature gradient is maximum in the region where the area of bar is minimum.
Thus, by decreasing the cross-sectional area the temperature gradient increased to a very
large amount by keeping the power input constant which is in accordance with the Fourier’s
law of heat conduction.
dT
qcond = –kA dx

The negative values of slope are just indicating the decreasing slope.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of the heat
transfer resulting from radial steady conduction through the wall of cylinder

Objective
▪ Determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial steady conduction through the
wall of a cylinder.

Apparatus
▪ Cylinder, Temperature Sensors

Introduction
In an experimental setup, you would measure the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces
of the cylinder, as well as other necessary parameters. The experimental data can be used to
validate the theoretical analysis.
The primary goal of this experiment is to understand how heat is conducted through the wall
of a cylindrical object and to determine the factors affecting the rate of heat transfer. The theory
and equations mentioned above provide the foundation for such an analysis

Theory
Conduction:
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer that occurs primarily in solids (though it can also
happen in liquids and gases to a lesser extent). It involves the transfer of heat energy
through direct contact between particles or molecules within a material. When you heat
one end of a solid object, such as a metal rod, the particles at that end gain kinetic energy
and vibrate more. These vibrating particles then collide with neighboring particles,
transferring heat energy progressively from one end of the material to the other. Think of
it like a line of falling dominoes, where each domino represents a particle transferring
energy to the next one.
2020me111 Abdullah

Convection:
Convection is the heat transfer method that typically occurs in fluids, such as liquids and gases.
It involves the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) due to differences in temperature. When one
part of a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks. This
creates a circulation pattern known as a convection current. Think of a pot of water on a stove:
as the bottom heats up, the heated water rises, and cooler water moves in to take its place,
creating a continuous flow of heat.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, without the need
for a medium (unlike conduction and convection). This method can occur in a vacuum or
through transparent mediums. An everyday example is the heat you feel from the sun or a warm
fireplace. In these cases, heat energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves, primarily
infrared radiation, and travels through space or air until it is absorbed by a surface. This transfer
doesn't require direct contact or a material medium, as it's based on the emission and absorption
of electromagnetic waves.
Heat Conduction:
The fundamental concept is that heat is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a
region of lower temperature through a material medium. In your case, heat is transferred
radially through the wall of a cylinder.
Steady-State Conduction:
Steady-state conduction means that the temperature distribution within the cylinder wall does
not change with time. This simplifies the analysis because the temperature distribution
becomes a function of radial distance only.
Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction:
Fourier's Law states that the rate of heat transfer through a material is directly proportional to
the temperature gradient (dT/dr) and the cross-sectional area (A) perpendicular to the
direction of heat flow. Mathematically, it can be expressed as q = -k * (dT/dr) * A, where q is
the heat transfer rate, k is the thermal conductivity of the material, and dT/dr represents the
temperature gradient.
Cylindrical Geometry:
For a cylindrical shape, the heat conduction equation can be expressed as:
q = -2πkL(T1 - T2) / ln(r2/r1),
where q is the heat transfer rate, k is the thermal conductivity, L is the length of the cylinder,
T1 and T2 are the inner and outer surface temperatures, r1 and r2 are the inner and outer
radii, and ln is the natural logarithm.
Boundary Conditions:
To determine the temperature profile, you'll need to establish boundary conditions, including
the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder. These temperatures can be
measured experimentally or specified based on the problem.
Conductivity (k):
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The thermal conductivity of the material plays a crucial role in determining the rate of heat
transfer. It represents how well the material conducts heat and can be measured or found in
materials databases.
Thermal Resistance:
You can define thermal resistance as the resistance to heat flow through the cylinder wall. It
is inversely proportional to the rate of heat transfer and can be expressed as R = ln(r2/r1) /
(2πkL).
Temperature Profile:
By solving the heat conduction equation and applying the boundary conditions, you can
obtain a temperature profile as a function of radial distance within the cylinder wall.
Rate of Heat Transfer:
Once the temperature profile is determined, you can calculate the rate of heat transfer (q) using
Fourier's Law or the thermal resistance concept

Procedure
(i) First of all, Assemble the experimental setup with the cylindrical wall at its center.
(ii) Attach temperature measurement devices (thermocouples or temperature sensors) at
various radial positions and depths within the wall to record temperature profiles.

(iii) Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the rods to be heated properly and approximate steady
conditions to be achieved.
(iv) Using thermocouple and temperature sensor.
(v) To find the thermal conductivity
(vi) Change the value of power supply and repeat the experiment.
(vii) Plot the graph

Observation and Calculations

Q= 10W

Percentage
T R q_experimental q_theoretical difference
38 0.004
36 0.0142 3.243388424 10 67.6
35 0.0244 3.795391369 10 62
33 0.0346 11.7651007 10 17.7
32 0.0448 7.952646207 10 20.5
31 0.055 10.01633705 10 0.2

Q =15W
Percentage
T R q_experimental q_theoretical difference
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41 0.004
37 0.0142 6.486776848 10 35.1
35 0.0244 7.590782738 10 24.1
34 0.0346 5.882550352 10 41.2
33 0.0448 7.952646207 10 20.5
32.3 0.055 7.011435932 10 29.9

Q =20W
T R q_experimental
42 0.004 10
41 0.0142 1.621694 10 83.8
37 0.0244 15.18157 10 51.8
35 0.0346 11.7651 10 17.7
33 0.0448 15.90529 10 59.1
32 0.055 10.01634 10 0.2

Graph

Conclusion
▪ The temperature profile within the cylinder wall was found to vary radially, with higher
temperatures at the inner surface and lower temperatures at the outer surface. This is
consistent with the expected behaviour of steady-state radial conduction
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▪ The temperature gradient within the cylinder wall was used to calculate the thermal
resistance. It was observed that the thermal resistance increased as the radial distance
from the center of the cylinder increased
▪ The thermal conductivity of the material played a crucial role in determining the rate of
heat transfer. Materials with higher thermal conductivity facilitated more efficient heat
transfer
2020me111 Abdullah

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
“To determine the relation between power input and surface temperature
in free and force convection”

Objective
i. To understand the concept of convection, free convection and forced convection.
ii. To investigate the relation between power input and surface temperature in free and
force convection.

Apparatus
i. Free and Forced Convection Apparatus
.

Free and forced convection apparatus is used to observe the free and forced convection on
different geometry of plates. The apparatus consists of a vertical duct containing the heating
plates as well the other instruments. In the case of free convection, heated air rises above the

Figure 4.1: Free and Forced convection apparatus

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duct naturally while in the case of forced convection a variable speed fan is used to fulfil the
purpose.

Introduction
One of the most common mode of heat transfer is convection which can be classified into
forced and free convection. In this experiment, we will study the free convection and will
determine the relationship between input power and temperature difference across the plate.

Theory
Conduction:
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer that occurs primarily in solids (though it can also
happen in liquids and gases to a lesser extent). It involves the transfer of heat energy
through direct contact between particles or molecules within a material. When you heat
one end of a solid object, such as a metal rod, the particles at that end gain kinetic energy
and vibrate more. These vibrating particles then collide with neighboring particles,
transferring heat energy progressively from one end of the material to the other. Think of
it like a line of falling dominoes, where each domino represents a particle transferring
energy to the next one.
Convection:
Convection is the heat transfer method that typically occurs in fluids, such as liquids and gases.
It involves the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) due to differences in temperature. When one
part of a fluid is heated, it becomes less dense and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks. This
creates a circulation pattern known as a convection current. Think of a pot of water on a stove:
as the bottom heats up, the heated water rises, and cooler water moves in to take its place,
creating a continuous flow of heat.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, without the need
for a medium (unlike conduction and convection). This method can occur in a vacuum or
through transparent mediums. An everyday example is the heat you feel from the sun or a warm
fireplace. In these cases, heat energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves, primarily
infrared radiation, and travels through space or air until it is absorbed by a surface. This transfer
doesn't require direct contact or a material medium, as it's based on the emission and absorption
of electromagnetic waves.

Convection
One of the primary modes of heat transfer is convection.
“The mode of heat transfer in which bulk of fluid particles moves over a surface and transfers
the heat is called convection.”
This mode of heat transfer includes both (1) conduction and (2) fluid motion in bulk.
From the experiments, we know that the amount of heat transferred through convection
depends on fluid properties like:
(i) Dynamic Viscosity μ
(ii) Thermal conductivity k
(iii) Density of fluid ρ
(iv) Velocity of fluid v
(v) Specific heat of fluid Cp
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The rate of heat transferred by convection is given by Newton’s Law of cooling as:
qconv = hAs(T – T∞)

Classification of convection
Convection can be classified into two types:
(i) Free convection
(ii) Forced convection

Free Convection
“The type of convection in which the heat transfer occurs because of density difference
without the aid of any external device such as fan or pump is called free convection or

natural convection.”
Free convection takes place when any body is placed in a fluid having temperature greater than
or less than the body temperature. As a result of temperature difference, the density of fluid
changes in the surrounding of body. As a result of density difference, lighter fluid moves
upward and heavier one moves downward. If the entire process takes place without the help of
external aid such as fan then it is called natural convection or free convection.
The heat transfer by natural convection is less than that by forced convection because of low
value of heat transfer coefficient but found it applications in various machines and processes.

Figure 4.2: Free convection

Forced Convection
“The type of convection in which the fluid is forced by some external means such as fan or
pump to flow over a surface is called forced convection or natural convection.”

Figure 5.2: Forced Convention

Temperature and velocity distribution

Consider a flat plat having the surface temperature Ts. Air with velocity u∞ and temperature
T∞ is forced to flow over it as shown in Figure 5.3.
The temperature and velocity distribution of fluid is also shown in Figure:
Figure 4.3: Temperature and velocity distribution because of free convection through a flat
plate
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Figure 5.3: Temperature and velocity distribution in case of forced

convection
It can be observed that the velocity of the fluid decreases as we move near the surface
because of no slip condition. Because of zero velocity at the fluid-surface interface, the heat
transfer at that point takes places by conduction and is given as:
q ∂T
A = –k ∂y |y = 0 = h(Ts – T∞)
∂T
The temperature gradient ∂y depends upon the velocity of the fluid. Thus, higher velocity of
fluid produces higher temperature difference which increases the rate of heat transfer.

Procedure
(viii) First of all, attach the type of plate required with the duct of apparatus.
(ix) Turn on the power supply and on the flow of air through the duct.
(x) Wait for 10-15 minutes to allow the rods to be heated properly and approximate steady
conditions to be achieved.
(xi) Using thermocouple and temperature sensor.
(xii) To find the thermal conductivity
(xiii) Change the value of power supply and repeat the experiment.
(xiv) Plot the graph.

Observation and Calculations

3 Table 7. Data collected from the apparatus.
𝒒̇ Temperature measured from the thermocouple (C)
(W)
T1 T2 T3 T5 T7 T8 T9
5 40 40 39 33 32 31 31
10 80 80 80 40 32 31 31
15 56 56 53 41 37 33 31
20 68 68 67 48 42 34 32
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Graph
Graph between temperature of plate and convective heat transfer q 5w

Graph between temperature of plate and convective heat transfer q 10w

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Graph between temperature of plate and convective heat transfer q 15w

Result
4 Table 8. Data collected from the apparatus.
𝒒̇ Temperature measured from the thermocouple (C)
(W) temp of plate del T convective heat transfer

5 38 34 33 7 3 2 64.94 151.55 272.27

10 40 36 34 9 5 3 101.01 181.82 303.03
15 43 39 36 12 8 5 113.64 170.45 272.73

the increase in power supply the temperature difference of air also increases. Since the inlet
temperature of air is constant but the outlet temperature is increasing because of increase in the
power supply which results in the increase in temperature difference.
by increasing the velocity of air, the temperature difference increases which means more heat
transfer take place. The reason for the increase in temperature difference is that at high speed
more molecules carry energy away from the surface, thus, more heat transfer takes place.