CHAPTER THREE

LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING

3.1 Definition, Characteristics and Principles of Learning

3.1.1 Definition of learning
 Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience or
practice.
The above definition emphasizes four basic concepts- learning is;
1. Change in behavior
2. Relatively permanent Biological changes, like hormonal changes
3. Result of experiences not from Sudden changes, like illness, fatigue, etc
4. Not directly observable
3.1.2 Characteristics of learning 3.1.3 principles of learning
 It is continuous 1. Readiness-physically, emotionally, mentally.
 It is pervasive 2. Exercise- regular meaningful practice.
 It involves the whole person 3. Intensity- learning is best by real object than
 Active process the substitute object.
 Purposeful 4. Freedom- more freedom of learners the highest
 Multifaceted interest in learning.
 Based on incentive 5. Recency- most recently learned are best
Remembered.
6.Primacy- presenting the subject in logical order.

3.2 Factors Influencing Learning

1. Motivation: higher motivation makes to learn at higher level.
2. Maturation: neuro muscular coordination is important for learning.
3. Health condition of the learner: the learner should be in a good health status to learn.
4. Psychological wellbeing of the learner: good psychological health is needed. Like, self-reliance,
and self-confidence.
5. Good working condition: comfortable environment is important to effective learning. Suitable
air, light, temperature, teaching aids, etc.
6. Background experience: having a good background knowledge make to learn best.
7. Length of the working period: learning periods should neither too short nor too long.
8. Massed and distributed learning: learning that spreads across time with reasonable time gaps
brings better results than at once or within short span of time.

3.3 Theories of Learning and their Application

3.3.1 Behavioral Theory of Learning
This theory emphasizes:
 learning occurs as a result of stimulus response association.
 On observable behaviors.
 Laws that govern all organisms to learn.

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3.3.1.1 Classical Conditioning
It is established by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) when studying the
digestive system of a dog.
It is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is
paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
Basics of classical conditioning
Neutral stimulus(NS)-does not bring response naturally before conditioning.
Un conditioned stimulus (UCS)- naturally bring response without conditioning. Eg. Pepper, cold, light
Unconditioned response(UCR)- a natural response. Eg, sneezing, shivering, blinking
Conditioned stimulus (CS)- learned stimulus (former neutral).
Conditioned response(CR)- learned response.
Figure1: The process of classical conditioning model of learning.
1. Before conditioning 2. Before conditioning
Food Salivation Bell No salivation
(UCS) (UCR) (NS) No (response)

3. During conditioning 4. After conditioning

Bell + Food Salivation Bell Salivation
(NS) (UCS) (UCR) (CS) (CR)

Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Stimulus generalization: refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original
conditioned stimuli. Example- salivating to sounds of mobile ring, doorbell, telephone bell
2. Stimulus discrimination: the tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not
identical. Example-salivate only for dinner bell instead of doorbell or telephone bell.
3. Extinction: the CS repeatedly presented alone and the behavior decrease slowly.
4. Spontaneous recovery: the increase in responding to the CS following a pause after extinction.
5. Acquisition: the increase of behavior due to repeated pair of CS and UCS.
6. Second order (higher order) conditioning: the use of conditioned stimulus as a unconditioned
stimulus and produce response (further conditioning).
Application of classical conditioning
It has been used as a successful form of treatment in changing or modifying behavior, such as substance
abuse and smoking. Some therapies associated with classical conditioning include:
1) Aversion therapy: designed to increase individuals to give up undesirable habits by
causing them to associate with an unpleasant effect.
2) Systematic desensitization: is treatment for phobias in which the individual is trained to
relax while being exposed to progressively more a anxiety provoking stimuli.
3) Flooding: a form of desensitization that uses repeated exposure to highly distressing
stimuli until the lack of reinforcement of the anxiety response causes its extinction.

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3.3.1.2. Operant/Instrumental conditioning
Psychologist Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first scientist to systematically study
operant conditioning.
Skinner (1904-1990) expanded the idea and form complete set of operant conditioning theory.
Operant conditioning (OP) is learning that occurs based on the consequence of behavior. There
are three consequences: neutral consequence, reinforcement, and punishment.
It is a deliberate form of learning in which the organism actively attempts to change its
environment to produce a desirable outcome.
A. neutral Consequence that does not alter the response.
B. Reinforcement – any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior. There are
two types of reinforcement. They are primary reinforces and secondary reinforces.

Primary reinforces: Food, water, light, stroking of the skin, and a comfortable air temperature are
naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.
Secondary Reinforces: They reinforce behavior because of their prior association with primary
reinforcing stimuli. Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards, and gold stars are common secondary
reinforces.
Both primary and secondary reinforces can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement is the process
whereby presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur again.
Negative reinforcement is the process whereby termination of an aversive stimulus makes behavior more
likely to occur.

Table 1- How Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Behavior

OP Terms Description Outcome Example
Positive Add or increase a Behavior is Giving a student prize after he gets A
Reinforcement pleasant stimulus Strengthen in test
Negative Reduce or remove Behavior is Taking aspirin to reduce the pain of
Reinforcement unpleasant stimulus Strengthen headache.
Positive Present or add an Behavior Giving a student extra home work
Punishment unpleasant stimulus is weaken after she misbehave in class.
Negative Reduce or remove Behavior Taking away a teen’s computer after
Punishment pleasant stimulus is weaken he misses curfew.

Schedules of reinforcement
There are two types of reinforcement schedules- continuous and partial(intermittent) schedules.
Continuous reinforcement schedule refers to reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial reinforcement schedule refers to reinforcing the response sometimes and sometimes not. Partial
reinforcement schedules are determined by ratio, interval, fixed, and variable manners.
1. Fixed-ratio schedules: a behavior is reinforced after a specific number of response.
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: provides reinforces after a specific but average number of responses.
variable ratio schedule produces extremely high steady rates of responding.

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 3. Fixed Interval Schedule: reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a specific amount
of time has passed.
4. Variable Interval Schedule: the reinforces appear on an interval schedule, but the timing is
varied around the average interval.

C. Punishment- is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less likely to recur. Punishers can
be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur.
Punishment can be positive and negative.
Table Reinforcement schedule
Schedule Explanation Real world example
Fixed Behavior is reinforced after a specific number of Factory workers who are paid according to the
ratio response. Eg- after 2,4,6,8, etc responses. number of products they produce.
Variable Behavior is reinforced after an average, but Payoffs from slot machines and other games of
ratio unpredictable, number of response. Eg, after 1,4,5,9, chance.
etc responses.
Fixed Behavior is reinforced for the first response after a People who earn a monthly salary.
interval specific amount of time has passed. Eg. After
5,10,15,20,25, etc minutes.
Variable Behavior is reinforced for the first response after an Person who checks voice mail for message.
interval average, but unpredictable, amount of time has
passed. Eg. After 5, 7, 10, 20, minutes.

The Pros of Punishment

It often is the quickest way to change behavior.
Special instances like the behavior of autistic children can be suppressed temporarily until to buy
time to use positive reinforcement techniques.

The cons of punishment

It is ineffective if the punishment is not delivered shortly after the individual exhibits the
unwanted behavior.
It is ineffective if the punishment is delivered out of the setting in which the unwanted
behavior is exhibited. One of the important rules of operant conditioning is to punish the
behavior, not the person.
Punishment should not be prolonged.

Shaping
Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response
are reinforced
Application of the theory of operant conditioning
1. Conditioning study behavior: reinforce student behavior through variety of incentives
2. Conditioning and classroom behavior: changing the unpleasant behavior to pleasant by
conditioning.
3. Managing Problem Behavior: shape student’s behavior through positive contingencies.

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 4. Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: by use of desensitization techniques. Presenting
stimulus which provoke fear from simple to complex systematically.
5. Conditioning group behavior:
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes- Reinforcement is given in different form, for the progress
of knowledge and in the feedback form.
7. Shaping Complex Behavior-the process of guiding one’s behavior to the desired outcome through
the use of successive approximation to a final desired behavior.
3.3.2. Social Learning Theory (observational learning) theory
Social Cognitive/Albert Bandura/: Emphasis on interaction of behavior, environment, and person
(cognitive) factors as determinants of learning
According to psychologist Albert Bandura, it is learning by watching the behavior of another person, or
model. Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational learning. These
are:
1. direct reinforcement: the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model.
2. vicarious reinforcement: simply see others reinforced for a particular behavior and then increase
his or her production of that behavior.
3. self-reinforcement: rewarding oneself because of his/her best performance.
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the
behavior of someone else:
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed.
3. Motor reproduction: the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation: learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model
inappropriate behaviors.
5. to break down traditional stereotypes, to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students, and Self-
regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behavior.

3.3.3. Cognitive Learning Theory

Edward Tolman has contributed significantly to cognitive learning theory. The theory stresses on the
importance of what goes on inside the learner. Accordingly, the key to learning and changing in behavior
is the individual’s cognition (perception, thought, memory, and ways of processing and structuring
information). According to this theory, in order to learn, individuals must change their cognitions.

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Learning involves:
ƒ Perceiving information;
ƒ Interpreting the information based on what is already known;
ƒ Reorganizing information into new insights or understanding
Cognitive learning may take two forms:
1. Latent learning
2. Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual learning).

Latent Learning:
Latent ‘means hidden and it refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is
motivation to do so.

Insight Learning: also called Gestalt theory of learning which refers to the sudden understanding of a
solution to the problem without any process of trial and error.
There are laws of insight formation. These are: capacities, previous experience, experimental
arrangement, readily repeated, fumbling and search.