Chapter-10

COMPUTER NETWORK I
 Problem 1:
Suppose there are two computers which exchange data on
regular basis.

Without networking, the following steps are required to

exchange data between them.
 In sender PC, write data in an external device (such as
CD, DVD and USB)
 Move that external device to the receiver PC
 In receiver PC, read or copy the data from that external
device
If the data is exchanged 100 times a day, we have to follow
these steps 100 times a day. In such a situation, where the
data is often exchanged, this method is neither convenient
nor appropriate.
 Solution
 In this case, networking is a better solution. Once networking is done, we
can exchange any amount of data between connected devices at any time
without using any external device.
 Problem 2:
Four computers are used in a small office. Computers are not connected with
others. Each computer generates some print jobs daily.
To fulfill the print requirement of each computer, without networking, we have
to buy the four printers; one for each.
 Solution
 By connecting these computers through networking, we can reduce the
required number of printers up to one. Once networking is done, only one
printer will be sufficient to meet the print requirement of all computers.
 When we reduce the number of essential devices, the cost of the network is
also reduced. In the preceding example, without networking, we require four
printers, whereas with networking we only require one printer. Thus, through
the networking we can save the cost of three printers.
There are two types of device: -
 Shareable: - Devices which can be shared in the network such as hard disk,
printer, modem, scanner, CD, DVD, USB etc.
 Non-Shareable: - Devices which cannot be shared in the network such as CPU,
RAM, Motherboard, Monitor, etc.
 Although advance networking techniques, such as cloud computing, allow the
sharing of any resource including the CPU and the RAM.
 Just like data and resource, through the networking we can also share an application. In
Application sharing, an application is installed in two parts; server application and client
application. Both parts are used to provide and request service or data respectively.
Let's take a simple example.
 A user connects his system to the Internet and watches a video on YouTube. YouTube, which
provides the requested video, is the example of a server application. And the browser or app,
that the user uses to watch the video, is the example of a client application.
 Application sharing is mostly used in company environment. In companies,
usually a project is assigned to several users or a team which have several
members. Networking allows concerned users or members to work on
assigned project simultaneously.
 Definition of Computer Network

 Network is a collection of computers and other hardware components

interconnected by communication channel.
Or
A network consists of 2 or more autonomous computing devices are
connected to each other to exchange information or share resources.

 Computers and other hardware components often referred to as nodes.

 A node is capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes
on the network.
 Components of a Computer Network

 Host or node or workstation refers to the computers/devices that are attached to

the network. So your PCs, laptops, smartphones etc. when connect to a network,
becomes hosts.
 A server is the computer which facilitates the sharing of data, resource-sharing,
software and hardware resources on the network. There can be a two types of
server- dedicated and non-dedicated servers.
 A client is a host computer that requests for services from a server. A server serves
the requests of the clients.
 Contd… Components of a Computer Network

 Network Hardware: Different types of hardware required in a network are:

 NIC (Network Interface Card) – Network card attached to a host so as to establish

network connections. Every NIC has a unique physical address called the MAC (Media
access control) address.

 Hub

 Switch

 Router

 Repeater
 Contd… Components of a Computer Network

 Software: Layers of a network make networking possible. It comprises network

protocols, network operating system etc.

 Protocol – refers to a set of rules which govern how to devices will communicate with
each other.

 NOS – is a specialized Operating System that can handle networking tasks.

 Network Services: Application that provide different functionalities over a network, such
as DNS (Domain Name System), File sharing, VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), etc.
 Contd… Components of a Computer Network

Hosts in a network interact with other hosts and server(s) through a

Communication Channel. It can be:

 Communication channel : is way/method to provide communication between

computers and devices on a network. Communication channels are also known
as communication media or transmission media and it is a path that connects
the sender and receiver for transmission of information over a network.

It can either be Guided Media or Unguided Media.

 Contd… Components of a Computer Network
 Guided Media : It is also known as wired or bounded media. In guided media,
the communication devices are directly connected with each other via wires or
physical media for data transmission. There are basically three types of wired
communication channels are twisted-pair, coaxial, optical fiber.

 Unguided Media : It is also known as wireless media, in which the signals are
propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals (in the form
of electromagnetic waves of different frequencies) can wave through the air,
water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions.
Examples are Microwaves, radio waves, satellites, infrared waves, lasers etc.
 Network Criteria
 Performance: can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
o Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another.
o Response time is the elapsed time between an enquiry and a response.
 Reliability
❖ Accuracy of delivery of packets
❖ Frequency of failure
❖ Time it takes a link to recover from a failure
 Security
❖ protecting data from unauthorized access
❖ protecting data from damage and development
 Data Communication
 are the exchange of data between two devices by some form of transmission
medium such as wired or wireless.
 The effectiveness of data communication system depends on three
fundamental characteristics
❖ Delivery:The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended user.
❖ Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data should not
be altered in the transmission.
❖ Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless.
❖ Jitter: It is the uneven delay in the packet arrival time that cause uneven
quality.
 Components of Data Communication

Data Communication have 5 components

1. Message : is the information to be communicated.
2. Sender: device that sends the data message.
3. Receiver: device that receives the data message.
4. Transmission medium: is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver.
5. Protocol: set of rules that govern the data communication. This is like an
agreement between the two devices to successfully communicate with
each other. For example, how the data will be sent, how the data will be
traveling, how to ensure that full data has received, how to handle errors
in transmission etc. Both devices follow the same set of rules or protocol
so that they understand each other.
Components of Data Communication
 A protocol performs the following functions:
1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data sequencing rules
define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets, and to correctly identify packets,
which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet constitute data,
control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. It ensures
resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data on communication lines.
5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission of correct
messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a block having error is
discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to use the
communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are established, maintained and
terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate with each other.
8. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication software packages. It
prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop log information, which consists of all
jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such information may be used for charging the users of
the network based on their usage of the network resources.
 Advantages of Networking
Computer networking provides the following benefits.
 It allows us to share data and resources.
 It helps us in reducing the required number of devices.
 It provides us a platform to communicate with other users in network.
 It allows multiple users to work on a single project.
 It allows us to store data in a centralize location.
 It allows us to implement the security policies.
 It allows us to track and monitor the use of resources.
 Sharing of Network based application
 Advantages of Networking
Data Sharing: One of the most important uses of networking is to allow the sharing of data.
Files Transfer: Users can send text files, spread sheets, documents, presentations, audio files,
video files, etc. to other users.
Hardware Sharing: Hardware components such as printers, scanners, etc. can also be shared. For
example, instead of purchasing 10 printers for each user, one printer can be purchased and shared
among multiple users thus saving cost.
Internet Access Sharing: You can purchase a single Internet connection and share it among other
computers in a network instead of purchasing multiple Internet connection for each computer.
This is very commonly found in Internet café (browsing centres), schools, colleges, companies,
etc.
Usage of network based applications: Such as web browsers, email clients, chat application,
audio & video calling, etc. is another advantage.
Reduced Cost: Sharing of resources helps in reducing hardware and software cost.
Centralized Control: We can centrally control the computers attached to a network.
Central storage of data: We can save data of entire network on single computer. It helps in
removing duplication of data as well as maintaining integrity of data.
 Disadvantages of Networking
1. Systems are more complex to run. Specialists might be required for managing
which increases the cost.
2. If networks are badly managed, it can become unusable and productivity may
fall.
3. If the central server fails, it becomes impossible for other machines to carry
out any work.
4. Files' security is harder to implement, e.g. protection from viruses.
 Types of Network

By depending upon the area covered by the network, networks

are classified as below:
 Cont....

The full forms of types of network are mentioned below:

1. PAN – Personal Area Network / Private Area Network
2. LAN – Local Area Network
3. MAN – Metropolitan Area Network
4. WAN – Wide Area Network
 PAN
 PAN is an interconnection of devices within the range of an individual person used for data
transmission between various personal devices, typically within a range of 10m.
 LAN

• LAN covers a small geographical area (such as home, school, computer

lab, office building or closely positioned group of buildings) and privately
owned.
• The simplest form of LAN is to connect two computers together.
• The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resource sharing(H/W as
well as S/W).
• Error and Noise are minimized due to short distance.
• LANs are secured network as there are no outside connections and have
fast speed Data transfer rates in LAN (from 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps), which
is faster than MAN and WAN.
• Range: 1-2 Km.
 Merits of LAN

 Resource sharing

 Software application sharing

 Client and Server relationship

 Communication is easy, fast and time saving

 Centralized data

 Data Security
 Demerits of LAN
 Setting up a LAN is expensive: It is expensive to set up LAN because there is special software
required to make a server. Also, communication devices like hubs, switches, routers, cables are
costly. The special administrator is required to maintain and troubleshoot LAN for a large
office.

 Limitation of Distance: Local area networks are usually made within a building or nearby
building and cannot extend to the wider area.

 Data security problem: If the server computer is not set up correctly and there is a leak in
security then unauthorized users can access the data also. So there should be privacy policy
and rules set up correctly on the server.

 Server crashes may affect all computers: If any file on the server is corrupted or hard drive
fails then all the attached computers face problems in functioning properly.
 MAN

 MAN is a network which covers a city or a large university campus.

 MAN connect users within an area larger than LAN but smaller than a WAN.

 MAN is made with a combination of several LAN through point to point

connections.

 Range: 30-40 Km.

 MAN usually involves connection of fiber optics cables to boost data transfer
speed.
 WAN

 The networks spread across countries or on a very big geographical area

are known as WAN.

 It can even be a group of LANs that are spread across several locations
and connected together to look like one big network.

 It is a network across cities, countries and continents.

 Largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

 Compare the types of Network

LAN MAN WAN PAN

It stands for Local Area It stands for Metropolitan It stands for Wide Area It stands for Personal Area
Network Area Network Network Network
It is a network within a It is a network within a It is a network across It is a network within a
small area such as city. cities, countries and very small area upto 10
building. continents. meters.
Twisted pair cable is Coaxial cable is preferably Optical fiber or satellite Communication is made
preferably used for used for communication.. are used for using bluetooth, infrared
communication. communication or wireless devices.
Example: Computer Lab Example: Cable TV Example: Mobile phone Example: Wireless
Network network headphone, wireless
printer.
 Network Architecture

 Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the

software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.
 Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are
allocated among these computer in a network.

Physical Design Logical Design

The layout of the cables The way in which
connecting the networking computers and networking
devices and computers. devices transmit data.
 Types of Network Architecture
Types of Networks by Component Roles

❖ Peer to peer Network

❖ Client Server Network

 Peer to Peer Network

 As the name suggests, Each computer controls its own information and
plays role of either a client or a server. There is no in-charge (no
dedicated server) of the network.

 are often termed as non-dedicated servers.

 All computers have equal privileges and responsibilities.

 Such Networks are popular in home networks, small companies as they are
inexpensive and easy to install. Although the scope is limited.

 Useful for small environment, has upto 10 computers.

Advantages of P2P:

 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.

 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of P2P:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system.
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations.

 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

 Client Server Network
 Bigger networks prefer to have centralized control. They do this by clearly designating servers and
clients.

 The key point of this model is that client is dependent on server to provide and manage
information.

 Task specified servers also exists, e.g. file server, printer server, modem server. Such a server is
known as dedicated server.

 They are also known as Master-Slave networks.

 The client-server architecture is the most common distributed system architecture which
decomposes the system into two major subsystems or logical processes −

❖ Client − This is the first process that issues a request to the second process i.e. the server.

❖ Server − This is the second process that receives the request, carries it out, and sends a reply
to the client.
 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
 All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to
the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
 A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up
the data easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
 Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
 A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the
clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
 It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
2 tier client server architecture
 Thin-client model

 In thin-client model, all the application processing

and data management is carried by the server. The
client is simply responsible for running the GUI
software.
 Thick-client model/ Fat-client model

 In thick-client model, the server is in-charge of the

data management. The software on the client
implements the application logic and the interactions
with the system user.
 Difference between Clint Server and P2P
Client-Server P2P
-The server controls security of the -No central control over security.
network.
-Needs a team of people to manage the -No central control over network. Anyone
server. can set up.
-Clients are dependent on the server. -Clients are not dependent on the server.
-The server can be upgraded to be made -If machines on network are slow they will
more powerful to cope with high demand. slow down other machines.

-Data is all backed up on the main server. -Each computer has to be backed up. Data
can easily be deleted by users.
 Transmission Media / Communication Channels

Hosts in a network interact with other hosts and server(s) through a

Communication Channel. It can be:

 Communication channel : is way/method to provide communication between

computers and devices on a network. Communication channels are also known
as communication media or transmission media and it is a path that connects
the sender and receiver for transmission of information over a network.

It can either be Guided Media or Unguided Media.

 Guided Transmission Media

1. Twisted pair cable : It is the most commonly used communication medium. It was invented
by Alexander Graham Bell. Twisted pair cables is a collection of four pairs, each having two
conductors that are generally made up of copper and each conductor has insulation. These two
conductors are twisted together, thus giving the name twisted pair cables. They are preferably
used for local area network.

One of the conductors is used to carry the signal and the other is used as a ground reference only.

The twisting of wires reduces the crosstalk, which is the bleeding (electrical disturbance that can
degrade the communication) of a signal from one wire to another and which can corrupt signal and
cause network errors.

The twisting of wires not only protects the signal from internal crosstalk, but it also protects it
from the other external forms of signal interference.
 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

Advantages
• It is very cheap.
• It has a low weight.
• It is flexible.
• It is easy to install and maintain.
Disadvantages
• It is suitable only for short distance communication. It cannot carry the signals over long distances
without the use of repeaters.
• It has low bandwidth.

They are available in various forms such as CAT1, CAT2, CAT3, CAT4, CAT5, CAT6.
They are basically of two types
a. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
b. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

2. Coaxial cable : A coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a copper conductor and an
insulator shielding around it and a braided metal mesh that prevents signal interference
and cross talk. Coaxial cable is also known as coax.

The core copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the insulator is used
to provide insulation to the copper conductor and the insulator is surrounded by a braided
metal conductor which helps to prevent the interference of electrical signals and prevent
cross talk. This entire setup is again covered with a protective plastic layer to provide
extra safety to the cable.

Coaxial cables, commonly called coax, are copper cables with metal shielding designed to
provide immunity against noise and greater bandwidth. Coax can transmit signals over
larger distances at a higher speed as compared to twisted pair cables.
 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

Advantages

• It is suitable for cable TV transmission.

• It provides high bandwidth so it suitable for long distance communication.

• It is suitable for broadband transmission.

• Support bandwidth upto 400 mbps.

Disadvantages

• It is more expensive compared to twisted pair cable.

• It is less flexible.

• It is not compatible with twisted pair cable.

They are of two categories: Thicknet and Thinnet.

 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

3. Optical fiber cable : OFC stands for Optical Fibre Cable. Optical fibre cables are made
up of thin strands, or optical fibres, of either glass or plastic. One cable may have two or
even hundreds. These optical fibre cables transmit information using light-based or
optical technology between two locations. The light beams will emerge from the other
end of the optical fibre cable (OFC) once they have travelled down from one end. Then, a
photoelectric cell is required in order to convert the light pulses into electrical
information so that the computer can understand it.
 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

Optical fiber consists of following parts:

• Glass Core: It is the material at the center of optical fiber cable through which the
light travels.

• Glass Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.

• Plastic Coating: It is the plastic coating to protect cable from damage.

 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core and cladding in a
series of zig-zag bounces.

Fibre cable has many benefits, including higher bandwidth and greater reach. Fibre cables are more
popular than old copper cables because they offer high-speed broadband service. Copper wires lose
94% of their signal, while optical fibre loses only 3%. Optic fibres last longer than copper wires which
are less fragile. Copper wire is easy to tap, but optical fibres are much more difficult. Optic fibre has
lower latency (the time it takes to transmit data) than copper wires.
 Contd… Guided Transmission Media

Advantages Disadvantages

• It is free from electromagnetic • It is very expensive.

interference.
• Installation problem. Fiber optic cables are quite
• Suitable in all the environment. fragile and may need special care to make them

• It has a very high transmission capacity sufficiently robust for an office environment.

thus it is suitable for long distances. • It is more fragile and vulnerable to damage than
copper wires. Optical fiber cannot be twisted or bent too
tightly.

There are two categories of Optical fiber cable • It requires trained and skilled men to place fiber in the
optic cable. As optical fiber is more vulnerable to damage,
i. Single node
trained men can only fix faulty joints.
ii. Multi–node.
 Unguided Transmission Media

1. Radio Waves : It is a technique where data is transmitted using radio waves/ frequencies and
therefore energy travels through the air rather than copper or glass. The radio waves can travel
through walls and through an entire building. Depending upon the frequency, they can travel long
distance or short distance.

It needs two components:

a. Transmitter: To transmit information.

b. Receiver: To receive information transmitted by transmitter.

Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna sends radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This defines that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
 Contd… Unguided Transmission Media
A sending antenna sends waves that any receiving antenna can receive. It is based on the
wavelength, strength, and purpose of transmission.

Advantages

• Radio waves offers mobility at a lower price.

• It has a very low setup price as it does not need

digging and laying the cables.

• Radio waves can transit long distances.

• Radio waves can penetrate well, therefore we can Disadvantages

also receive signals within a building.
• It is insecure.
• No land acquisition right is required.
• It is badly affected by weather effects like
• It provides ease of transmission in complicated rains, thunderstorms etc.
geographical conditions like hilly areas as well as oceans.
 Contd… Unguided Transmission Media

2. Microwave : The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
known as a microwave. Microwave systems use very high-frequency radio or television signals
to transmit data through space. Therefore, the transmitter and receiver of a microwaves
system, which is mounted on very high towers, should be invisible to each other, i.e., they
both should be in a line-of-sight. Moreover, the signals become weak after travelling a
certain distance and require power amplification.

Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave

communication, there are parabolic antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a
beam to another antenna.
 Contd… Unguided Transmission Media

Advantages

• Microwave transmission is cheaper than using

cables.

• High capacity to carry huge quantities of data.

• Lower error rates, thus making it more Disadvantages

reliable as compared to cable. • It is insecure. Any malicious user can catch the signal in
the air by using its own antenna.
• Microwaves offer communication over very
• Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by
long distances.
using microwave transmission.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does not
• It is susceptible to weather condition. This means that any
require any land for the installation of cables. environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.

• Communication over oceans can be achieved • Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in

by using microwave transmission. the case of microwave transmission.

 Difference between Guided and Unguided Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

The guided media is also called wired communication The unguided media is also called wireless
or bounded transmission media. communication or unbounded transmission media.

The signal energy propagates through wires in guided The signal energy propagates through the air in
media. unguided media.

It is cost-effective. It is expensive.
Guided media is used for point-to-point Unguided media is generally suited for radio
communication. broadcasting in all directions.

Here, the signals are in the state of current and Here, the signals are in the state of electromagnetic
voltage. waves.
 Difference between Guided and Unguided Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

Examples of guided media are twisted pair wires, Examples of unguided media are microwave or radio
coaxial cables, and optical fiber cables. links and infrared light.

By adding more wires, the transmission capacity can It is not possible to obtain additional capacity in
be increased in guided media. unguided media.

It sends out a signal that indicates which way to go. It does not indicate which way to travel.
For a shorter distance, this is the best option. For longer distances, this method is used.

It is unable to pass through walls. It can pass through walls.

 Network Topologies

The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called

Network Topology.

or

The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is

called network topology.

 Types of Network Topologies

1. Point to point topology

2. Star topology

3. Linear topology

4. Ring topology

5. Mesh topology

6. Tree topology
 Types of Network Topologies
1. Point to point topology: Point to point is a simple topology that directly links two nodes and
reserves the entire bandwidth of the connection for them to communicate with one another.
Physically, point-to-point connections rely on a cable or wire that connects the two endpoints.

Advantages:
• Superior bandwidth, as only two nodes use the link
• High speed when compared to other types of network topologies
• Simple to implement
• Easy to maintain and handle
Disadvantages:
• Only applicable for small areas with nodes physically close to each other
• High dependence on the common link; if the link fails, the network goes down
• Only useful if the network has two nodes; thus, not applicable for many modern use cases
 Types of Network Topologies
2. Star topology: It consists of a central node to which all other nodes are connected by a single path. This topology used in most existing information
networks involving data processing or voice communication.

Advantages:

❖ It is easy to install and reconfiguration of the network since each node has its own cable.

❖ Failures affect only one device and problem areas are located swiftly.

❖ Connecting or removing devices doesn't affect the network.

❖ Fault diagnosis is easy because central node is connected directly to every other node in the network.

❖ Rapid data transfer.

Disadvantages:

❖ Higher Requirements of connectors and cable length because each node is directly connected to the central node.

❖ If the central node fails, the entire network is rendered inoperable.

❖ More expensive than linear topology.

❖ Difficult to expand.
 Contd… Network Topologies
3. Bus or Linear Topology : It consists of a single length of
transmission medium(generally coaxial cable) onto which various
nodes are attached. Transmission from any node travels in both
directions to the whole bus, and can be received by all other
stations. At both ends there are terminators which removes the
travelling data token from the network. Data is transmitted in small
block, known as packets. Each packet has some data bits, plus a
header containing it destination address. The destination device, on Disadvantages:

identifying the address on the packets, copies the data onto its disk. ❖ Entire network shuts down, if main cable fails.

Advantages: ❖ Terminators are required at both ends.

❖ Easy to add new devices and replace or remove existing devices ❖ Fault diagnosis is difficult if entire network shuts down.

without affecting other devices ❖ Nodes must be intelligent- Each node is directly connected to the central
bus. This means that some way of deciding who can use the network at
❖ Failure in a few devices does not affect other devices, or the network
any given time must be performed in each node.

❖ Requires less cable length and simple wiring layout. ❖ Low privacy, as all nodes receive the signal sent by the server

❖ Easy to extend. ❖ Data loss over long distances

 Contd… Network Topologies
4. Ring or Circular Topology : Each node is connected to exactly two neighboring nodes. Data is accepted from one of the neighboring nodes

and is transmitted onwards to another. Generally, data tokens travels in one direction(unidirectional ring) from node to node around the

ring. After passing through each node, it returns to the sending node, which removes it or it stops until it has reached destination.

Advantages:

❖ All packets flow in one direction, reducing chances of packet collisions.

❖ A server is not needed to control connectivity.

❖ Transfer speed is good.

❖ New nodes can be added without impacting performance of the network.

Disadvantages:

❖ Data transferred must pass through each node which makes it slower than star topology.

❖ Entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.

❖ Hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than hubs/switches and ethernet cards.
 Contd… Network Topologies
5. Mesh Topology : Each node is connected to more than one node, which provides and alternative route in the case host is either down or

busy. It's excellent for long distance networking as it provides back-up & rerouting which is ideal for distributed networks.

Advantages:

❖ Each connection can carry its own data load.

❖ It can mange high traffic as multiple devices can transmit work simultaneously.

❖ It's robust, provides security and privacy.

❖ Diagnosis is easy.

Disadvantages:

❖ Installation, configuration & Management is difficult.

❖ Bulk wiring is required, cables cost is more.

❖ Chances of redundancy is high which leads to higher cost and lower efficiency.
 Contd… Network Topologies
6. Tree or Expanded Star Topology : It's the combination of linear bus and star topologies. Groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear
bus backbone.

Advantages:

❖ It provides high security.

❖ Scalability is high as more leaf nodes(star-configured nodes) can be added.

❖ It uses point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

❖ It's supported by several hardware and software vendors.

❖ If backbone falls, individual star groups keep on working.

Disadvantages:

❖ Overall cable length increases.

❖ If backbone falls all leaf nodes gets disconnected.

❖ Difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

❖ If hub, switch or concentrator fails, attached nodes gets disconnected.

 Factors to consider for Topology Selection
 Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an infrastructure.
So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have to be considered when
designing a network.

 Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration of office

set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.

 Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time. Failure
of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network useless.

 Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of new devices
and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.

 Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software and
technical personnel requirements.

 Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.

 Internet

 Computer-based worldwide information network.

 Sometimes called simply “Net”.

 It is a worldwide system of computer network- “A network of networks”.

 It was conceived by the Advanced Research Project Agency of the U.S.

Government in 1969 and was first known as ARPANET.

 Aim was to create a network that would allow users of a research computer at
one university to “talk to” research computer at other universities.

 The internet is a decentralized system.

 Difference between Internet & Intranet

Intranet Internet

Localized Network. Worldwide Network

Doesn't have access to Intranet Have access to Internet.

More Expensive Less Expensive

More Safe Less Safe

More Reliability Less Reliability

 WWW / W3 / Web
 It is a Network of computers and Services which runs on the internet.
 It provides vast array of documents that are connected to each other by
hyperlinks.
 Developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.
 Before WWW, Internet was mainly used for obtaining textual information.
 Web consists of four key components:
❖ HTML: This is a standard Mark-up Language used to create web pages.
❖ URL: The URL is a kind of “address” that is unique to each resource on the Web.
❖ HTTP: It allows HTML documents to be requested and transmitted between browser and
web server via the internet.
❖ Web Server: A computer where files are stored which can be accessed via the internet
using HTTP.
www Cont.
 True/False

❖ A peer to peer network works best in a large working environment. False

❖ Network allows users to exchange money from one bank account to another via Electronic Fund
Transfer. True
❖ A computer network is a collection of computers and devices connected by communication
channels. True
 Full forms

1) DSL : Digital Subscriber Line

2) ISP : Internet Service Provider

3) Modem : Modulator and Demodulator

4) WWW : World Wide Web

5) LAN : Local Area Network

6) MAN : Metropolitan Area Network

7) WAN : Wide Area Network

8) HSDPA: High-Speed Downlink Packet Access

Explain the term packet with reference to data transfer.
❖ Ans. Data transfer over the network is divided into small segments
called packet. Each packet is sent from one computer to another
computer until it finds its destination.

Explain Wifi and its significance.

❖ Ans. Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi is a popular technology
that allows an electronic device such as computers or mobile phones
to exchange data wirelessly over a network.
❖ Wi-Fi is used where cables cannot be run (such as old buildings,
outdoor areas) to provide network and Internet access
Explain P2P Architecture and how it is different from Client
Server Architecture?
❖ Ans. Networks in which all computers have an equal status are called peer
to peer networks. Generally in such a network each terminal has an equally
competent CPU.

❖ Networks in which certain computers have special dedicated tasks,

providing services to other computers (in the network) are called client
server networks. The computer(s) which provide services are called servers
and the ones that use these services are called clients.
Write the difference between LAN and MAN.

LAN WAN
1. It stands for Local Area Network 1. It stands for Wide Area Network
2. It is a network within a small area such 2. It is a network across cities, countries
as building. and continents.
3. Twisted pair cable is preferably used for 3. Optical fiber or satellite are used for
communication. communication
4. Example: Computer Lab 4. Example: Mobile phone network
 Switching Techniques

Switching is a technique of transferring the information from one computer to

another computer in a network, or from one network to another, using specific
devices called switches..

A computer user experiences switching all the time for example, accessing the
Internet from your computer device, whenever a user requests a webpage to
open, the request is processed through switching of data packets only.

Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. This means that
after the generation of data packets in the Physical Layer, switching is the
immediate next process in data communication.
Types of Switching
 Circuit Switching
In circuit switching circuit is established between the two ends. When two
devices want to communicate in a circuit-switched network, they
establish a connection by setting up a dedicated path between them. This
path is reserved exclusively for the duration of the communication.
Hence, no other devices can use it during that specific time.

Once we establish the connection, we can transfer data between devices

over the dedicated path. This path typically comprises a series of
interconnected switches or nodes that route the data to its destination.
 Contd… Circuit Switching
Let’s take a look at the general architecture of a
network where we use circuit switching technique to
transfer data from Computer 1 to Computer 3.

As soon as data transfer completes, the circuit is

disconnected.
 Packet Switching
In packet switching, we divide data into small packets and transmit them
over the network independently. Each packet contains the data and
destination address information required to route the packet to its
destination.

In packet switching, each packet travels separately through the network

and can take different paths to reach its destination. This approach allows
for more efficient use of network resources because we can transmit
multiple packets simultaneously over the same network.
 Contd… Packet Switching
Let’s take a look at a network where we use packet switching technique to
transfer data from Computer 1 to Computer 3.
 Message Switching
Message switching is a method of data transmission that was popular in the early days of networking,
before the development of packet switching. In message switching, we divide a message into fixed-
length blocks or frames.

Furthermore, we transmit each frame independently through the network. Additionally, each
intermediate node stores the frames until the entire message is received. Finally, the nodes forward
the entire message to its destination.

Unlike packet switching, message switching is a store-and-forward method of data transmission. It

means that each intermediate node stores the entire message until it can be forwarded to the next
node. This can result in longer transmission times compared to packet switching. We can only
transmit each message when an intermediate node receives all the parts of the message.
 Contd… Message Switching
Let’s take a look at a network where we use message switching technique to transfer data
from Computer 1 to Computer 3.
 Compare Circuit, Message and Packet Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching

In-circuit switching has there are 3

phases:
i) Connection Establishment. In Packet switching directly data In Message switching directly data
transfer takes place. transfer takes place.
ii) Data Transfer.
iii) Connection Released.
Each data unit knows the entire Each data unit just knows the final Each data unit just knows the final
path address which is provided by destination address intermediate destination address intermediate
the source. path is decided by the routers. path is decided by the routers.
Data is processed at the source Data is processed at all Data is processed at all
system only. intermediate nodes including the intermediate nodes including the
source system. source system.
Resource reservation is the feature There is no resource reservation There is no resource reservation
of circuit switching because the because bandwidth is shared because bandwidth is shared among
path is fixed for data transmission. among users. users.
 Compare Circuit, Message and Packet Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching

Circuit switching is more reliable. Packet switching is less reliable. Message switching is less reliable.

It is not a store and forward It is a store and forward technique.

It is a store and forward technique.
technique.

Transmission of the data is done Transmission of the data is done not

Transmission of the data is done by
not only by the source but also by only by the source but also by the
the source. intermediate routers.
the intermediate routers.

There is a physical path between There is no physical path between There is no physical path between
the source and the destination the source and the destination. the source and the destination.

Each packet follows the same route. Packets can follow any route. Packets can follow any route.

It is implemented at the physical It is implemented at the datalink

layer. layer and network layer
 Communication Modes of Operation
Communication mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data
between two devices connected over a network. It is also called
Transmission Mode that indicates the direction of information flow
between the devices. There are three types of transmission modes. They
are:

1. Simplex Mode

2. Half duplex Mode

3. Full duplex Mode

 Contd… Communication Modes of Operation

1. Simplex Mode: The Simplex transmission mode is used in computing networks

when there is a single or one-way flow of information from sender to
receiver. In this mode of transmission, communication occurs only in one
direction, i.e., the circuit is configured so that it is either transmit only or
receive only. Simplex mode is just like a one-way road in which the traffic
travels only in one direction, which means no vehicle from the opposite
direction is allowed to drive through.

Simplex transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications

require two-way data exchange .
 Contd… Communication Modes of Operation

Examples

1. A basic example of simplex transmission mode is communication between a computer

and a keyboard. The keyboard can only accept data from the user, and the monitor can
only display data on the screen.

2. The radio station is a simplex channel since it transmits the signal but never permits
listeners to transmit it back.
 Contd… Communication Modes of Operation

2. Half duplex Mode: The half duplex mode of transmission is used in

computer networks when there is a way to flow information from

sender to receiver but only one at a time. In this mode, the connected

devices can transmit or receive the data but not simultaneously. In half

duplex mode, the direction of communication can be reversed as the

radio stations can receive as well as transmit the data. The half-duplex

mode is used when communication in both directions is not required at

the same time .

 Contd… Communication Modes of Operation

Example

A communication using a Walkie-talkie is an example of a half duplex mode. When using a

walkie-talkie, one party speaks while the other listens. After a slight pause, the other party
speaks while the first party listens. Speaking at the same time produces a distorted sound
that cannot be understood.
 Contd… Communication Modes of Operation

3. Full duplex Mode: The Full Duplex mode of transmission is used in

computing networks when there is simultaneous information flow in
both directions, from sender to receiver. In this mode of transmission,
the channel capacity is shared between the two devices, and
communication occurs in both directions across a communication link
that requires two wires. The Full Duplex mode features two simplex
channels. One channel has traffic flowing in one direction, while the
other channel has traffic flowing in the other way. The full duplex
mode is used when communication in both directions is required.
 Contd… Communication Modes of Operation

Examples

A telephone network in which two people communicate over a phone line

on which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In the messaging app, we can send and receive messages simultaneously.

 Differences between Simplex, Half-Duplex, and
Full-Duplex Mode
Basis for Comparison Simplex mode Half Duplex mode Full Duplex mode
Bidirectional flow of
Bidirectional information flow
Direction of Unidirectional flow of information information from sender to
in both directions, from the
communication from the sender to the receiver. receiver but only one at a
sender to the receiver.
time.
A device can only send data but Both devices can send and
Both devices can send and
Transmit/Receive cannot receive it, or it can only receive data, but only one
receive data simultaneously.
receive data but cannot send it. can do so at a time.
Relatively faster than simplex
Speed Slow Fastest transmission mode.
mode.
It either uses two simplex
The entire bandwidth of the bandwidth communication
Utilization of It uses the complete bandwidth of communication channel is channel or divide the
bandwidth the communicating channel. used in only one direction at complete bandwidth channel
a time. into two parts for data
transmission.

A telephone network in which

Communication between a Communication using a
Example two people communicate
computer and a keyboard. walkie-talkie.
over a phone line.
 IP Address

An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique number assigned to

every device (PC, mobile phone, router, etc.) on a computer network and
used to communicate with each other on the internet.

IP address is used to transport data from one network to another network

using the TCP/IP protocol.

It is a logical address, which may change depending upon factors like

connection with a different gateway upon rebooting the modem/router or
connecting to a different network.
 Contd… IP Address

The structure of an IP address depends

on its version: IPv4 or IPv6. IPv4 is the
most commonly used version of IP
addresses and consists of a 32-bit
binary number, composed of four
groups of eight bits, separated by dots.
Each section comprises one to three
digits that fall between 0 and 255. Such
a structure gives approximately 4.3
billion possible unique IPv4 addresses.
 Contd… IP Address

IPv6 is the most recent version of an IP address, initiated in 1995. It consists of eight
groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by colons. Each digit represents four bits and
allows for a much larger number of IPv6 combinations than IPv4.
 MAC Address

To communicate or transfer data from one computer to another, we need an address. In computer networks,
various types of addresses are introduced; each works at a different layer. A MAC address, which stands for
Media Access Control Address, is a physical address that works at the Data Link Layer.

MAC Addresses are unique 48-bit hardware numbers of a computer that are embedded into a network card
(known as a Network Interface Card) during manufacturing. The MAC Address is also known as the Physical
Address / hardware address, or BIA (Burned In Address) of a network device. In the IEEE 802 standard, the data
link layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer

2. Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer

The MAC address is used by the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the Data-Link Layer. MAC Address is
worldwide unique since millions of network devices exist and we need to uniquely identify each.
 Contd… MAC Address
MAC address is 12 digits or 6-byte hexadecimal number, which is represented in colon-
hexadecimal notation format. It is divided into six octets, and each octet contains 8 bits.

The first three octets of the MAC Address identify the

manufacturer, called the OUI (Organizational Unique
Identifier). These MAC prefixes are assigned to each
organization or vendor by the IEEE Registration
Authority Committee.

The last three octets are NIC specific and used by the
manufacturer to each NIC card. Vendors or
manufacturers can use any sequence of digits to the
NIC specific digits, but the prefix should be the same
as provided by the IEEE.
 Contd… MAC Address

Follow the below steps to find the MAC

addresses of a device:

1. In the given search box, type cmd

to open the command prompt

2. Press the Enter key, and the

command prompt window will
display.

3. Type ipconfig/all command and

press enter.