Active and Passive Filters

Prof. Sandeep Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
The Yardi School of Artificial Intelligence
The Bharti School of Telecommunication Technology and Management
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
 Outline

1 Introduction

2 Transfer Function

3 Passive Filters

4 Active Filters

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 Introduction

I The frequency response of a circuit is the variation in its behaviour with change in
signal frequency.

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 Outline

1 Introduction

2 Transfer Function

3 Passive Filters

4 Active Filters

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 Transfer Function

I The transfer function H(!) of a circuit is the frequency-dependent ratio of a phasor

output Y (!) (an element voltage or current) to a phasor input X(!) (source voltage
or current).

I
Y(!)
H(!) =
X(!)

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 Possible transfer functions:

I There are four possible transfer functions:

I
Vo (!)
H(!) = Voltage gain =
Vi (!)
Io (!)
H(!) = Current gain =
Ii (!)
Vo (!)
H(!) = Transfer Impedance =
Ii (!)
Io (!)
H(!) = Transfer Admittance =
Vi (!)

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 Transfer Function

I The transfer function H(!) can be expressed in terms of its numerator polynomial
N (!) and denominator polynomial D(!) as
I
N(!)
H(!) =
D(!)
I A zero, as a root of the numerator polynomial, is a value that results in a zero value
of the function. A pole, as a root of the denominator polynomial, is a value for which
the function is infinite.

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 Transfer Function of RC Circuit

I For the RC circuit, obtain the transfer function Vo /Vs and its frequency response.
Solution:

Let vs = Vm cos !t.The frequency-domain equivalent of the circuit is in Figure. By

voltage division, the transfer function is given by
Vo 1/j!C 1
H(!) = = =
Vs R + 1/j!C 1 + j!RC

The magnitude and phase of H(!) as

1 1 !
H= q , = tan
2 !0
1 + (!/!0 )

where !0 = 1/RC.
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I To plot H and for 0 < ! < 1, we obtain their values at some critical points and
then sketch.
At ! = 0, H = 1pand = 0. At ! = 1, H = 0 and = 90 . Also, at
! = !0 , H = 1/ 2 and = 45 , we find that the frequency response

c-

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 Outline

1 Introduction

2 Transfer Function

3 Passive Filters

4 Active Filters

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 Passive Filters

I A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject
or attenuate others.
1. A lowpass filter passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies.
2. A highpass filter passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies.
3. A bandpass filter passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or attenuates
frequencies outside the band.
4. A bandstop filter passes frequencies outside a frequency band and blocks or attenuates
frequencies within the band.

0¥
"

I o I
①
↳ f o
10%0
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 Characteristics Ideal Filters

Type of Filter H(0) H(1) H (! c ) or

p H (! 0 )
Lowpass 1 0 1/p2
Highpass 0 1 1/ 2
Bandpass 0 0 1
Bandstop 1 1 0

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 Low Pass Filter

I A typical lowpass filter is formed when the output of an RC circuit is taken off the
capacitor as shown in Figure.

Vo 1/j!C
H(!) = =
Vi R + 1/j!C
1
H(!) =
1 + j!RC

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I Note that H(0) = 1, H(1) = 0. Figure shows the plot of |H(!)|, along with the
ideal characteristic. The half-power frequency, which is equivalent to the corner
frequency on the Bode plots but in the context of filters is usually knownpas the cutoff
frequency !c , is obtained by setting the magnitude of H(!) equal to 1/ 2, thus,
1 1
H (!c ) = p = p
1 + !c2 R2 C 2 2
or
1
!c =
RC
I The cutoff frequency is also called the rolloff frequency.
I A lowpass filter is designed to pass only frequencies from dc up to the cutoff
frequency !c .
I A lowpass filter can also be formed when the output of an RL circuit is taken off the
resistor. Of course, there are many other circuits for lowpass filters.
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 Highpass Filter

I A highpass filter is formed when the output of an RC circuit is taken off the resistor
as shown in Figure.
Vo R
H(!) = =
Vi R + 1/j!C
j!RC
H(!) =
1 + j!RC

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I Note that H(0) = 0, H(1) = 1. Figure shows the plot of |H(!)|. Again, the corner
or cutoff frequency is
1
!c =
RC
I A highpass filter is designed to pass all frequencies above its cutoff frequency !c .
I A highpass filter can also be formed when the output of an RL circuit is taken off the
inductor.

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 Bandpass Filter

* ⇐
I The RLC series resonant circuit provides a bandpass filter when the output is taken
off the resistor as shown in Figure. The transfer function is

Vo R
H(!) = =
Vi R + j(!L 1/!C)

i%w÷%o ,
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I We observe that H(0) = 0, H(1) = 0. Figure shows the plot of |H(!)|. The
bandpass filter passes a band of frequencies (!1 < ! < !2 ) centered on !0 , the
center frequency, which is given by
1
!0 = p
LC
A bandpass filter is designed to pass all frequencies within a band of frequencies,
!1 < ! < ! 2 .
The bandpass filter in Fig. is a series resonant circuit. A bandpass filter can also be
formed by cascading the lowpass filter (where !2 = !c ) with the high pass
filter(where !1 = !c ). The cutoff frequency is the frequency at which the transfer
function H drops in magnitude to 70.71% of its maximum value. It is also regarded as
the frequency at which the power dissipated in a circuit is half of its maximum value.

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17.*
¥
-1€
 Bandstop Filter

I A filter that prevents a band of frequencies between two designated values (!1 and
!2 ) from passing is variably known as a bandstop, bandreject, or notch filter. A
bandstop filter is formed when the output RLC series resonant circuit is taken off the
LC series combination as shown in Figure. The transfer function is

Vo j(!L 1/!C)
H(!) = =
Vi R + j(!L 1/!C)
-

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I Notice that H(0) = 1, H(1) = 1. Figure shows the plot of |H(!)|. Again, the
center frequency is given by
1
!0 = p
LC
Here, !0 is called the frequency of rejection, while the corresponding bandwidth
(B = !2 !1 ) is known as the bandwidth of rejection.
I A bandstop filter is designed to stop or eliminate all frequencies within a band of
frequencies, !1 < ! < !2 .

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 Question

I Determine what type of filter is shown in Figure. Calculate the corner or cutoff
frequency. Take R = 2k⌦, L = 2H, and C = 2µF.

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 Solution

I The transfer function is

Vo Rk1/sC
H(s) = = , s = j!
Vi sL + Rk1/sC
But

1 R/sC R
Rk = =
sC R + 1/sC 1 + sRC
Substituting this into Eq. gives

R/(1 + sRC) R
H(s) = = 2 , s = j!
sL + R/(1 + sRC) s RLC + sL + R

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I
R
H(!) =
! 2 RLC + j!L + R
Since H(0) = 1 and H(1) = 0, we conclude that the circuit is a second-order
lowpass filter. The magnitude of H is

R
H= q
(R ! 2 RLC)2 + ! 2 L2
The corner frequency
p is the same as the half-power frequency, i.e., where H is reduced
by a factor of 1/ 2. Since the dc value of H(!) is 1 , at the corner frequency,

1 R2
H2 = =
2 (R !c2 RLC)2 + !c2 L2
or
✓ ◆2
2 !c L
2= 1 !c2 LC +
R

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I ✓ ◆2
2 !c L
2= 1 !c2 LC +
R
Substituting the values of R, L, and C, we obtain
6 2 3 2
2= 1 !c2 4 ⇥ 10 + !c 10
Assuming that !c is in krad/s,
2
2= 1 4!c2 + !c2 or 16!c4 7!c2 1=0
Solving the quadratic equation in !c2 , we get !c2 = 0.5509 and -0.1134 . Since !c is
real,

!c = 0.742krad/s = 742rad/s

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 Outline

1 Introduction

2 Transfer Function

3 Passive Filters

4 Active Filters

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 Active Filters

I Active filters consist of combinations of resistors, capacitors, and op amps. They offer
- - -
some advantages over passive RLC filters.
I First, they are often smaller and less expensive, because they do not require
inductors. This makes feasible the integrated circuit realizations of filters.
I Second, they can provide amplifier gain in addition to providing the same frequency
response as RLC filters.
I Third, active filters can be combined with buffer amplifiers (voltage followers) to
isolate each stage of the filter from source and load impedance effects. This isolation
allows designing the stages independently and then cascading them to realize the
desired transfer function.

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 Active Filter

I One type of first-order filter is shown in Figure.

I The components selected for Zi and Zf determine whether the filter is lowpass or
highpass, but one of the components must be reactive.

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 First-Order Lowpass Filter

I Active lowpass filter the transfer function is

Vo Zf
H(!) = =
Vi Zi
where Zi = Ri and

1 Rf /j!Cf Rf
Zf = R f k = =
j!Cf Rf + 1/j!Cf 1 + j!Cf Rf

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 First-Order Lowpass Filter

I Therefore,

Rf 1
H(!) =
Ri 1 + j!Cf Rf
Low frequency (! ! 0) gain or dc gain of Rf /Ri . Also, the corner frequency is
1
!c =
Rf Cf
which does not depend on Ri . This means that several inputs with different Ri could
be summed if required, and the corner frequency would remain the same for each
input

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 First-Order Highpass Filter

00
I Figure shows a typical highpass filter. As before,

Vo Zf
H(!) = =
Vi Zi
where Zi = Ri + 1/j!Ci and Zf = Rf so that

Rf j!Ci Rf
H(!) = =
Ri + 1/j!Ci 1 + j!Ci Ri
High frequencies (! ! 1), the gain tends to Rf /Ri . The corner frequency is
1
!c =
Ri Ci 29/42
 Bandpass Filter

I Bandpass filter that will have a gain K over the required range of frequencies. By
cascading a unity-gain lowpass filter, a unity-gain highpass filter, and an inverter with
gain Rf /Ri , as shown in the block diagram, we can construct a bandpass filter
whose frequency response.

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Bandpass Filter

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 Bandpass Filter

I Transfer function is obtained

✓ ◆✓ ◆✓ ◆
Vo 1 j!C2 R Rf
H(!) = =
Vi 1 + j!C1 R 1 + j!C2 R Ri
Rf 1 j!C2 R
=
Ri 1 + j!C1 R 1 + j!C2 R
The lowpass section sets the upper corner frequency as
1
!2 =
RC1
while the highpass section sets the lower corner frequency as
1
!1 =
RC2
With these values of !1 and !2 , the center frequency, bandwidth, and quality factor
are found as follows:
p
!0 = !1 !2
B = !2 !1
!0
Q=
B
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 Bandpass Filter

I To find the passband gain K,

Rf j!/!1 Rf j!!2
H(!) = =
Ri (1 + j!/!1 ) (1 + j!/!2 ) Ri (!1 + j!) (!2 + j!)
p
At the center frequency !0 = !1 !2 , the magnitude of the transfer function is

Rf j!0 !2 Rf !2
|H (!0 )| = =
Ri (!1 + j!0 ) (!2 + j!0 ) R i !1 + !2
Thus, the passband gain is

Rf !2
K=
R i !1 + !2

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 Bandreject (or Notch) Filter

I A bandreject filter may be constructed by parallel combination of a lowpass filter and

a highpass filter and a summing amplifier, as shown in the block diagram.

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 Bandreject (or Notch) Filter

I The transfer function is

✓ ◆
Vo Rf 1 j!C2 R
H(!) = =
Vi Ri 1 + j!C1 R 1 + j!C2 R

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 Bandreject (or Notch) Filter

I To determine the passband gain K of the filter, we can write above Eq. in terms of
the upper and lower corner frequencies as
✓ ◆
Rf 1 j!/!1
H(!) = +
Ri 1 + j!/!2 1 + j!/!1
2
Rf 1 + j2!/!1 + (j!) /!1 !1
=
Ri (1 + j!/!2 ) (1 + j!/!1 )
Comparing this with the standard form indicates that in the two passbands (! ! 0
and ! ! 1) the gain is

Rf
K=
Ri
We can also find the gain at the center frequency by finding the magnitude of the
p
transfer function at !0 = !1 !2 , writing
2
Rf 1 + j2!0 /!1 + (j!0 ) /!1 !1
H (!0 ) =
Ri (1 + j!0 /!2 ) (1 + j!0 /!1 )
Rf 2!1
=
R i !1 + !2
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 Question

I Design a bandpass filter to pass frequencies between 250 Hz and 3, 000 Hz and with
K = 10. Select R = 20k⌦.

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 Solution

1. Define. The problem is clearly stated and the circuit to be used in the design is
specified.
2. Present. We are asked to use the op amp circuit specified to design a bandpass filter.
We are given the value of R to use (20k⌦). In addition, the frequency range of the
signals to be passed is 250 Hz to 3kHz.
3. Alternative. We will use the equations developed to obtain a solution. We will then
use the resulting transfer function to validate the answer.
4. Attempt. Since !1 = 1/RC2 , we obtain

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I
1 1 1
C2 = = = = 31.83nF
R!1 2⇡f1 R 2⇡ ⇥ 250 ⇥ 20 ⇥ 103
Similarly, since !2 = 1/RC1 ,
1 1 1
C1 = = = = 2.65nF
R!2 2⇡f2 R 2⇡ ⇥ 3, 000 ⇥ 20 ⇥ 103
Therfore,

Rf !1 + !2 f1 + f2 10(3, 250)
=K =K = = 10.83
Ri !2 f2 3, 000
If we select Ri = 10k⌦, then Rf = 10.83Ri ' 108.3k⌦.

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I 5. Evaluate. The output of the first op amp is given by

Vi 0 V1 0 s2.65 ⇥ 10 9 (V1 0)
+ +
20k⌦ 20k⌦ 1
Vi
= 0 ! V1 =
1 + 5.3 ⇥ 10 5 s
The output of the second op amp is given by
V1 0 V2 0
1 + =0!
20k⌦ + s31.83nF
20k⌦
6.366 ⇥ 10 4 sV1
V2 =
1 + 6.366 ⇥ 10 4 s
6.366 ⇥ 10 4 sVi
=
(1 + 6.366 ⇥ 10 4 s) (1 + 5.3 ⇥ 10 5 s)

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I The output of the third op amp is given by

V2 0 Vo 0
+ = 0 ! Vo = 10.83V2 ! j2⇡ ⇥ 25
10k⌦ 108.3k⌦
6.894 ⇥ 10 3 sVi
Vo =
(1 + 6.366 ⇥ 10 4 s) (1 + 5.3 ⇥ 10 5 s)

Let j2⇡ ⇥ 25 and solve for the magnitude of Vo /Vi .

Vo j10.829
=
Vi (1 + j1)(1)
|Vo /Vi | = (0.7071)10.829, which is the lower corner frequency point. Let
s = j2⇡ ⇥ 3000 = j18.849k⌦. We then get
Vo j129.94
=
Vi (1 + j12)(1 + j1)
129.94\ 90
= ⇣ = (0.7071)10.791\ 18.61
(12.042\85.24 ) 1.4142\ 45 )

Clearly this is the upper corner frequency and the answer checks.

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 REFERENCES

I Alexander,CharlesK."Fundamentalsofelectriccircuits".McGraw-Hill,2013.

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