PARVATHAREDDY BABUL REDDY

VISVODAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
KAVALI – 524201, S.P.S.R Nellore Dist., A.P. India. Ph: 08626-243930

Introduction
to

RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

UNIT-I
Prepared by
A. Ramanjaneyulu
CLASS-IV-I SEM
Assistant Professor
Subject: RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
Dept of ME
PBR VITS Kavali.
 Course Objectives
➢ Understand various sources of Energy and the
need of Renewable Energy Systems.
➢ Understand the concepts of Solar Radiation, Wind
energy and its applications.
➢ Analyze solar thermal and solar PV systems
➢ Understand the concept of geothermal energy and
its applications, biomass energy, the concept of
Ocean energy and fuel cells.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-I----------> SOLAR ENERGY
Solar radiation - beam and diffuse radiation,
solar constant, earth sun angles, attenuation and
measurement of solar radiation, local solar time,
derived solar angles, sunrise, sunset and day
length. flat plate collectors, concentrating
collectors, storage of solar energy-thermal
storage.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-II----------> PV ENERGY SYSTEMS
• Introduction, The PV effect in crystalline
silicon basic principles, the film PV, Other PV
technologies, Electrical characteristics of
silicon PV cells and modules, PV systems for
remote power, Grid connected PV systems.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT III------> WIND ENERGY
• Principle of wind energy conversion; Basic
components of wind energy conversion systems;
windmill components, various types and their
constructional features; design considerations of
horizontal and vertical axis wind machines:
analysis of aerodynamic forces acting on wind
mill blades and estimation of power output; wind
data and site selection considerations.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT IV-------> GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Estimation and nature of geothermal energy,
geothermal sources and resources like
hydrothermal, geo-pressured hot dry rock,
magma. Advantages, disadvantages and
application of geothermal energy, prospects of
geothermal energy in India.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT V---> MISCELLANEOUS ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
Ocean Energy:
Tidal Energy-Principle of working, performance and limitations.
Wave Energy-Principle of working, performance and limitations.
Bio mass Energy: Biomass conversion technologies, Biogas generation
plants, Classification, advantages and disadvantages, constructional
details, site selection, digester design consideration
Fuel cell: Principle of working of various types of fuel cells and their
working, performance and limitations.
 Textbooks
1. Stephen Peake, “Renewable Energy Power
for a Sustainable Future”, Oxford International
Edition, 2018.
2. G. D. Rai, “Non-Conventional Energy
Sources”, 4th Edition, Khanna Publishers,
2000.
 Reference BOOKS
1. S. P. Sukhatme, “Solar Energy”,3rd Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill
Education Pvt. Ltd, 2008.
2. B H Khan , “ Non-Conventional Energy Resources”, 2nd Edition,
Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Pvt Ltd, 2011.
3. S. Hasan Saeed and D.K.Sharma,“Non-Conventional Energy
Resources”,3rd Edition, S.K.Kataria& Sons, 2012.
4. G. N. Tiwari and M.K.Ghosal, “Renewable Energy Resource:
Basic Principles and Applications”, Narosa Publishing House,
2004.
Online Learning Resources
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103206
2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108108078
 INTRODUCTION
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS
• What Is Energy?
• Any physical activity in this world, whether carried out
by human beings or by nature, is cause due to flow of
energy in one form or the other. The work output
depends on the energy input.
• Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic
development of any country. In the case of the
developing countries, the energy sector assumes a
critical importance in view of the everincreasing energy
needs requiring huge investments to meet them.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENERGY
RESOURCES
 INTRODUCTION
Energy can be classified into several types based
on the following criteria
➢Primary and Secondary energy
➢Commercial and Non commercial energy
➢Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
➢Conventional and Non-conventional energy
Primary and Secondary Energy
 Primary and Secondary
Energy
➢ According to different basic forms, energy can be divided into primary energy and secondary
energy.
➢ Primary energy refers to energy resources that exist in nature in a natural form and has not
been processed or converted;
➢ secondary energy refers to energy products converted from primary energy processing.
➢ Primary energy can be either renewable energy (such as hydropower, wind energy and
biomass energy) or non-renewable energy (such as coal, oil, natural gas, oil shale, etc.).
➢ Among them, coal, oil, natural gas and water are the core of primary energy, and they
constitute the foundation of global energy in contemporary society.
➢ In addition, renewable energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
ocean energy, biomass energy and nuclear energy are also included in the scope of primary
energy.
➢ Secondary energy is the direct or indirect conversion of primary energy into other types and
forms of energy resources, such as electricity, gas, gasoline, diesel, coke, clean coal, laser and
biogas.
 Commercial Energy and Non
Commercial Energy
Commercial Energy:
➢ The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are
known as commercial energy.
➢ By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal
and refined petroleum products.
➢ Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized
countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for
economic production, but also for many household tasks of general
population.
➢ Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
 Commercial Energy and Non
Commercial Energy
Non Commercial Energy
➢ Non-Commercial Energy The energy sources that are not available in the
commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy.
➢ Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and
agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price
used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels.
➢ Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
➢ Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas;
➢ solar energy for water heating, electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and
fruits;
➢ Animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing
sugarcane;
➢ Wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.
 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

• Renewable sources of energy are available

plentiful in nature and are sustainable. These
resources of energy can be naturally available.
• Examples
– Solar energy, geothermal energy, wind energy,
biomass, hydropower and tidal energy.
 Renewable and Non-
Renewable energy
• Non-renewable resource
– A non-renewable resource is a natural resource
that is found underneath the earth.
– These type of energy resources do not replenish
at the same speed at which it is used.
– They take millions of years to replenish.
– The main examples of non-renewable resources
are coal, oil and natural gas.
Renewable and Non-Renewable
energy
 Conventional and Non-conventional
energy
➢ Conventional energy resources which are being
traditionally used for many decades and were in
common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called
conventional energy resources,
E.g., fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
➢ Non-conventional energy resources which are
considered for large– scale use after oil crisis of
1973.
E.g., solar, wind, biomass, etc
 NEED OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
➢ World faces many of the environmental problems
with the usage of fossil fuels (like coal, anthracite,
brown coal, oils and gaseous fuels).
➢ The burning of fossil fuel produces carbon dioxide
everyday.
➢ This increased content of Carbon Dioxide is
playing main role for increasing the global
atmospheric temperature called as “Global
Warming Effect”.
 COAL

FOSSIL FUELS are used for 85% of the world’s

commercial energy
OIL
NATURAL GAS
The problems faced in the usage
of fossil fuels are
➢ Environmental hazards
➢ Rising prices of fuels
➢ Oil spills
➢ Acid rain etc
➢ Effect on Human Health
➢ Non-Renewable
➢ Coal Mining
➢ Need Huge Amount of Reserves
 1. Environmental Hazards
➢ Environmental pollution is
one of the major
disadvantages of fossil fuels.
➢ It is a known fact that carbon
dioxide gas released when
fossil fuels are burnt, and it is
one of the primary gas
responsible for global
warming.
 2. Rising Prices
➢ Only few countries
have huge reserves
of oil and natural
gas.
➢ Due to heavy usage
of fossil fuels , the
fuel rates are
increased.
 3. Acid Rain
• The gases that are
emitted by cars, vehicles,
and factories are released
into the atmosphere.
• They dissolve in
rainwater, causing acid
rains and acid snow.
• Acid rains affect human
life to a great extent
 4. Impact on Aquatic Life by Oil Spill:
➢An oil spill is the release of a liquid
petroleum hydrocarbon into the
environment, especially marine areas, due
to human activity or natural disasters, and
is a form of pollution. .
➢Often we hear of some leaks in oil tankers
or ship getting drowned deep under the sea
that were carrying crude oil to get refined.
➢The impact of this is that crude oil
contains some toxic substances which when
mixed up with water poses serious impact
on aquatic life.
 5. Effect on Human Health
➢ Pollution from vehicles and coal
powered power plants can cause
serious
environmental hazards and can
significantly affect quality of human
life.
➢Air pollution can result in asthma,
chronic obstructive pulmonary
disorder and lung cancer.
➢ Long-term exposure may increase
respiratory infections in general
population.
 6.Non-Renewable
➢ Fossil fuels are being extracted
to meet the gap between
demand and supply and it is
estimated that they will be
finished in next 30-40 years.
➢ They are non-renewable. This
means once these non-
renewable sources are
completely used up, there is
nothing more left.
 7. Coal Mining
➢ Extraction of coal from areas
that have huge reserves is not
only a difficult and dangerous
task but also poses a serious
health hazard to the lives of
several workers who work
there.
➢ The coal mining destroys wide
areas of land and results in
ecological imbalance.
 8. Need Huge Amount of Reserves
➢ The coal power plants requires
huge and regular supply of coal to
produce large amount of energy
on a constant basis.
➢ This means that these plants need
train-loads of fuel near power
stations to carry out the process
of generating power.
➢ This is needed as many countries
are still dependent on coal as a
major source for producing power.
 Solar energy
➢ Solar radiation from the sun that is
capable of producing heat, causing a
chemical reaction, and producing
electricity is called Solar Energy.
➢ It is the most powerful and vast source
of Energy.
➢ The total Solar Energy incident on the
earth's surface is enormously greater
than the world's current and future
Energy requirements.
➢ Solar Energy is expected to be the most
attractive renewable Energy source.
➢ Solar Energy has an inexhaustible
supply and it is non-polluting as in the
non-renewable sources like coal,
natural gas, and petroleum.
Solar Power Energy Conversion Process
 Solar radiation
➢ Solar radiation refers to energy
produced by the Sun.
➢ Solar radiation, often called the
solar resource or just sunlight, is a
general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted
by the sun.
➢ Solar radiation can be captured
and turned into useful forms of
energy, such as heat and
electricity, using a variety of
technologies.
 Albedo
• The total reflectivity of the earth is
31% which is technically known as
Albedo.
 Beam and diffuse radiation
Atmospheric Effects:
• Solar radiation is
absorbed, scattered
and reflected by
components of and
reflected by
components of the
atmosphere .
 Beam and diffuse radiation
• The amount of radiation reaching The amount
of radiation reaching the earth is less than
what entered the top of the atmosphere We
classify it in atmosphere. We classify it in two
categories:
1. Direct Radiation or beam radiation
2. Diffuse Radiation
Beam and diffuse radiation
 Beam Radiation or Direct Radiation

• The radiation received by the Earth without

any change in the direction is referred to as
beam radiation or direct radiation as shown in
Figure
 Diffused Radiation
➢ The diffused radiation is
received by the Earth from all
directions.
➢ The radiations may change
their direction due to
scattering from dust particles,
clouds etc. while passing
through atmosphere.
➢ Diffused radiations do not have
a unique direction.
➢ The diffused radiation is
shown in Figure .
 Global Radiation
➢ The total radiation is the sum of
direct radiation and diffused
radiation and is called global
radiation or simply insolation.
➢ Diffused component of solar
radiation (B) is that portion which
is reflected from clouds, the
ground, and nearby objects, and
direct component of solar
radiation (A) is that portion which
falls onto flat-plate solar panels
 Insolation
• Total amount of solar radiation per unit area
per day reaching a part of the Earth is called
the ‘insolation’, a short form of “incident
solar radiation”.
 Irradiance
• The rate at which radiations fall on a surface
per unit area is called irradiance (W/m2).
 Applications
The solar energy can be used for following applications
1. Water heating
2. Refrigeration, heating and ventilation
3. Cooking
4. Process heating
5. Water treatment
6. Electricity generation
7. Agriculture
8. Transport
Water heating
SOLAR COOKER
SOLAR DRIER
Solar water pumping
Solar thermal power
generations
SOLAR Refrigeration
Transportation USING SOLAR
 solar constant
• The solar energy reaching unit area at outer edge of
the Earth’s atmosphere exposed perpendicularly to the
rays of the Sun at the average distance between the
Sun and Earth is known as the solar constant.
Solar Constant = 1.353kW/m2.
 extraterrestrial solar
radiation and terrestrial solar radiation

• In order to
understand
these terms,
let us
consider
terrestrial and
extraterrestri
al regions as
shown in
Figure
Extraterrestrial radiation
 PROBLEM
• Evaluate the extraterrestrial solar radiation on January 1,
June 22 and December 1.

• Using Eq.

For January 1, n = 1
For June 22, n = 174
For December 21, n = 355
 PROBLEM
• For January 1 :
• Iext = 1353 [1 + 0.033 cos (360 X 1/365)] = 1398 W/m2
• For June 22 :(31+28+31+30+31+22)
• Iext = 1353 [1 + 0.033 cos (360 X 173/365)] = 1309 W/m2
• For December 21 :(31+28+31+30+31+30+31+31+30+31+30+21)
• Iext = 1353 [1 + 0.033 cos (360 X355/365)] = 1397 W/m2
 Sun and earth angles
➢ The Earth’s daily rotation
about the axis through its two
celestial poles (North and
South) is perpendicular to the
equator, but it is not
perpendicular to the plane of
the Earth’s orbit.
➢ In fact, the measure of tilt or
obliquity of the Earth’s axis to
a line perpendicular to the
plane of its orbit is currently
about 23.5°.
 Sun and earth angles
➢ We call the plane
parallel to the Earth’s
celestial equator and
through the center of
the sun the plane of
the Sun.
➢ The Earth passes
alternately above and
below this plane
making one complete
elliptic cycle every year.
 Sun and earth angles
In solar radiation, the following parameters are
important.
➢Latitude of location (ø)
➢Declination angle (δ)
➢Altitude angle (α)
➢Hour angle (ω)
➢Solar azimuth angle (γ)
➢Zenith angle (θz)
➢Tilt angle or slope angle (β)
 Latitude of Location or angle of
lattitude (ø)
• The latitude of a location or a point on the Earth is the angle between the
line joining that location to the centre of the earth and the equatorial
plane.
Angle of latitude (ø)
Declination angle (δ)
 Declination (δ)
In general, the Sun declination angle, δ, is defined to be that angle made between a ray of the
Sun, when extended to the centre of the earth, O, and the equatorial plane.
 Altitude angle or solar
altitude (α)
• It is a vertical angle
between the
projection of the
sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane
and the direction of
sun’s rays ( passing
through the point).
 Zenith angle (θz)
• It is a vertical angle between the sun’s rays and a line
perpendicular to the horizontal plane through a point.
• Therefore zenith and altitude angles are complementary
angles

z
 Hour angle (ω)
➢ The hour angle, ω, is the angle between two planes: one containing
the Earth's axis and the zenith (the meridian plane), and the other
containing the Earth's axis and the given point (the hour circle
passing through the point).
➢ It can also say that angle traced by sun in 1 hour with reference to
12 noon (Local Solar Time) and is equivalent to 15°per hour.
➢ The hour angle can de measured as
ω= 15×(12-ST),where ST is local solar time
➢ Example:
At 9 am, ω= 15×(12-9) = 45°
At 6 pm, ω= 15×(12-18) =- 90°
 Azimuth Angle (γ)
• It is a horizontal angle between the north and
the horizontal projection of the sun’s rays.
 Tilt angle or slope angle (β)
• The angle between the collector surface plane and the
horizontal plane is called the tilt angle or the slope
angle and is designated by β.
➢ For vertical surface β= 900
➢ For horizontal surface β= 00
➢ βis always positive.
• For sun tracking collectors/reflectors, the angle β is
changed automatically to track the sun.
• For fixed type collectors/reflectors, angle β is constant.
 Incidence angle
• The angle between
the incident beam(I
bn) and normal (ON)
to surface (S).
• If surface S is fixed,
angle of incidence
(θi) has hourly i
variation due to
changing position of
the sun.
 Attenuation
• The variation in solar radiation reaching the
earth than received at the outside of the
atmosphere is due to absorption and scattering
in atmosphere.
 Measurement of solar radiation
➢ Measurement of solar radiation is the most important aspect
which can give the accurate quantum of energy that can be
derived from a particular location
➢ Three types of instrument are generally used which can
measure three different aspect for solar radiation these are.
1. Pyranometer: It is used to measure the Both beam and diffuse
radiation.
2. Pyrheliometer: The beam radiation or direct radiation could be
measured by using pyrheliometer
3. Sun shine recorders : These instrument are used to measure the
hours of sunshine over a day
 Pyranometer
• This instrument measures the total radiation arriving from
all directions, including both direct and diffuse components
i.e. it measures all of the radiation that is of potential use
to a Solar Energy collecting system.
• It is a sensor that is designed to measure the solar
radiation flux density (in watts per meter square).
• The name pyranometer has a Greek origin, "pyr" : "fire"
and "ano" : "above, sky". Instruments used to measure
heating power of radiation, used in meteorology to
measure solar radiation as pyrheliometers.
Pyranometer
 Construction
➢ This instrument also known as solarimeter is generally mounted in a
horizontal position away from tall objects so that the 2π field of
view of the instrument covers the entire sky.
➢ It responds equally to the energy in all wavelengths.
➢ The most important part of a pyranometer is the detector that
responds to incoming radiation.
➢ The most accurate detectors use a stack of thermocouples, called a
thermopile, to measure how much hotter a black surface becomes
when exposed to sunlight relative to a White surface .
➢ They incorporate a sensor surface that consists of alternating black
and white segments as shown in the figure below.
Detailed view of a sensor
 Construction
➢ Pyranometer consists of a black surface which is exposed to solar
radiation and heated by solar radiation.
➢ The hot junctions of a thermopile are attached to the black surface
and cold junctions are placed under a guard plate.
➢ Hot junctions are in the form of horizontal circular disc of 25mm
diameter and these junctions are coated with special black lacquer
which is having high absorptivity.
➢ Two glass domes which are having 30mm and 50mm diameter and
having excellent transmission characteristics.
➢ These glass domes are used to protect disc (hot junction) from
weather.
➢ The accuracy of this instrument is +or – 2%
 Working of pyranometer
➢ The pyranometer is kept exposed to the sun & it start
receiving the radiation.
➢ Due to the absorption of the radiation, the surface
temp starts increasing
➢ If only the diffuse radiation is to be measured the
direct radiation is blocked by a shield.
➢ So only the diffuse radiation will be incident on the
surface
➢ Hence the thermo emf will be proportional to be
diffuse radiation
Working principle
 Working principle
• The hot junctions of thermopile are attached to
the black surface, while the cold junctions are
located under a guard plate so that they do not
receive the radiation directly.
• As a result an emf is generated. This emf which is
usually in the range of 0 t0 10mv can be read,
recorded or integrated over a period of time and
is a measure of global radiation.
Pyrheliometer
Pyrheliometer
 construction
• This is an instrument which measures beam radiation
falling on a surface normal to the sun’s rays.
• In contrast to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate
(with hot junctions of a thermopile attached to it) is located
at the base of a collimating tube.
• The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays with
the help of a two-axis tracking mechanism and alignment
indicator.
• Thus the black plate receives only beam radiation and a
small amount of diffuse radiation falling within the
acceptance angle of the instrument.
INTERNAL CIRCUIT
 working
➢ In the circuit, it can be seen that the black body absorbs the
radiation falling from the lens and a perfect black body
completely absorbs any radiation falling on it, so the
radiation falling into the tube gets absorbed by the black
object entirely .
➢ Once the radiation gets absorbed the atoms in the body gets
excited because of the increasing temperature of the entire
body.
➢ This temperature increase will also be experienced by the
thermocouple junction ‘A‘.
➢ Now with junction ‘A‘ of the thermocouple at high
temperature and junction ‘B‘ at low temperature, a current
flow takes place in its loop.
➢ This current in the loop will also flow through the
galvanometer which is in series and thereby causing a
deviation in it.
➢ This deviation is proportional to current, which in turn is
proportional to temperature difference at junctions.
➢ Now by adjusting the rheostat until the galvanometer
deviation becomes completely void.
➢ Once this happens we can obtain voltage and current
readings from the meters and do a simple calculation to
determine the heat absorbed by the black body.
➢ This calculated value can be used to determine the
radiation, as heat generated by the black body is directly
proportional to the radiation.
Observation methods
 SUNSHINE RECORDER
➢This instrument measures the duration in hours,of
bright sunshine during the course of the day.
➢It essentially consists of glass sphere (about 10 cm in
diameter) mounted on its axis parallel to that of earth,
within a spherical section (bowl).
➢The bowl and glass sphere is arranged in such a way
that sun‟s rays are focused sharply at a spot on a card
held in a groove in the bowl.
➢The card is prepared from special paper bearinga time
scale.
SUNSHINE RECORDER
 SUNSHINE RECORDER
➢As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine burns
a path along this paper.
➢The length of the trace thus obtained on the paper is
the measure of the duration of the bright sunshine.

➢Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in

the spherical segment to take care of the different
seasons of the year.
 LOCAL SOLAR TIME
• "Local solar time" (or simply "solar time") is the time
according to the position of the sun in the sky relative to one
specific location on the ground.
 CALCULATION LOCAL SOLAR TIME
➢ Local Solar Time can be calculated from standard time
by applying two corrections.
➢ The first correction arises due to the difference in
longitude of the location and meridian on which
standard time is based.
➢ The correction has a magnitude of 4minutes for every
degree difference in longitude.
➢ Second correction called the equation of time
correction is due to the fact that earth‘s orbit and the
rate of rotation are subject to small perturbations.
Equation of time correction
 Equation of time
• The difference between apparent solar time
(the actual time between noons) and mean
solar time (the average time between noons)
is called the equation of time.
Equation of time correction
Equation of time
correction
 LOCAL SOLAR TIME
• Local Solar Time = Standard time +
4(Standard time Longitude-Longitude of the
location)+(Equation of time correction)
 PROBLEM
• Determine the local solar time and declination
at a location latitude 23015‘N, longitude
77030‘E at 12.30 IST on june 19. Equation of
Time correction is = -(1’01”‖ ).
The Local solar time=IST+(standard time longitude-longitude of
location)+Equation of time correction.
PROBLEM (Contd..)
 Day Length
➢ The period during sunrise and sunset decides the
length of the day.
➢ This is essential requirement to know about the
period during which sun's energy availability.
➢ The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or
sunset on a horizontal surface can be found using
equation and substituting
 Day Length
• At the time of sunset or sunrise the zenith
angle θz=90o , we obtain sunrise hour angle as

Since 150 of the hour angle are equivalent to 1

hour The day length(hrs) is given by
•
•
•

=67.5O
 SOLAR COLLECTOR
➢ A solar collector is a device that collects and/or
concentrates solar radiation from the Sun.
➢ These devices are primarily used for active solar
heating and allow for the heating of water for
personal use.
➢ These collectors are generally mounted on the
roof and must be very Strong as they are exposed
to a variety of different weather conditions.
 SOLAR COLLECTOR
➢The use of these solar collectors provides an
alternative for traditional domestic water
heating using a water heater, potentially
reducing energy costs over time.
➢As well as in domestic settings, a large number
of these collectors can be combined in an
array and used to generate electricity in solar
thermal power plants.
Flat plate collector (FPC) or
non concentrating collector
Flat plate collector (FPC)
➢ A non-concentrating or flat plate collector is one in
which the absorbing surface for solar radiations is
essentially flat with no means for concentrating the
incoming solar radiation.
➢ The flat-plate solar collectors are probably the most
fundamental and most studied technology for solar-
powered domestic hot water systems.
➢ The Sun heats a dark flat surface which collect as much
energy as possible, and then the energy is transferred
to water, air, or other fluid for further use.
 components
The main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:
1) Black surface - Absorbent of the incident solar energy
2) Glazing cover - A transparent layer( made of glass) that
transmits radiation to the absorber plate. It prevents
radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
3) Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the
collector
4) Support structure or casing to protect the components and
hold them in place
5) Thermal Insulation is used to reduce heat losses
Flat plate collector (FPC)
➢ A special coating is provided on the absorber plate to
reduce radiation loss. This coating has excellent
absorption characteristics & low emission characteristics.
As a result, collection efficiency increases.
➢ The flat-plate systems normally operate and reach the
maximum efficiency within the temperature range from
40 o to 100oC.
➢ The disadvantage of flat plate collector is that it is not
suitable for high temperature applications.
Various designs of flat-plate
collector assembly
 Various designs of flat-plate
collector assembly
• Color codes:
– Light blue - glass cover,
– Dark blue - fluid channels,
– Black - absorber material,
– Gray - insulation.
➢ Some constructions (b, c) include fluid channels in the
absorber plate structure to maximize thermal conductance
between the components.
➢ Other modifications (a, d) include tubes and channels
soldered or cemented to the plate
 Advantages of flat plate
collector
➢Absorb energy coming from all directions
above the absorber (both beam and diffuse
solar irradiance).
➢Do not need to track the sun
➢Simpler and Less Expensive
➢High output can be achieved by providing two
axis tracking mechanism,etc.
 Applications
➢Water heating
➢Space heating
➢Vapour absortpion refrigeration
Evacuated tube collector
Evacuated tube collector
➢ It consists of two concentric glass tubes which are
completely evacuated.
➢ The outer surface of glass tube is specially coated for
having high absorptivity characteristics and low emissivity
characteristics.
➢ When heat is transferred, the water inside the tube is
heated and supplied to the proper application.
➢ Water circulation is based on density differences
(thermosyphon circulation)
➢ Heat loss to surroundings by convection is reduced by
providing vacuum. Collection efficiency is increased.
Solar air heater
Solar air heater
 Solar air heater
➢ A conventional solar air heater is essentially a flat plate collector
with an absorber plate.
➢ It is a transparent cover system at the top and insulation at the
bottom and on the sides. The whole assembly is enclosed in a sheet
metal container as shown in figure.
➢ Cold air is drawn by fan in to duct which is covered by solar collector.
➢ The heat absorbing by solar collector is transfer to the air in duct
and so air become warm.
➢ Warm air has low density as compare to cold air so it flow to upward
and thus natural convection current is being set.
➢ Air has low co-efficient of heat convection so for increasing velocity
blower is used.
 Applications
➢Heating buildings
➢Drying agricultural products and lumber
➢Heating green houses
➢As heat source for heat engines ( like Brayton
or Stirling cycles)
Concentrating collectors
➢ Concentrating, or focusing, collectors catch direct
radiation over a large area and focus it onto a small
absorber area.
➢ These collectors can provide high temperatures more
efficiently than flat-plate collectors, since the
absorption surface area is much smaller
➢ Most concentrating collectors require mechanical
equipment that constantly orients the collectors
toward the sun and keeps the absorber at the point of
focus.
Concentrating collectors
➢These are devices that optically reflect and
focus incident solar energy onto a small
receiving area.
➢As a result of this concentration, the intensity
of the solar energy is magnified and the
temperatures that can be achieved at the
receiver can approach several hundred or
even several thousand degrees Celsius.
Concentrating collectors
Parabolic trough system
 Parabolic trough system
➢ Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter ‘U’.
➢ The troughs concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is
positioned along the central line of the trough.
➢ Sometimes a transparent glass tube surrounds the receiver tube to
reduce heat loss.
➢ The energy from the sun sent to the tube which heats fluid flowing
through the tube, and the heat energy is then used to generate
electricity in a conventional steam generator.
➢ Many troughs placed in parallel rows are called a collector field.
➢ The troughs in the field are all aligned along a north - south axis so
they can track the sun from east to west during the day, ensuring that
the sun is continuously focused on the receiver pipes.
➢ Individual trough systems currently can generate about 80 MW of
electricity.
 Parabolic trough system
The aperture width of a commercial PTC is about 5.7 m.
The parabolic trough system
Power generation by parabolic
trough system
 Parabolic dish collector
➢ A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large
satellite dish, but has mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at
the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker.
 Parabolic dish collector
➢ A parabolic (paraboloid) dish collector brings solar radiation to a
focus point which has a small central volume.
➢ A dish 6.6m in diameter and it has been made from about 200
curved mirror segments forming a paraboloid surface.
➢ The absorbed is located at focus and it is made of a zirconium
copper alloy with a black chrome selective coating.
➢ The heat transport fluid flown into and out of the absorber cavity
through pipes.
➢ This heat energy is then converted to mechanical power. An
electric generator or alternator converts the mechanical power
into electrical power.
 Parabolic dish collector
➢ The dish can be turned automatically about two axes(up-down and
left-right) so that the sun is always kept in line with the focus.
➢ The concentration ratios(30-100) are very high in case of parabolic
dish system and therefore high temperatures (300-500oC)can be
achieved.
➢ A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and
concentrate the sun's rays onto a receiver located at the focal point in
front of the dish.
➢ In some systems, a heat engine, such as a Stirling engine, is linked to
the receiver to generate electricity.
➢ Parabolic dish systems can reach 1000 °C at the receiver, and achieve
the highest efficiencies for converting solar energy to electricity in the
small-power capacity range .
 Power tower system (or) Central
receiver system
• A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct
solar energy to a large absorber located on a tower.
Power tower system
 Fresnel Lens Collector
• The radiation is refracted and focused onto the absorber
plate.
• The facets are used to refract sunlight and to concentrate on
solar cell.
Fresnel Lens Collector
Fresnel Lens Collector
 STORAGE OF SOLAR ENERGY
➢ The thermal energy of sun can be stored in a well-insulated
fluids or solids.
➢ It is either stored as i) Sensible heat – by virtue of the heat
capacity of the storage medium, or as ii) Latent heat – by
virtue of the latent heat of change of phase of the medium or
both.
➢ In the first type of storage the temp of the medium changes
during charging or discharging of the storage whereas in the
second type the temp of the medium remains more or less
constant since it undergoes a phase transformation.
➢ An overview of the major techniques of storage of solar
energy is as shown in the fig.
 Thermal Energy Storage
➢ Thermal energy storage is a family of technologies in which a fluid,
such as water or molten salt, or other material is used to store heat.
➢ This thermal storage material is then stored in an insulated tank until
the energy is needed.
➢ The energy may be used directly for heating and cooling, or it can be
used to generate electricity.
➢ In thermal energy storage systems intended for electricity, the heat is
used to boil water.
➢ The resulting steam drives a turbine and produces electrical power
using the same equipment that is used in conventional electricity
generating stations.
➢ Thermal energy storage is useful in CSP (concentrated solar power)
plants, which focus sunlight onto a receiver to heat a working fluid.
Thermal Energy Storage
Thermal Energy Storage
LATENT HEAT STORAGE