2020-ME-109 HMT-LAB Muhammad Bilal

HMT-LAB
EXPERIMENT NO. 6-12

SUBMITTED TO:
MUHAMMAD BILAL JAMSHED
2020-ME-109
0|Page
Contents
1 Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 4
2 Apparatus ................................................................................................................................ 4
3 Introduction: ............................................................................................................................ 4
4 Theory: .................................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Convection: ...................................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Types of Convection: ....................................................................................................... 5
4.2.1 Free Convection: ....................................................................................................... 5
4.2.2 Forced Convection: ................................................................................................... 5
4.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling: ............................................................................................... 6
4.4 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient.............................................................................. 6
4.5 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface ............................................................................ 6
5 Procedure: ............................................................................................................................... 7
6 Observations and Calculation: ................................................................................................ 7
6.1 Collected Data .................................................................................................................. 8
6.1.1 Graph: ....................................................................................................................... 9
7 Results:.................................................................................................................................. 11
7.1 Comments on Comparison of Plate:............................................................................... 12
8 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 13
9 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 13
10 Introduction: .......................................................................................................................... 13
11 Theory: .................................................................................................................................. 14
11.1 Convection: ................................................................................................................. 14
11.2 Advection: .................................................................................................................. 14
11.3 Types of Convection:.................................................................................................. 14
11.3.1 Free Convection: ..................................................................................................... 14
11.3.2 Forced Convection: ................................................................................................. 15
11.4 Newton’s Law of Cooling: ......................................................................................... 15
11.5 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient ........................................................................ 15
11.6 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface ...................................................................... 15
12 Procedure: ............................................................................................................................. 16
13 Observations and Calculation: .............................................................................................. 17
13.1 Calculation of Area ..................................................................................................... 17
13.2 Collected Data ............................................................................................................ 17
13.2.1 Graph: ..................................................................................................................... 18

1
14 Results:.................................................................................................................................. 20
15 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 22
16 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 22
17 Theory ................................................................................................................................... 22
17.1 Heat Exchanger........................................................................................................... 22
17.2 Working Principle....................................................................................................... 22
17.3 Classification of Heat Exchangers .............................................................................. 22
17.3.1 Classification on the basis of Flow: ........................................................................ 23
17.3.2 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger: ............................................................................... 23
17.3.3 Counter Flow Heat Exchanger: ............................................................................... 23
17.3.4 Classification on the basis of Construction:............................................................ 24
17.3.5 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:............................................................................. 24
17.3.6 Plate Type Heat Exchanger:.................................................................................... 24
18 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 25
19 Procedure .............................................................................................................................. 26
20 Observations ......................................................................................................................... 26
20.1 Graphs ......................................................................................................................... 27
21 Comments ............................................................................................................................. 29
22 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 30
23 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 30
24 Theory ................................................................................................................................... 30
24.1 Heat Exchanger........................................................................................................... 30
24.2 Working Principle....................................................................................................... 30
24.3 Classification on the basis of Construction: ............................................................... 32
25 Procedure .............................................................................................................................. 34
26 Observations ......................................................................................................................... 34
27 Calculations........................................................................................................................... 36
28 Comments ............................................................................................................................. 37
29 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 39
30 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 39
31 Introduction: .......................................................................................................................... 39
32 Theory: .................................................................................................................................. 40
32.1 Boiling: ....................................................................................................................... 40
32.2 Boiling Point:.............................................................................................................. 40
32.3 Types of Boiling: ........................................................................................................ 40

2
 32.4 Natural Convection Boiling: ....................................................................................... 40
32.5 Nucleate Boiling: ........................................................................................................ 41
32.6 Film Boiling:............................................................................................................... 41
33 Procedure: ............................................................................................................................. 42
34 Comments: ............................................................................................................................ 42
35 Objective ............................................................................................................................... 44
36 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 44
37 Theory ................................................................................................................................... 44
37.1 Boiling ........................................................................................................................ 44
37.2 Boiling Point ............................................................................................................... 45
37.3 Types of boiling .......................................................................................................... 45
37.3.1 Natural Convection Boiling .................................................................................... 45
37.3.2 Nucleate Boiling ..................................................................................................... 45
37.4 Stages of Nucleate Boiling ......................................................................................... 45
37.5 Film Boiling................................................................................................................ 46
37.6 Critical Heat Flux ....................................................................................................... 46
37.7 Pool Boiling Curve ..................................................................................................... 47
38 Apparatus .............................................................................................................................. 47
39 Procedure .............................................................................................................................. 47
40 Observations & Calculations ................................................................................................ 48
41 Graphs ................................................................................................................................... 49
42 Comments ............................................................................................................................. 50
43 Objective ............................................................................................................................... 51
44 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 51
45 Theory ................................................................................................................................... 51
Radiation ................................................................................................................................... 51
blackbody .................................................................................................................................. 51
inverse square law ..................................................................................................................... 52
46 Procedure: ............................................................................................................................. 52
47 Observations and Calculation: .............................................................................................. 52
48................................................................................................................................................... 53
49 Conclusion and comments .................................................................................................... 53

3
 Lab Report:06
To Determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a
pinned plate in free and forced convection
1 Objectives
This lab session will demonstrate the link between power input and surface temperature in free
and forced convection.
To calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient of a pinned plate.

2 Apparatus
• Free and Forced Heat Convection Unit
• Wattmeter
• Finned Plate
• Thermocouple

Figure 1. apparatus

3 Introduction:
The major goal of this experiment was to study the foundations of heat and mass transmission. We
have three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. For forced convection, we shall
demonstrate the relationship between heat transfer (power input) and surface temperature.
Convection is a macroscopic characteristic that results in bulk movement of molecules. Convection
is further subdivided into free and forced convection. Our concern in this experiment is free and
forced convection. The surface temperature of the pinned plate will be measured using a
thermocouple at various power inputs, and the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient will
also be determined.

4
4 Theory:
4.1 Convection:
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the flow of fluid that transfers heat from one location
to another. Convective heat transfer is generally addressed as a separate type of heat transfer,
however it involves the combined processes of conduction (heat diffusion) and advection (heat
transfer by bulk fluid movement). Convection is the most common mode of heat transmission in
liquids and gases.
Convection currents move heat from one location to another by using the mass motion of a fluid
such as water, air, or molten rock. Convection is distinct from conduction, which is the transfer of
heat between two substances in direct contact. Convection currents arise when a heated fluid
expands and becomes less dense. The less dense heated fluid rises away from the heat source. As
it rises, it draws cooler fluid down to replace it. This fluid, in turn, heats up, rises, and pulls down
more cool fluid. This cycle creates a circular circulation that ends only when heat is uniformly
distributed throughout the fluid. A heated radiator, for example, heats the air directly around it.
The air rises toward the roof, bringing cooler air down with it.
4.2 Types of Convection:
➢ Free Convection
➢ Forced Convection
4.2.1 Free Convection:
When fluid motion is generated by buoyant forces caused by density fluctuations in the fluid, this
is referred to as free or natural convection. When a fluid comes into touch with a heated surface in
the absence of an internal source, its molecules separate and scatter, causing the fluid to become
less dense. As a result, the fluid is displaced while the cooler fluid becomes denser and sinks. As
a result, the hotter volume transfers heat to the colder volume of that fluid. Examples include the
upward flow of air caused by a fire or hot object, and the circulation of water in a pot heated from
below.

Figure 2 Natural Convection

4.2.2 Forced Convection:

The word forced convection refers to a convection current that is created artificially by moving a
fluid across a surface via fans, churning, or pumps. Natural and forced convection occur
concurrently in many real-life situations, including as heat losses at solar central receivers or
cooling of photovoltaic panels (mixed convection).

5
 Figure 3 Forced Convection

4.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Newton's law of cooling states that,
The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the
body and its surroundings, provided that the temperature difference is modest and the nature of the
radiating surface remains constant."

⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨( 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂 ) … … … (1)
Where:
ℎ𝑐 =Convection heat transfer coefficient
𝐴 =Area for convection
𝑇𝑤 =Surface temperature
𝑇𝑎 =Ambient temperature

Eq. 1 is known as Newton’s law of cooling.

4.4 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

The rate of heat transmission between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit
temperature difference is defined as the convective heat transfer coefficient, h. Its metric unit is
W/ (m2K)
𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨∆𝑻
4.5 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface
When the temperatures Ts and T are determined by design considerations, as is typically the case,
there are two approaches to improve the rate of heat transfer: raise the convective heat transfer
coefficient h or increase the surface area As. Increasing h may necessitate the installation of a
pump or fan, or the replacement of an existing one with a larger one, but this strategy may or may
not be feasible. Furthermore, it may not be sufficient. The alternative is to enhance the surface area
by connecting to the surface extended surfaces known as fins composed of highly conductive
materials such as aluminium. Finned surfaces are extensively employed in practice to improve heat
transfer, and they frequently increase the rate of heat transmission from a surface several times.

6
The fin spacing, S, is a critical element in heat sink design. Closely packed fins provide more
surface area for heat transfer but have a lower heat transfer coefficient (due to extra resistance of
additional fins). The heat transfer coefficient of a heat sink with widely separated fins is higher,
but the surface area is smaller. As a result, there is an optimal spacing that maximises natural
convection from the heat sink.

5 Procedure:
• Make sure the main switch is turned off at first.
• In this experiment, pinned plat is taken into account. First, we will place the pinned plate into
the duct.
• The power supply is turned on. Because we are first witnessing free convection, the fan is
switched off.
• Power is applied, followed by a five-minute delay to ensure that the pinned plate is
appropriately heated and in a steady state condition.
• Now, using the thermocouple, measure the temperature by properly placing the wire into the
hole.
• The same thing happens with different power inputs.
• The forced convection fan is now turned on, and the fan speed is set to 0.5 m/s, 1 m/s, and 1.3
m/s, and we will monitor the surface temperature at various power inputs.
• Make a note of the values.

6 Observations and Calculation:

Formula for Convective heat transfer coefficient is given as,
𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨(𝑻𝒔 − 𝑻∞)
where
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑇∞ = 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

ℎ𝑐 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑛𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑇∞ = 28℃
Area Calculations for Pinned Plate,

𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 12.5𝑚𝑚

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 65𝑚𝑚

𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 = 2552𝑚𝑚2

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (110 × 100) + (17 × 2552)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 54384𝑚𝑚2

7
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 0.054384𝑚2

6.1 Collected Data

𝑇∞ = 28℃
𝑙 = 110 𝑚𝑚
𝑤 = 100 𝑚𝑚
for 5 watts
Air speed Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer coeff
0 30 27 3 151.5152
0.5 29 27 2 227.2727
1 28 27 1 454.5455
1.3 28 27 1 454.5455
Area of the 0.011
Fin

for 10 watts
Air speed Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer coeff
0 31 27 4 227.2727
0.5 30 27 3 303.0303
1 29 27 2 454.5455
1.3 28 27 1 909.0909
Area of the 0.011
Fin

Table 1. Data collected from the apparatus.

for 15 watts
Air speed Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer coeff
0 32 27 5 272.7273
0.5 30 27 3 454.5455
1 29 27 2 681.8182
1.3 28 27 1 1363.636
Area of the 0.011
Fin

for 20 watts
Air speed Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer coeff
0 35 27 8 227.2727
0.5 33 27 6 303.0303
1 31 27 4 454.5455
1.3 29 27 2 909.0909

8
 Area of the 0.011
Fin

6.1.1 Graph:
MATLAB is used for graphs.

9
10
7 Results:
We determined the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient for pinned plate at varied
velocities in this experiment. We measured the temperature of the plate and the ambient
temperature before calculating the convective heat transfer coefficient based on the temperature
difference and plate cross-sectional area. Density difference is a key cause of free convection.
The part of the fluid that is in contact with heat source has relatively high temperature, and due
to high temperature, its density increases, hence, it tends to rise up and denser fluid settles down
and resulting in free convection.
According to Newton’s Law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to
temperature difference and convective heat transfer coefficient at constant cross-sectional area.
The equation is

Figure 7. Plot b/w Convective Coefficient and Temperature Difference.

11
The table and Figure 7 show that when temperature rises, the value of the convective heat
transfer coefficient falls. Temperature decreases as the value of convective heat transfer
coefficients increases.
As there is an inverse relation between h conv, area and temperature difference. Hence,
convective heat transfer coefficient decreases. In case of finned plate, surface area has increased.
Now, large area has to be covered in order to transfer heat so the transfer of heat will be slow.
Convective heat transfer coefficient is directly proportional to heat supplied and temperature
difference. we can conclude that there is little deviation from direct linear trend. This deviation is
may be due to:Faulty Apparatus

7.1 Comments on Comparison of Plate:

These figures show that the temperature difference grows as the heat input increases.
Because the air has more contact time with the heated source, its temperature rises as the heated
source's temperature rises. The table and graphs show that when fan speed increases, the surface
temperature of the plate lowers, and as a result, the temperature differential reduces.
Because the air is now travelling quicker, there is less contact between air molecules, and there is
less of a possibility for the greatest number of air molecules to receive heat from the source.
Forced convection rapidly reduces the source temperature due to the greater passage cycles.

12
 Lab Report:07
To compare the convective heat transfer of the finned
plate with free and forced convection with the pinned
plate
8 Objectives
➢ To compare the convective heat transfer of the finned plate with free and forced convection
with the pinned plate.

9 Apparatus
• Free and Forced Heat Convection Unit
• Wattmeter
• Finned Plate
• Thermocouple

Figure 2. apparatus

10 Introduction:
Our main goal in this experiment was to learn the foundations of heat and mass transmission.
Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three modes. For forced convection, we shall show
the relationship between heat transfer (power input) and surface temperature. Convection is a
macroscopic characteristic that causes bulk movement of molecules. Convection is further divided
into two types: free and forced convection. In this experiment, we are interested in both free and
forced convection. The surface temperature of a finned plate will be monitored using a

13
thermocouple at various power inputs, and the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient will
also be determined.

11 Theory:
11.1 Convection:
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the flow of fluid that transfers heat from one location
to another. Convective heat transfer is generally addressed as a separate type of heat transfer,
however it involves the combined processes of conduction (heat diffusion) and advection (heat
transfer by bulk fluid movement). Convection is the most common mode of heat transmission in
liquids and gases.
Convection currents move heat from one location to another by utilizing the mass motion of a fluid
such as water, air, or molten rock. Convection differs from conduction, which is the transfer of
heat between two substances in direct contact. Convection currents are formed when a heated fluid
expands and becomes less dense. The less-dense heated fluid rises away from the heat source

11.2 Advection:
Advection is the bulk motion of a fluid that transports a substance or quantity. That substance's
qualities are carried with it. The majority of the advected substance is often a fluid. The qualities
transported by the advected substance are preserved properties like energy. Advection is
demonstrated by the transmission of contaminants or silt in a river by bulk water flow downstream.
11.3 Types of Convection:
➢ Free Convection
➢ Forced Convection
11.3.1 Free Convection:
When buoyancy forces induced by density fluctuations in the fluid cause fluid motion, this is
referred to as free or natural convection. When a fluid comes into touch with a heated surface in
the absence of an internal source, its molecules separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less
dense. As a result, the fluid is displaced, while the cooler fluid becomes denser and sinks. As a
result, the hotter volume transfers heat to the cooler portion of the fluid. Examples include the
upward flow of air caused by a fire or hot object and the circulation of water in a pot heated from
below.

Figure 3 Natural Convection

14
11.3.2 Forced Convection:
The word forced convection refers to a convection current that is created intentionally by moving
a fluid over the surface with fans, churning, or pumps. Natural and forced convection occur
concurrently in many real-world situations, including as heat losses at solar central receivers or
cooling of photovoltaic panels (mixed convection).

Figure 3 Forced Convection

11.4 Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Newtons law of cooling states that,
The rate of heat loss of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the
body and its surroundings, provided that the temperature difference is modest and the nature of the
radiating surface remains constant."

⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨( 𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻𝒂 ) … … … (1)
Where:
ℎ𝑐 =Convection heat transfer coefficient
𝐴 =Area for convection
𝑇𝑤 =Surface temperature
𝑇𝑎 =Ambient temperature

Eq. 1 is known as Newton’s law of cooling.

11.5 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

The convective heat transfer coefficient, h, can be defined as:
“The rate of heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit
temperature difference.” It,s unit is W/(m2K)

𝒒
𝒉𝒄 =
𝑨∆𝑻
11.6 Heat Transfer Through Finned Surface
When the temperatures Ts and T are constant due to design considerations, there are two
approaches to enhance the rate of heat transfer: raise the convection heat transfer coefficient h or
increase the surface area As. Increasing h may necessitate the installation of a pump or fan, or the
replacement of an existing one with a larger one, however this method may or may not be feasible.

15
Furthermore, it may be insufficient. The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to
the surface extended surfaces called fins made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum.
Finned surfaces are commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer, and they often increase
the rate of heat transfer from a surface several fold.

v
Figure 4 General representation of a finned surface

The fin spacing, S, is a critical element in heat sink design. Closely packed fins provide more
surface area for heat transfer but have a lower heat transfer coefficient (due to extra resistance of
additional fins). The heat transfer coefficient of a heat sink with widely separated fins is higher,
but the surface area is smaller. Thus, an optimum spacing exists that maximizes the natural
convection from the heat sink.

12 Procedure:
➢ Make sure the main switch is turned off at the start.
➢ Finned plat is taken into account in this experiment. First, we'll slide the finned plate into the
duct.
➢ The power supply has been turned on. Because we are first witnessing a free convection
instance, the fan is switched off.
➢ Power is applied, followed by a five-minute delay to ensure that the finned plate is appropriately
heated and that a steady state condition is achieved.
➢ Now, using the thermocouple, measure the temperature by properly putting the wire inside the
hole.
➢ The same thing happens with various power inputs.
➢ The forced convection fan is now turned on, and the fan speed is set to 0.5 m/s, 1 m/s, and 1.3
m/s, and we will measure the surface temperature at various power inputs.
➢ Make a list of the values.

16
13 Observations and Calculation:
13.1 Calculation of Area
Area of Fin = Af
Area of Base Plate = Abp
Area of 1 fin = 100 × 65 = 6500 𝑚𝑚2
Area of 18 fins = 117000 𝑚𝑚2
There are also 12 circular holes in fin, so
𝐴𝑓 = 117000 − 12(𝜋(5)2 ) = 116058 𝑚𝑚2
Now,
(5 + 2)
Area of 1 edge = × 65 = 227.5 𝑚𝑚2
2
Area of 18 edge = 𝐴𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 18(227.5) = 4095 𝑚𝑚2
For the base plate just subtract the fins base area,
𝐴𝑏𝑝 = (110 − 45) × (100) = 6500 𝑚𝑚2
And,
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐴𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 + 𝐴𝑏𝑝
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 116058 + 4095 + 6500 = 126653 𝑚𝑚2
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝟐
13.2 Collected Data
𝑇∞ = 30℃
𝑙 = 110 𝑚𝑚
𝑤 = 100 𝑚𝑚

Table 2. Data collected from the apparatus.

Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer

coeff
32 27 5 90.90909091
30 27 3 151.5151515
29 27 2 227.2727273
29 27 2 227.2727273
0.011

Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer

coeff
33 27 6 151.5151515
31 27 4 227.2727273
29 27 2 454.5454545
29 27 2 454.5454545
0.011

17
 Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer
coeff
34 27 7 194.8051948
32 27 5 272.7272727
31 27 4 340.9090909
29 27 2 681.8181818
0.011

Temperature Ambient del T Convective heat transfer

coeff
36 27 9 202.020202
33 27 6 303.030303
31 27 4 454.5454545
30 27 3 606.0606061
0.011

Power Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient Base

Supplied Plate
5 64.9351 151.5152 227.2727
10 101.0101 181.8182 303.0303
15 113.6364 170.4545 272.7273
Air Speed 0 0.5 1
Fins

Power Supplied
5 90.90909091 151.515 227.273 227.2727
10 151.5151515 227.273 454.545 454.5455
15 194.8051948 272.727 340.909 681.8182
20 202.020202 303.03 454.545 606.0606
Air Speed 0 0.5 1 1.3
Pins

Power Supplied
5 151.5151515 227.273 454.545 454.5455
10 227.2727273 303.03 454.545 909.0909
15 272.7272727 454.545 681.818 1363.636
20 227.2727273 303.03 454.545 909.0909
Air Speed 0 0.5 1 1.3

13.2.1 Graph:
MATLAB is used for graphs.

18
19
14 Results:
We determined the value of the convective heat transfer coefficient for a finned plate at various
velocities in this experiment. We measured the temperature of the plate and the ambient
temperature before calculating the convective heat transfer coefficient based on the temperature
difference and plate cross-sectional area. Density difference is a key cause of free convection.
The component of the fluid in contact with the heat source has a relatively high temperature, and
because of this, its density increases, causing it to rise up while denser fluid settles down,
resulting in free convection.
The rate of heat transmission is directly proportional to temperature difference and convective heat
transfer coefficient at constant cross-sectional area, according to Newton's Law of cooling. The
formula

20
The table and Figure show that when temperature rises, the value of the convective heat transfer
coefficient falls. Temperature decreases as the value of convective heat transfer coefficients
increases.
Because of the inverse relationship between hconv, area, and temperature difference. As a result,
the convective heat transfer coefficient drops. The surface area of the finned plate has increased.
Now that a big area must be covered in order to transfer heat, heat transfer will be slow.
The coefficient of convective heat transmission is related to the amount of heat given and the
temperature differential. We can conclude that the direct linear trend is being followed with little
deviation. This divergence could be caused by:
Faulty Equipment
We are not giving because of the unstable conditions.

21
 Lab Report: 8
To perform energy Balance and calculate the overall
efficiency of the concentric tube heat exchanger operate
under parallel flow condition
15 Objectives
➢ Understand the operation and concept of a concentric tube heat exchanger, as well as the heat
transfer mechanism.
➢ To do an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat exchanger
in parallel flow conditions.

16 Introduction
The major goal of this experiment is to show the link between power input and surface
temperature in forced and free convection. When there is a temperature difference between a
solid and a fluid, heat energy is transferred between the two. This is referred to as "convection
heat transfer." When there is substantial fluid motion surrounding the solid, convection heat
transfer cannot be disregarded. The flow in free convection is caused by differences in fluid
densities that occur as a result of temperature changes.
The major goal of this experiment is to show the link between power input and surface temperature
in forced and free convection. Heat energy is transferred between a solid and a fluid when

17 Theory
17.1 Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is an adiabatic steady flow device in which two flowing fluids exchange or
transfer heat due to a temperature difference without losing or gaining heat from the surrounding
environment. Heat exchangers include condenser, economizer, superheater, cooling tower, and air
preheater.
17.2 Working Principle
Heat exchangers are devices that allow heat to be transferred from one medium to another. These
media can be either a gas, a liquid, or a combination of the two. To prevent mixing, the media
may be separated by a solid wall or may be in direct contact. A heat exchanger operates on the
simple premise of the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat flows from one
body to another based on their temperature differences. Heat will naturally transfer from a heated
body to a cooler one. The cooling medium, whether water, steam, ethanol, or polypropylene
glycol, is transferred via the tubes within the shell construction of a shell and tube heat
exchanger. The medium should be cooled around these tubes within the shell construction, on the
other hand.
17.3 Classification of Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.

22
17.3.1 Classification on the basis of Flow:
1. Parallel flow heat exchanger
2. Counter flow heat exchanger
3. Cross flow heat exchanger
17.3.2 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger:
In parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at the same end, move in the same
direction and leave at the same end.

17.3.3 Counter Flow Heat Exchanger:

In counter flow, the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at opposite ends, flow in opposite directions
and leave at opposite ends.

Cross Flow Heat Exchanger:

In this type of heat exchanger, both the fluids flow in perpendicular direction with respect to each
other.
Example: - Automobile radiator

23
17.3.4 Classification on the basis of Construction:
17.3.5 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:
Heat exchangers are devices that allow heat to be transferred from one medium to another. These
media can be either a gas, a liquid, or a combination of the two. To prevent mixing, the media
may be separated by a solid wall or may be in direct contact. A heat exchanger operates on the
simple premise of the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat flows from one
body to another based on their temperature differences. Heat will naturally transfer from a heated
body to a cooler one. The cooling medium, whether water, steam, ethanol, or polypropylene
glycol, is transferred via the tubes within the shell construction of a shell and tube heat
exchanger. The medium should be cooled around these tubes within the shell construction, on the
other hand. The

17.3.6 Plate Type Heat Exchanger:

Heat exchangers are devices that allow heat to be transferred from one medium to another. These
media can be either a gas, a liquid, or a combination of the two. To prevent mixing, the media may
be separated by a solid wall or may be in direct contact. A heat exchanger operates on the simple
premise of the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat flows from one body to
another based on their temperature differences. Heat will naturally transfer from a heated body to
a cooler one. The cooling medium, whether water, steam, ethanol, or polypropylene glycol, is
transferred via the tubes within the shell construction of a shell and tube heat exchanger. The
medium should be cooled around these tubes within the shell construction, on the other hand. The

24
Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger
Effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ration between actual heat transfer rate between
hot and cold fluids and the maximum possible heat transfer rate between them. It is denoted by 𝜀.
𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝜺=
𝑸𝒎𝒂𝒙

18 Apparatus
• Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Apparatus

The concentric tube heat exchanger experiment setup is made up of two coaxial tubes, one inside
the other, each conveying fluids of varying temperatures. Heat will transfer from the hotter to the
colder stream due to the temperature differential. The centre tube is filled with hot water, while
the annular region is filled with chilly water. To examine the intermediate stream temperature
conditions and temperature distribution via the heat exchanger, the heat exchanger has been

25
separated into three equal portions. Thermocouples measure the temperature of the hot and cold
streams. A pump delivers hot water from an electrical heater to the top end of the heat exchanger's
central tube. As the water travels through the heat exchanger, it cools.

19 Procedure
➢ Turn on the device and wait for the tank temperature to stabilise for a few minutes.
➢ Next, read the device's manual and configure it for parallel flow by adjusting the taps that came
with it.
➢ Set the flow rate of the water.
➢ To begin, switch on both the hot and cold water faucets. Wait 10 to 15 minutes for the water
flow to stabilise.
➢ Finally, take readings from the thermometer at various specified points.
➢ Measure temperatures, perform energy balancing, and compute total efficiency at various flow
rates for hot and cold water.

20 Observations
q(W T1(℃) T2(℃) T3(℃) T4(℃) T1-T T2-T T3-T T4-T
)
(Free (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)
Conv.)
(0 ms-1) (.5m/s) (1 ms- (1.3 ms-1) (0 ms- (0.5 ms-1) (1 ms- (1.3 ms-1)
1) 1) 1)

30 39 36 33 31 11 8 5 3
35 48 47 44 43 20 19 16 15
40 55 53 50 49 27 25 22 21
45 62 61 57 56 34 33 29 28

26
20.1 Graphs

27
Calculations
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1 L/min

Efficiency is given by the formula:

𝑸𝒂̇
𝜼𝑻𝑯 =
𝑸̇𝒆
𝑸𝒂̇ = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 ) = 𝝆𝑽̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 )
𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) = 𝝆𝑽̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )

28
𝑄𝑎̇ = (994.73)(1.6667 × 10−5 )(4.178)(38 − 26) = 0.8312𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑒̇ = (988.05)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.181)(56 − 48) = 0.8262𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 0.8312
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 1.00 = 100%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.8262
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1.5 L/min

𝑄𝑎̇ = (995.67)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.178)(35 − 25) = 1.04𝐾𝐽/𝑠

𝑄𝑒̇ = (989.17)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.18)(53 − 45) = 0.8269𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 1.04
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 1.26 = 126%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.8269
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 2 L/min

𝑄𝑎̇ = (995.67)(3.333 × 10−5 )(4.178)(34 − 25) = 1.2478𝐾𝐽/𝑠

𝑄𝑒̇ = (988.05)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.181)(56 − 48) = 0.8262𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 1.2478
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 1.51 = 151%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.8262

21 Comments
The graphs show that the temperature profile at different flow rates under parallel flow
conditions corresponds to the conventional temperature profile. The temperature of hot water
decreases over time, while the temperature of cold-water increases. This happens because hot
and cold-water flow in the same direction at the same time in parallel flow, and the heat from the
hot water is transferred to the cold water as soon as both faucets are opened at the same time.
The flow rate of hot fluid is constant (1.5 L/min) in this experiment, while the flow rate of cold
fluid changes. When the flow rate of cold fluid is at its highest (2 L/min), the efficiency of the
heat exchanger is also at its highest when compared to other values.

29
 Lab Report :9
To demonstrate the working principal of the concentric
tube heat exchanger operating under counter flow
condition and determine the performance of flow
22 Objectives
➢ Understand the operation and concept of a concentric tube heat exchanger, as well as the heat
transfer mechanism.
➢ To do an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat exchanger
in counter flow conditions.

23 Introduction
The major goal of this experiment is to show the link between power input and surface
temperature in forced and free convection. When there is a temperature difference between a
solid and a fluid, heat energy is transferred between the two. This is referred to as "convection
heat transfer." When there is substantial fluid motion surrounding the solid, convection heat
transfer cannot be disregarded. The flow in free convection is caused by differences in fluid
densities that occur as a result of temperature changes.
The major goal of this experiment is to show the link between power input and surface temperature
in forced and free convection. Heat energy is transferred between a solid and a fluid when

24 Theory
24.1 Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchanger is an adiabatic steady flow device in which two flowing fluids exchange or transfer
heat between themselves due to a temperature difference without losing or gaining any heat from
the ambient atmosphere. Condenser, economizer, superheater, cooling tower, air preheater are
different examples of heat exchangers.
24.2 Working Principle
Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one medium to another. These media may be a gas,
liquid, or a combination of both. The media may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or
may be in direct contact. A heat exchanger works on the simple principle of second law of
thermodynamics; the heat flow from a body to another in respect of their temperature difference.
The heat under natural state will move from a hot body to a cooler one. In shell and tube type heat
exchanger the cooling medium; whether water, steam, ethanol or polypropylene glycol is passed
through the tubes within the shell structure. On other hand the medium to be cooled around these
tubes within shell structure. The primary mode of heat transfer are conduction and convection.
• Convective heat transfer from fluid to the inner wall of the tube.
• Conductive heat transfer through the tube wall.

30
 • Convective heat transfer from the outer tube wall to the outside fluid.
Classification of Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are typically classified according to flow arrangement and type of construction.

Classification on the basis of Flow:

4. Parallel flow heat exchanger
5. Counter flow heat exchanger
6. Cross flow heat exchanger
Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger:
In parallel flow, both the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at the same end, move in the same
direction and leave at the same end.

Counter Flow Heat Exchanger:

In counter flow, the hot and cold fluids enter the H.E at opposite ends, flow in opposite directions
and leave at opposite ends.

Cross Flow Heat Exchanger:

In this type of heat exchanger, both the fluids flow in perpendicular direction with respect to each
other.
Example: - Automobile radiator

31
24.3 Classification on the basis of Construction:
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers consist of a large number of small tubes which are located
within a cylindrical shell. The tubes are positioned into the cylinder using a tube bundle or "tube
stack" which can either have fixed tube plates (permanently fixed to the body) or, in the case of
Thermax Heat Exchangers a floating tube stack which allows the tube bundle to expand and
contract with varying heat conditions as well as allowing the tube bundle to be easily removed
for servicing and maintenance.

Plate Type Heat Exchanger:

Plate Heat Exchangers operate in very much the same way as a shell and tube heat exchanger,
using a series of stacked plates rather than tubes. Plate heat exchangers are usually brazed or
gasketed depending on the application and fluids being used. Their compact stainless-steel
construction makes them an ideal choice for use with refrigerants or in food and beverage
processing.

32
Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger
Effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ration between actual heat transfer rate between
hot and cold fluids and the maximum possible heat transfer rate between them. It is denoted by 𝜀.
𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝜺=
𝑸𝒎𝒂𝒙
Apparatus
• Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger Apparatus

The concentric tube heat exchanger experiment setup consists of two coaxial tubes, one inside the
other, each conveying fluids of varying temperatures. Heat will transfer from the hotter stream to
the cooler one due to the temperature differential. Hot water runs through the centre tube, while
cooling water flows through the annular gap. The heat exchanger has been separated into three
equal parts to allow evaluation of the intermediate stream temperature conditions and temperature
dispersion through the heat exchanger. Thermocouples detect the hot and cold temperatures of the
stream.

33
 A pump delivers hot water from an electrical heater to the top end of the heat exchanger's central
tube. The water cools as it runs through the heat exchanger and is measured by a flow metre as it
exits.

25 Procedure
• Turn on the device and wait for the tank temperature to stabilise for a few minutes.
• Next, read the device's manual and configure it for counter flow by changing the taps that came
with it.
• Set the flow rate of the water.
• To begin, switch on both the hot and cold water faucets. Wait 10 to 15 minutes for the water
flow to stabilise.
• Finally, take readings from the thermometer at various specified points.
• Measure temperatures, perform energy balancing, and compute total efficiency at various flow
rates for cold water.

26 Observations
Sr. Flow rate of Hot Flow rate of Cold
No. water water T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(m3/s) (m3/s) ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃

1 2.5×10-5 1.6667×10-5 47 43 26 35 45 30
2 2.5×10-5 2.5×10-5 50 44 27 35 45 30
3 2.5×10-5 3.333 10-5 51 44 28 34.5 45 30
4 2.5×10-5 5.0 10-5 53 44 29 34.5 46 31

Mean Density Specific Mean Temperature (Cold Density Specific

Temperature Heat Fluid) Heat
(Hot Fluid)
T5(℃) kg/m 3
KJ/kg. K T6(℃) kg/m 3
KJ/kg. K

45 990.22 4.18 30 995.67 4.178

45 990.22 4.18 30 995.67 4.178
45 990.22 4.18 30 995.67 4.178
46 989.8 4.18 31 995.41 4.178

Graphs
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid=1 L/min

34
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid=1.5 L/min

When Flow rate of Hot Fluid =1.5 L/min & Cold Fluid =2 L/min

35
When Flow Rate of Hot Fluid = 1.5 L/min and Cold Fluid =2.5 L/min

27 Calculations
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1 L/min

Efficiency is given by the formula:

36
 𝑸𝒂̇
𝜼𝑻𝑯 =
𝑸̇𝒆
𝑸𝒂̇ = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 ) = 𝝆𝑽̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 )
𝑸̇𝒆 = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 ∆𝑻 = 𝒎̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) = 𝝆𝑽̇𝒄𝒑 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )

𝑄𝑎̇ = (997.05)(1.6667 × 10−5 )(4.18)(28 − 24) = 0.2779𝐾𝐽/𝑠

𝑄𝑒̇ = (993.72)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.178)(40 − 37) = 0.3114𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 0.2779
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 0.8924 = 89.24%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.3114
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 1.5 L/min

𝑄𝑎̇ = (997.05)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.18)(29 − 24) = 0.5210𝐾𝐽/𝑠

𝑄𝑒̇ = (992.25)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.179)(45 − 39) = 0.6220𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 0.5210
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 0.8376 = 83.76%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.6220
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 2 L/min

𝑄𝑎̇ = (996.79)(3.333 × 10−5 )(4.179)(30 − 26) = 0.5554𝐾𝐽/𝑠

𝑄𝑒̇ = (991.86)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.179)(47 − 40) = 0.7254𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 0.5554
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 0.7656 = 76.56%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.7254
Overall Efficiency when Hot water Flow rate is 1.5 L/min and Cold Water is 2.5 L/min

𝑄𝑎̇ = (996.25)(4.1667 × 10−5 )(4.179)(31 − 27) = 0.6939𝐾𝐽/𝑠

𝑄𝑒̇ = (991.07)(2.5 × 10−5 )(4.179)(49 − 40) = 0.9319𝐾𝐽/𝑠
𝑄𝑎̇ 0.6939
𝜂𝑇𝐻 = = = 0.7446 = 74.46%
𝑄𝑒̇ 0.9319

28 Comments
• The graphs show that the temperature profile at varied flow rates under counterflow
conditions corresponds to the standard temperature profile. The temperature of hot water
decreases over time, while the temperature of cold water increases. When we turn on the
hot water faucet, it flows all the way to the cold-water intake, where we turn it on and the
heat transfer from hot to cold water takes place. The graph essentially shows that hot
water loses some heat while travelling through the pipes to the ultimate temperature

37
 point, and subsequently cold water, when provided, increases in temperature, as shown in
the graph.
• Counter low heat exchangers are generally more efficient than parallel flow heat
exchangers.

38
 Lab report 10
Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate and Film
Boiling.
29 Objectives
➢ To investigate the difference between different types of boiling i.e. convective, nucleate
and film boiling.
➢ To visually observe convective, nucleate and film boiling.

30 Apparatus
➢ Boiling Heat Transfer Unit

Figure 3. apparatus

31 Introduction:
In this experiment, we'll see what occurs when heat is transferred to a fluid that's going through a
phase shift. Thermodynamics predicts that the phase transition will result in a heat exchange of
latent heat. Second, there will be a density differential between the two phases, and third, the
liquid vapor interfaces will have surface tension. During a phase transition, these variables will
have a major impact on heat transfer rates and coefficients. Boiling can be categorized as
convective, nucleate and film boiling. Pool boiling curve will also be drawn to show different

39
types of boing We will visualize the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling with
the help of boiling heat transfer unit

32 Theory:
32.1 Boiling:
Boiling is a complex yet fascinating heat transfer phenomenon that occurs when a liquid
transforms into vapor due to the absorption of heat. This process is crucial in various
applications, from heating water for a cup of tea to industrial processes.

Figure 2 Boiling

32.2 Boiling Point:

The boiling point is the temperature at which boiling occurs for a specific liquid. For example,
for water, the boiling point is 100ºC at a pressure of 1 atm. The boiling point of a liquid depends
on temperature, atmospheric pressure, and the vapor pressure of the liquid. When the
atmospheric pressure is equal to the vapor pressure of the liquid, boiling will begin.

32.3 Types of Boiling:

• Natural Convection Boiling
• Nucleate Boiling
• Film Boiling

32.4 Natural Convection Boiling:

Boiling takes place within a thin layer of liquid adjacent to the heated surface. The liquid in close
proximity to the wall undergoes superheating, exceeding its temperature beyond the saturation
temperature at the existing pressure. This superheated liquid ascends to the liquid-vapor
interface, where it undergoes evaporation. The predominant influence on fluid motion stems

40
from free convection processes. As the temperature excess intensifies, the heat transfer rate
experiences a gradual and proportional increase.

32.5 Nucleate Boiling:

When a liquid is heated above its saturation point, vapor bubbles develop at specific suitable
areas termed nucleation or active sites, which might include imperfections in the wall surface, air
bubbles, and dust particles. Pressure, temperature, and surface tension at the liquid-vapor contact
impact the size of the bubbles. In nucleate boiling, steam bubbles form at the heat transfer
surface and then break away and are carried into the mainstream of the fluid. Such movement
enhances heat transfer because the heat generated at the surface is carried directly into the fluid
stream.
Stages of Nucleate Boiling
• On the surface of the water, bubbles develop and burst.
• Bubbles develop on the heated surface, but after detaching from the surface, they condense in
the liquid.
• With increasing frequency and intensity, bubbles develop and break away from the heated
surface. However, the liquid is quite heated, and the bubbles do not condense in it. They
ascend to the surface of the liquid and are immediately released into the vapor, aiding fast
evaporation.

Figure 3 .Nucleate Boiling

32.6 Film Boiling:

The rapid expansion of bubbles occurs, forming a layer that covers the heating surface and
inhibits the influx of fresh liquid to replace them. Over time, these bubbles coalesce, generating a
vapor coating that completely envelops the surface. Conditions within the temperature range of
50 to 150°C exhibit a transition phase between nucleate and film boiling, often termed as
transition boiling, unstable film boiling, or partial film boiling. As temperature differences reach
significant levels, radiant heat flux assumes a dominant role, causing the heat flux curve to

41
ascend with escalating temperature excess. This marks the point where film boiling attains a
steady-state condition.

Figure 4.Film Boiling

Critical Heat Flux:
The boiling crisis, also known as the burnout point on the boiling curve, is the point of greatest
heat flow at which the transition from nucleate to film boiling occurs. The maximal heat flow is
referred to as the critical heat flux, and the temperature excess is referred to as the critical
temperature differential.

33 Procedure:
Initially, we activated the power source, applying a minimal power level using the control knob.
After waiting for a few minutes, we proceeded to escalate the power significantly. As the power
increased, we closely observed the physical response of the fluid, specifically looking for
indications of nucleate, convective, and film boiling. Subsequently, we utilized the water flow
meter to verify the continuous flow of water through the coil. This sequential approach allowed
us to systematically control the power input, observe the boiling phenomena, and ensure the
proper functioning of the water flow within the experimental setup.

34 Comments:
By examining the physical responses, we can discern distinct regions on the boiling curve.
Initially, in the absence of bubble formation, convection currents rise within the liquid, indicating
convection boiling. As bubbles begin to emerge around the heating surface and move towards
the free surface, without completely covering it, we identify this stage as nucleate boiling. The
transition to film boiling is characterized by the formation of a complete layer of vapors around
the heating surface, leading to a decrease in heat flux. The heat flux reaches its maximum at the
conclusion of the nucleate boiling region and decreases to a minimum in the film boiling region.
This observational approach enables the identification and understanding of different boiling
regimes based on the physical manifestations during the heat transfer process.

42
43
 Lab Report :11
To determine the heat flux and surface heat transfer
coefficient up to and beyond critical condition at constant
pressure
35 Objective
• To determine the heat flux and heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure.

36 Introduction
In this experiment, we'll see what occurs when heat is transferred to a fluid that's going through a
phase shift. Thermodynamics predicts that the phase transition will result in a heat exchange of
latent heat. Second, there will be a density differential between the two phases, and third, the
liquid vapor interfaces will have surface tension. During a phase transition, these variables will
have a major impact on heat transfer rates and coefficients. Boiling can be categorized as
convective, nucleate and film boiling. Pool boiling curve will also be drawn to show different
types of boing We will visualize the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling with
the help of boiling heat transfer unit. Lastly, heat flux and heat transfer coefficient will be
determined at constant pressure.

37 Theory
37.1 Boiling
When a liquid is heated to its boiling point, it turns into a vapour, which is known as boiling.
When the vapour pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric pressure, the liquid transitions from
a liquid to a gaseous phase. Boiling is a physical transformation. Bubbles arise and boiling
happens when atoms or molecules of a liquid spread out enough to transition from a liquid phase
to a gaseous phase.

Figure 4.Boiling Phenomenon

44
37.2 Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which it begins to boil. Water, for example, has
a boiling point of 100oC at a pressure of 1 atm. The boiling point of a liquid is affected by
temperature, air pressure, and the liquid's vapour pressure. Boiling will begin when the air
pressure equals the vapour pressure of the liquid.
37.3 Types of boiling
• Natural Convection Boiling
• Nucleate Boiling
• Film Boiling
37.3.1 Natural Convection Boiling
The boiling takes place in a thin layer of liquid near the heated surface. The liquid in close
contact to the wall superheats, which means its temperature exceeds the saturation temperature at
the given pressure. Superheated liquid rises to the interface between liquid and vapour, where it
evaporates. Free convection processes govern the majority of fluid motion. The heat transfer rate
increases progressively as the temperature excess increases.

Figure 5.Natural Convection Boiling

37.3.2 Nucleate Boiling

When a liquid is heated above its saturation point, vapour bubbles develop at specific suitable
areas termed nucleation or active sites, which might include imperfections in the wall surface, air
bubbles, and dust particles. Pressure, temperature, and surface tension at the liquid-vapor contact
impact the size of the bubbles. In nucleate boiling, steam bubbles form at the heat transfer
surface and then break away and are carried into the mainstream of the fluid. Such movement
enhances heat transfer because the heat generated at the surface is carried directly into the fluid
stream.
37.4 Stages of Nucleate Boiling
• On the surface of the water, bubbles develop and burst.
• Bubbles develop on the heated surface, but after detaching from the surface, they condense in
the liquid.

45
• With increasing frequency and intensity, bubbles develop and break away from the heated
surface. However, the liquid is quite heated, and the bubbles do not condense in it. They ascend
to the surface of the liquid and are immediately released into the vapor space, aiding fast
evaporation.

Figure 6.Nucleate Boiling

37.5 Film Boiling

The bubbles grow quickly, blanketing the heating surface and preventing the inflow of new
liquid from taking their place. The bubbles eventually combine and produce a vapour coating
that fully covers the surface. The vapour film's insulating effect (poor thermal conductivity)
overshadows the positive impact of liquid agitation, and as a result, the heat flow decreases as
the temperature surplus increases.
Conditions vary between nucleate and film boiling in the temperature range 50 to 150°C, and
this phase is known as transition boiling, unstable film boiling, or partial film boiling. When
temperature differences get great enough, radiant heat flux becomes a dominating factor, and the
heat flux curve starts to move upward with increasing temperature excess. This is where the film
boils in a steady state.

Figure 7.Film Boiling

37.6 Critical Heat Flux

The boiling crisis, also known as the burnout point on the boiling curve, is the point of greatest
heat flow at which the transition from nucleate to film boiling occurs. The maximal heat flow is
referred to as the critical heat flux, and the temperature excess is referred to as the critical
temperature differential.

46
37.7 Pool Boiling Curve

Figure 8.Pool Boiling Curve

38 Apparatus
• Boiling Heat Transfer Unit

Figure
9.Boiling
Heat
Transfer
Unit

39 Procedure
The following steps can be following for performing this experiment

47
• We began by setting the heat input value and adjusting the condensed flow rate until the desired
condensed pressure was obtained.
• The vapour pressure, metal and liquid temperatures were then recorded.
• To get the needed pressure, we raised the heat input and modified the flow rate once more.
• Repeat the process from nucleate to film boiling.
• The heat input must be lowered once the film boiling is established.
• The temperature will be taken, and the T excess will be computed. By entering the
corresponding values, heat flux and heat transfer coefficient will be calculated at constant
pressure.

40 Observations & Calculations

Pressure 20
Heat flow LT MT Flux del T h
input rate
146 2 34 53 76842.11 19 4044.321
205 10.5 33 55 107894.7 22 4904.306
266 7 32 56 140000 24 5833.333
282 7.5 34 58 148421.1 24 6184.211
Area 0.0019

Pressure 40
Heat flow LT MT Flux del T h
input rate
115 1 39 56 60526.32 17 3560.372
155 1 38 57 81578.95 19 4293.629
200 4 40 61.5 105263.2 21.5 4895.961
255 2 38 61 134210.5 23 5835.24

7000

6500

6000

5500

5000 Pressure 20
Pressure 40
4500

4000

3500

3000
15 20 25 30

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Area of heating element = 0.0019 m2
Heat flux is given by the formula:
𝑄
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 = 𝑄′′̇ =
𝐴
Heat transfer coefficient is given by the formula:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ℎ =
∆𝑇

41 Graphs

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42 Comments
• The graph shows the relationship between heat flow and Texcess, which is the
temperature differential (surface temperature and liquid temperature).
• It is evident from both plots that as the temperature rises, so does the heat flux.
• According to Newton's law of cooling, Q=hA,T.,Q-A.=Heat Flux=A,T.=A,T-excess.
• 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝛼 ,𝑇-𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠.
• The formula clearly shows that as the temperature differential increases, so does the heat
flux, as shown in these two graphs.
• The heat transfer coefficient is affected by heat flux and temperature difference.
•
• ℎ=,𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥-∆𝑇.
• Heat transfer coefficient is affected by heat flux as well as temperature difference, which
is Texcess. The table shows that the heat transfer coefficient falls for the first four
numbers because temperature is the dominating component in this situation and it is
inversely related to heat transfer.

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 Lab report: 12
Effect of distance on the heat transfer through radiation
43 Objective
Effect of distance on the heat transfer through radiation.

44 Introduction
Heat transfer by radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer that occurs between objects with
different temperatures. The rate of radiation depends on several factors, such as the surface area,
emissivity, wavelength, and distance between the objects. In this experiment, we aimed to
explore how these factors affect the heat transfer by radiation between a metal rod and a black
body radiator at different distances. We used Planck’s law to calculate the intensity of radiation
emitted by each object based on their temperature and surface area. We measured the
temperature difference between them using a thermometer after placing them at various
distances. We hypothesized that there would be an inverse square law relationship between
distance and temperature difference, meaning that as distance increased, temperature difference
decreased.

45 Theory

Heat transfer by radiation is one of the modes of heat transfer that occurs between objects with
different temperatures. The rate of radiation depends on several factors, such as the surface area,
emissivity, wavelength, and distance between the objects.

Radiation is a form of electromagnetic wave that carries energy from a source to a

receiver. The energy of a photon (a particle of light) is inversely proportional to its wavelength,
meaning that shorter wavelengths have higher energies.

blackbody is an ideal object that absorbs and emits all radiation at a given temperature and
wavelength. The intensity (or power) of radiation emitted by a blackbody is proportional to its
absolute temperature and inversely proportional to its surface area.

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inverse square law states that the intensity of radiation emitted by an object is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the object. This means that as the distance
increases, the intensity decreases exponentially.

46 Procedure:
• Prepare a metal rod and a black body radiator as the objects to study. Measure their length,
surface area, and emissivity.
• Fill the black body radiator with boiling water and place it on a stand. Connect a thermometer to
measure its temperature.
• Place the metal rod at a fixed distance from the black body radiator. Connect another
thermometer to measure its temperature.
• Wait for some time until the temperatures of both objects reach a steady state. Record the
temperature difference between them.
• Repeat the previous step for different distances between the objects. Use a ruler to measure
the distance accurately.
• Plot a graph of temperature difference versus distance. Analyze the data using the inverse
square law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
• Calculate the intensity of radiation emitted by each object and the view factor between them.
Compare the experimental results with the theoretical predictions.

47 Observations and Calculation:

distance Value€x20
5 1850
10 1387
15 1102
20 791
25 680
30 555
35 489

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 distance Value(E)x20
5 1873
10 1406
15 1081
20 862
25 702
30 565

48
49 Conclusion and comments
The temperature difference between the metal rod and the black body radiator decreases as the
distance between them increases, following the inverse square law of radiation. This means that
the rate of heat transfer by radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
The experimental data can be fitted by the Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states that the power of
radiation emitted by an object is proportional to its fourth power of absolute temperature. The
value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant can be estimated by using the least squares method.
The experimental results are consistent with the theoretical predictions, but there may be some
sources of error or uncertainty, such as measurement errors, heat losses, emissivity variations,
etc. These factors should be considered and minimized in future experiments.

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