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SUBSTATION ELECTRICAL
PROTECTION & SWITCHGEAR

THEORY & WORKSHOP

PRESENTED BY
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Agenda

 THEORY  WORK SHOP

 ABOUT KUWAIT NETWORK
 NON DIRECTIONAL OC & EF
 BASIC ELECTRICAL-SWGR/TERMS
 DIRECTIONAL OC & EF
 PRINCIPLE OF OC & EF
 CABLE DIFFERENTIAL (SOLKOR-R/RF)
 PRINCIPLE OF DIRECTION OC &EF
 TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL
 CABLE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
 CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT ANALYZER)
 TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL&REF
 OMICRON CMC356
PROTECTION
 OMICRON CPC100
 BUS BAR PROTECTION
 DISTANCE PROTECTION

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Distance Protection

1. Distance relays – basics

2. Operating characteristics
3. Effect of parallel line
4. Power swing blocking
5. Communication scheme
6. Current reversal Logic
7. Switch on to fault
8. Weak end infeed
9. Supervision fuse failure
10. Auto reclosing systems
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Distance Protection

1-Distance Relay Basics

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Electrical faults in the power system

• Transmission lines 85%

• Busbar 12%
• Transformer/ Generator 3%

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Fault statistics
• Single phase to earth 80%
• Two phases to earth 10%
• Phase to phase faults 5%
• Three phase faults 5%

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Fault types
• Transient faults
– are common on transmission lines, approximately 80-85%
– lightnings are the most common reason
– can also be caused by birds, falling trees,Forest growth,
swinging lines, High velocity winds etc.
– will disappear after a short dead interval

• Persistent faults
– can be caused by a broken conductor fallen down
– can be a tree falling on a line
– must be located and repaired before normal service

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Fault types on double circuit lines

• Simultaneous and Interline faults L3 L1

– On parallel line applications a problem can
occur with simultaneous faults. L1 L2
– A full scheme relay is superior when the
L2 L3
protection is measuring two different fault
types at the same time.

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Fault resistance
L3 L1
• Multi-phase faults L1 L2
consist only of arc resistance
L2 L3
• Earth faults
consist of arc and tower
footing resistance

Warrington´s formula
L= length of arc in meters
I= the actual fault current in A Tower Footing resistance

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Fault types
• Mid-span faults
– the fault resistance is out of control
– can be caused by growing trees, bushfire or objects
touching a conductor
– this type of high resistive faults can not be detected by
impedance protection

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The principle of distance protection

ZK=Uk/ Ik Relay Set Z=10 Ohm
Relay Pickup Z=9.8 Ohm
Direction—Forward or
Reverse
Uk Uk=0
metallic fault

Zk B
A
Ik
Z<
Distance protection= Under Impedance + Directional
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The principle of distance protection

• Power lines have impedances of size 0,3- 0,4 ohm/ km and normal
angles of 80 - 85 degrees in a 50Hz systems.

A B
ZL=R+jX

Z< Z<

• The line impedance must be converted to secondary values with the

formula:
VTsec CTprim x
Zsec= x Zprim
VTprim CTsec

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Measuring loop for earth faults

• The distance protection relays are always set

based on the phase impedance to the fault
IL1
UL1

IN RN XN

The measured Impedance is a function of positive

and zero sequence impedance
Zero Sequence Compensation: The measuring loop at single phase to ground
fault consists of two impedance. Z1the positive sequence impedance in the
phase conductor and Zn the ground return impedance Zn is defined as
Zn=(Z0-Z1)/3
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Measuring loop for two- phase faults
The distance protection relays are always set based
on the phase impedance to the fault

Zs RL XL
IL1
UL1-L2 IL2

The measured impedance is equal to the positive

sequence impedance up to the fault location

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Measuring loop for three- phase faults
The distance protection relays are always set
based on the phase impedance to the fault
Zs RL XL
IL1
UL1 IL2
UL2 IL3
UL3

The measured impedance is equal to the positive

sequence impedance up to the fault location

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2- Operating Characteristic

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THE ZONE-1 CHARACTERISTIC

First Zone must cover the 100% of protection line

First Zone must Cover the Phase to earth fault

Fast Operation

Directional Discrimination

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THE ZONE-2 CHARACTERISTIC

It should cover 100% protection line + 20% shortest Line

It should allow to operate zone-1 of particular line with

delay

In Most Cases R-axis Reach Of Zone - II Same As Zone -I

Is Satisfactory. If Additional Resistances Are Expected
Which Zone - I Is Not Able To Cover Then Different Setting
For Zone - II Is Advantageous.

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THE ZONE-3 CHARACTERISTIC

It should cover 100% protection line + 100% Longest Line

wider zone coverage, it will longest time delay.

It will be back relay

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jX

RF Quadrilateral characteristic
X R
F

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The principle of distance protection

Z3 Z3
t3
t2 Z2 Z2
t1 Z1 Z1
l
A B C

f1 f2 f3

Z< Z< Z< Z<

t
Z3 t3
Z3 Z2 Z2
t2
Z1 Z1 t1

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3. Effect of parallel line

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Zero- sequence mutual coupling on parallel lines

~ ZOM ~
ZL

~ ~

ZA< over-reaching ZA< ZB< ZB< under-reaching

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Zero- sequence mutual coupling on parallel lines

• In double circuit lines and parallel lines the zero sequence coupling
will result in measuring errors, specially at ground faults.

• The mutual impedance will either cause an extension or reduction of

the set reach on the relay.

• Maximum overreaching will occur when the parallel line is out of

service and grounded at both ends.
• The overreaching caused by the grounded parallel line can be
avoided at the setting of the relay, by the KN factor.

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4- Power swing blocking

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Power Swing Blocking (PSB) function
 A power swing can be started by sudden load change due
to a fault somewhere in the network.

 Close to the centre of the power swing, low voltage and

thus low impedance will occur.

 A distance protection relay must then be blocked during

the power swing.

 This can be done by mesuring the transit time of the

impedance locus passing two dedicated impedance
zones.

 Normally the time used is 35-40 ms.

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POWER SWING BLOCKING FUCTION

When Power Swing Detection Unit Operates Any Impedance
Zone Can Be Selected To Be Blocked Or Not As Required.

Operation Of Power Swing Detection Unit Is Inhibited

When Zero Sequence Current Is Detected. This Feature Is
Included To Ensure Tripping Of High Resistance Earth Faults
Where Fault Resistance Can Decrease Slowely.

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Power Swing Blocking function
X

Power swing locus

PSB IN

PSB out
R

t

t = 40 ms

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5- Communication scheme

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Communication equipment
• Power line carrier (PLC) equipment is based on a capacitive
connection of signals with frequency in the range 50- 500 kHz on the
power line.
• Radio link is a good and reliable communication equipment, but is
rarely used due to the high cost.

• Optical fibers have the advantage to be insensitive to noise and can

transmit a huge amount of information.
A B

Z< Z<
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Communication equipment

A B

Z< Z<

Communication equipment
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Permissive communication schemes A B

Permissive Under Reach

Permissive Over Reach
– Communication signal carrier send (CS) is sent to remote Z< Z<
end when the fault is detected in forward direction. Tripping is
achieved when the communication signal carrier receive (CR)
is received and the local relay has detected a forward fault.
Communication equipment
– In a permissive under reaching scheme the communication
signal is sent from a zone that under reaches the remote end.
– In a permissive overreaching scheme the communication
signal is sent from a zone that overreaches the remote end.
Carrier send CS = Z< forward, under or overreach
Trip = ZM1 + ZM2 (t2 + CR) + ZM3 x t3

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Basic schemes (without communication)
Trip = Z1x t1+ Z2 x t2 + Z3 x t3 A B

Permissive communication schemes

Permissive Under Reach
Z< Z<
Trip = Z1x t1+ Z2 x t2 + Z3 x t3+ Z2 x CR
Z1 Forward Start-Carrier Sent (CS)
Communication equipment

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Permissive Over Reach
Trip = Z1x t1+ Z2 x t2 + Z3 x t3+ Z2 x CR A B

Z2 Forward Start-Carrier Sent (CS)

Z< Z<

Communication equipment

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Blocking communication schemes
– Communication signal (CS) is sent to remote end when the
fault is detected in the reverse direction. Tripping is achieved
when this blocking signal is not received within a time T0 (20-
40 ms) and the local relay has detected a fault in the forward
direction.

Z< Z<

Carrier send CS = Z< reverse zone

Trip = ZM1 + ZM2 (t2 + CR x T0) + ZM3 x t3

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6. Current reversal logic

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Permissive overreaching schemes
Current reversal logic can trip healthy line without C.R.L

Line-1 1 Fault occurs on line 1

Fault detection by protection A:1 B:1 and A:2

A:1 2 Relay B:1 trips CB and sends carrier to A:1

B:1
~ ~ Relay A:2 sees fault in forward direction and
sends carrier to B:2

A:2 B:2 3 Fault cleared at B:1, current direction changed

Line-2 on line 2
4 Carrier from A:2 and forward looking measuring
element in relay A:2 does not reset before relay
B:2 detects the fault in forward direction and
A:1 B:1 trips, also relay A:1 will trip when receiving carrier
~ ~ from B:1
C.R.L allows slowly resetting
A:2 B:2 communication equipment without risk
of tripping the healthy line.
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7- Switch on to fault

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Switch On To Fault (SOTF)

• When energizing a power line onto a forgotten earthing.
• No measuring voltage will be available and the directional
measuring can thus not operate correctly.
– A special SOTF function is thus provided. Different principles
can be used, from one phase current to unidirectional
impedance measuring.
SOTF condition can either be
taken from the manual closing
signal activating the (BC) input
or it can be detected internally by
U=0 V a logic.
Z<
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8- Weak end infeed

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Weak end infeed
Weak end infeed is a condition which can occur on a transmission
line, either when the circuit breaker is open, so there is no current
infeed from that line end, or when the current infeed is low due to
weak generation behind the protection.

CR CS (echo)
Z< Z<
t3 CS CR
t2
t1
CS = ZM2 TRIP = ZM1 + ZM2(CR + t2)
l
CS (echo)=CR x low voltage x no start forward or reverse
CS (Echo & Trip)=CR x low voltage x no start forward or reverse
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9- Supervision of fuse failure

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THIS FUCTION IS BASED ON CONDITION

3UO > 20 % OF Un /  3 AND 3IO < 20 % OF In

IT CAN BE SELECTED TO BLOCK PROTECTION AND GIVE ALARM

OR JUST TO GIVE ALARM.

FUSE FAIL SUPERVISION IS BLOCKED FOR 200ms FOLLOWING

LINE ENERGISATION IN ORDER NOT TO OPERATE FOR UNEQUAL
POLE CLOSING AND ALSO DURING AUTORECLOSING.

MCB CAN ALSO BE USED.

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10- Auto reclosing

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1.0 GENERAL

• The auto-reclosing of power lines has become a generally accepted

practice.

• Reports from different parts of the world show that in

certain networks in region subject to a high lightening intensity only
about 5% of the faults are permanent.

• Auto reclosing therefore provides significant advantages.

• Outage times will be short compared to where station personnel

have to re-energize the lines after a fault.

• In interconnected networks auto-reclosing helps in maintaining

system stability

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1.1 Recommendations for provisions of auto-reclosing

• Presently 1 phase high speed auto-re-closure (HSAR) at 400kV and

220kV level is widely practiced including on lines emanating from
Generating Stations and the same is recommended for adoption.

• If 3-phase auto-re-closure is adopted in future the application of the

same on lines emanating from generating stations should be studied
and decision taken on case to case basis.

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2.0 SETTING CRITERIA

2.1 Dead Time

• Auto- reclosing requires a dead time which exceeds the de-ionising

time

• Time required for the de-ionising of the fault path depends on:- arcing
time, fault duration, wind conditions, circuit voltage, capacitive
coupling to adjacent conductors, etc.

• Single phase dead time of 1.0 sec is recommended for both 400kV
and 220kV system.

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2.2 Reclaim Time

• The time during which a new start of the auto-reclosing equipment is

blocked.

• If reclosing shot has been carried out and the line is energized and a
new fault occurs before the reclaim time has elapsed, the auto-reclosing
equipment is blocked and a signal for definite tripping of the breaker is
obtained.

• After the reclaim time has elapsed, the auto-reclosing equipment

returns to the starting position and a new reclosing sequence can occur.

• The reclaim time must not be set to such a low value that the intended
operating cycle of the breaker is exceeded, when two faults incidents
occur close together.

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 • If the breaker is closed manually, the auto reclosing equipment is 49
blocked and cannot start again until the reclaim time has elapsed.

• For the breaker to be used for auto-reclosing, it is essential that it

has the operating mechanism and breaking capacity necessary for
it to be able to perform the auto-reclosing sequences required.

2.3 Circuit Breaker Requirement

• According to IEC Publication 56.2, a breaker must be capable of

withstanding the following operating cycle with full rated breaking
current:
O + 0.3 s + CO + 3 min + CO

• The recommended operating cycle at 400kV and 220kV is as per the

IEC standard.

• Reclaim time of 25 sec is recommended.

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