Educational Leadership and Management (EDU 602) VU
Lesson 10
CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
Topic 62: Overview
- The failure of trait and behavioural theories to have consistency in their predictions of
leader effectiveness made it very clear that leadership involves more personal traits or
behaviours.
- Researchers therefore turned to examine how leadership is affected as the situation
varies.
- These contingency theories of leadership also known as situational theories of
leadership, suggest that effective leadership is dependent on (or contingent on) the
specific variables in each situation.
- Context is important.
Topic 63: The Contingency Theory
- The leader’s ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including
the leader’s preferred style, the capabilities and behaviours of followers and also
various others situational factors.
- Leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either
when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change.
- This helps to explain how some leaders who seem for a while to have the ‘Midas
Touch’ suddenly appear to have lost their magic and make very successful decisions.
- Contingency theory views leadership as being more flexible – different leadership
styles used at different times depending on the circumstances.
- Suggests leadership is not a fixed series of characteristics that can be transposed into
different contexts.
Topic 64: Situational Leadership
- The best action of leader depends on a range of situational factors.
- Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) identified three forces that led to the leader’s action:
the forces in the follower and also in the leader.
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Topic 65: Trait vs Behaviour Theory
Similarities
- The main similarity is that both approaches emphasize that there are identifiable
actions that any leader must be capable of doing in any given situation.
- Behaviourism is a “trait” in the sense that it, too, holds that leaders must show certain
common personality makers or habits of mind, but it argues that these can be elicited
from any one at any time, and that no one person has more potential than another.
- Trait theory and behaviourism are two similar approaches to questions about effective
leadership. They both see leadership as an objective set of qualities or actions that
must be mastered. They differ on who can develop these behaviours.
Topic 66: Trait vs Behaviour Theory
Differences
- Behaviourism is a more “democratic” kind of theory. Becoming a leader, according to
the behaviourist school of thought, is just a matter of proper training, while trait
theory holds that a leader must have certain inherent, innate qualities.
- Take, for example, two people. One was born to a house of a family that was weak
willed and was known for letting people take advantage of them. Another was born in
a house filled with powerful executives and those commonly called “born leaders”.
- Theoretically, the person from the former house will develop the habits of servility,
while the second person will develop the habits of assertiveness.
- According to behaviourism, had their upbringings been switched, they each would
have developed differently, so either is equally likely to be a good leader with proper
training.
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Lesson 11
LEADERSHIP STYLES I
Topic 67: What is a Leadership Style?
A leadership style is a leader’s style of providing direction, implementing plans and
motivating people. It includes pattern of explicit and implicit actions performed by the leader.
(Newstrom, Davis, 1993)
Hay Mcber (1999) advises that leadership styles are the ways in which the leader:
- Listens
- Sets goals and standards
- Develops action plans
- Directs others
- Gives feedback
He further states that leadership styles are based on:
a) Individuals’ own characteristics (values, principles, personality)
b) Styles that the individual has seen and experienced others doing.
c) The values promoted by the individual’s organization as being the right way to
manage things.
d) The specific management situation and the people the individual deals with most.
Topic 68: 3 Classical Leadership Styles
Kurt Lewin and his co researchers conducted the first major study of leadership styles in
1939. They developed a leadership framework based on three different styles of leadership.
This early study is still influential.
1. Autocratic or Authoritarian
The leader tells his or her employees what he wants done and how to it is to be
accomplished; the leader dose not take their advice in the matter.
2. Democratic or Participative
The leader includes one or more employees in the decision making process, but
retains the final decision maki8ng authority.
3. Laissez Fair or Delegative
The leader allows free reign to the employees and let them make decisions, however
the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made.
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Topic 69: Autocratic/ Authoritarian Leadership
- A leader who uses fear and threats to get the jobs done – bossy.
- High degree of dependency on the leader because he makes all the decisions without
referring anyone else.
- Does not trust anybody.
- Can create demotivation and alienation of staff.
- May be valuable in some types of business where decisions need to be made quickly
and decisively.
- Leader uses this because there is not enough time and the members ran out of ideas.
- Leader uses this style by directly stating the3 decisions without asking the team
members.
Topic 70: Democratic/ Participative Leadership
- This style is normally used when some part of the information is available with the
leader and the subordinates have the other parts- a leader is not expected to know
everything and this is why you employ knowledgeable and skilled people.
- Encourages decision making from different perspectives.
- Consultative persuasive.
- Mutually beneficial allows employees to become part of the team and allows the
leader to make better decisions.
- Helps improve motivation and involvement – workers feel ownership of the firm and
its ideas.
- Improves the sharing of experiences and ideas within the business.
- Style is used when there is enough time.
- Can delay decision making.
Topic 71: Laissez fair or Delegative Leadership
- (Laissez-faire or lais-ser faire) is a French word and stands for non-interference in the
affairs of the others.
- Leaders use this style when the employees have the knowledge or are able to analyse
the situation to determine what to do and how.
- Leaders use this style when they have full trust and confidence in their team members.
- Can be very useful in business where creative ideas are important.
- Relies on good team work.
- Relies on good interpersonal relations.
- It is not ideal in situations where group members lack the knowledge or the
experience they need to complete tasks and make decisions.
- Some people are not good at setting their own deadlines, managing their own projects
and solving problems on their own.
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- In such situations, projects can go off-track and deadlines can be missed when team
members do not get enough guidance or feedback from leaders.
Topic 72: Examples of Leadership Styles
- Good leaders use all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the
followers, the leaders and the situation.
- Some examples include: using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just
learning the job. The leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is
motivated to learn a new skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.
- Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their jobs. The leader
knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know their
jobs and want to become the part of the team.
- Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you. You
cannot do everything and the employees need to take ownership of her job! In
addition this allows you to be more productive.
- Using all three: telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly and a
new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their ideas and input on
creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in order to implement the
new procedure (delegative).
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Lesson 12
LEADERSHIP STYLES II
Topic 73: Paternalistic Leadership
- Another common leadership style is the paternalistic style.
- It is rooted in a leadership method that comprises strict discipline and authority,
paternal kindness and moral integrity with in a ruling atmosphere.
- High concern for production, use of rewards for compliance and loyalty.
- Leaders act as a father figure.
- Decisions are made by leaders but he may consult.
- Believes in the need to support the staff.
Topic 74: Transactional Leadership
- Transactional leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and then by
Bernard Bass in 1981.
- Used most often by the managers.
- Focuses on the basic management process of controlling, organizing and short term
planning.
- Transactional leadership is based on the premise that:
People are motivated by reward and punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
- Transactional leader works through creating well defined structures and makes it clear
as to:
What is required f their subordinates and the reward what they get for following
orders.
Punishments are not well mentioned, at times not even mentioned, yet they are well-
understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place.
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Topic 75 : Other Common Leadership Styles
Task oriented leadership
- Focuses exclusively on getting the job done.
- Can be quite autocratic.
- Leader actively defines the work and the required roles.
- Put structures in place, plans, organizes and monitors.
People oriented Leadership
- Opposite of task oriented.
- Focus on organizing, supporting and developing the people.
- Participative-leads to team work and creative collaboration.
- Can lead to failure if taken to extreme.
Servant Leadership
- A “servant leader” is someone regardless of level, who leads simply by meeting the
needs of the team.
- The term sometimes describe a person without formal recognition as a leader.
- Leading by example have high integrity and lead with generously
- Approach can create a positive corporate culture and can lead to high morale among
team members.
- Ill -suited to meeting tight deadlines/making quick decisions.
Topic 76: Other Common Leadership Styles 2
Bureaucratic Leadership
- Leaders follow rules rigorously and ensure that their people follow procedures
preciously.
- Appropriate for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery
with toxic substances or at dangerous heights) or with large sums of money.
- Also useful for managing employees who perform routine tasks.
- Much less effective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity or
innovation.
Facilitative Leadership
- A special style, can be employed by any one.
- Rather than being directive, the leader uses a number of in direct patterns to help- the
group reach a consensus or accomplish the task. For example, when conducting a
meeting.
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Topic 77: Other Common Leadership Styles 3
Charismatic leadership
- Leader gather follower through strength of personality and charm, rather than any
form of external power or authority.
- Leader injects huge doses of enthusiasm into team – is very energetic in driving other
forwards.
- Charismatic leaders, however, can tend to believe more in themselves than in the
team- no change.
- Followers believe that success is tied with the presence of leader.
- This can create the risk of the team, or the organization, failing if the leader leaves.
Visionary leadership
- Focuses on how the leader defines the future for the followers and moves them
towards it.
- Most appropriate when an organization needs a new direction. Its goal is to move
people towards a new set of shared dreams.
- “visionary leaders articulate where a group is going, but not how it will get there –
setting people free to innovate, experiment, take calculated risks” Daniel Goleman.
Topic 78: Leadership Style Matrix
- Programmability and Capability for Autonomy
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Lesson 13
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP INTRODUCTION
Topic 79: Transformational Leadership
Definition
“A leadership style focused on effecting revolutionary change in organizations through a
commitment to the organization’s vision” (Sulllivan & Decker 2001)
- A style of leadership in which the leader identifies the needed change, creates a vision
to guide the change through inspiration and executes the change with the commitment
of the members of the group.
Focus
Primarily, on making changes happen in:
- Self
- Team
- Group and
- Organization
Requires a number of different skills and is closely associated with:
Charismatic and Visionary leadership.
Focus Rationale
Causes widespread organizational reforms by establishing the following:
- Long term strategic planning
- Clear objectives
- Clear vision
- Leading by example – walk the walk
- Efficiency of systems and processes
Topic 80: Historical Perspectives
- Burns (1978) was the first who identifies the transformational leadership:
Transformational leadership is a process by which leaders and followers raise one
another to higher moral values and motivation.
Burns make a distinction between ordinary leaders, who ensure followers loyalty
through rewards (transactional), and the extra ordinary leaders, who focus on
fulfilling the essential needs of followers (transformational).
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- Bass (1985) identified transformational leadership as motivating followers by
appealing to their self- interest.
- Bass and Avolio (1994) further describe this leadership style as management with
active involvement.
Tichy Urich, (1986) identified characteristics:
- Change agent
- Courageous individual
- Believe in people
- Value-driven
- Lifelong learners
- Ability to deal with complexity
- Visionary
Topic 81: The 4 I’s of Transformational Leadership
1. Idealized influence
2. Inspirational motivation
3. Intellectual stimulation
4. Individualized consideration
Idealized influence:
- Leaders who act as strong role models for followers (charisma)
Inspirational motivation:
- Leaders who communicate high expectations, inspiring them to become committed to
organizational goals.
Intellectual stimulation:
- Leaders who stimulate followers to be creative and innovative.
Individualized consideration:
- Leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen to needs of followers.
Topic 82: Transactional Leadership
Main Components
- Planning and following
- Process oriented methodology
- Building team and support
- Identifying expertise in various fields of work
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- Initiation of creative ide4as
- Clear understanding of current scenario
- Pre-defined objectives and a clear road map to achieve them
- No self- serving motives
- Focused approach on identified objectives
Topic 83: Transparent Leadership
Main Components
- Alignment between leadership and goals
- Acts ethically and talks openly at all times
- Integrity in finances and information
- Consistently keeps commitments
- Accessible to all
- Identifying future leader and team
- Relinquishing control
- Inspiring and motivating potential to lead
- Leaders act from the totality of who he or she is as human being.
Topic 84: The Relationship
- Leader’s internal locus of control.
- Follower’s spiritual development.
- Leader’s spiritual development.
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Lesson 14
PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Topic 85: Process of Transformational Leadership
Step 1
Developing Vision
- Creating and communicating an inspiring vision of future that is exciting and attracts
potential followers.
- Sets out the purpose of the team/organization.
- Vision is developed through understanding values of the followers, understanding
capabilities and the resources of the organization and by conducting an analysis of the
environment and then selecting the best way forward within it.
- If developing a vision for the organization, start with analysing the environment and
then develop strategy.
- This is usually then expressed in a business plan and summarized in a mission
statement.
- If developing a vision for them start with the company’s mission and vision and
explore the ways in which your team can contribute directly to it.
Topic 86: Process of Transformational Leadership
Step 2
Selling the vision
- Starting with mission statement, leader needs to appeal to followers’ values and
inspire them with where he/she is going to lead them and why.
- Link the vision to people’s goals and tasks to give it context and help people see how
they can contribute to it.
- Constantly sell the vision and build a strong network of high potential.
- Transformational leaders realize that noting significant happens unless they encourage
their people.
- They acquire knowledge of different kinds of motivational measures and use them to
inspire people to deliver their best.
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Topic 87: Process of Transformational Leadership
Step 3
Delivery of the vision
- A vision is of no use on its own: it needs to become reality
- For delivery of vision, combine effective project management with sensitive change
management.
- Communicate each person’s roles and responsibilities clearly
- Connect these to the plans
- Set SMART goals for everyone
- Including some short term goals that will help people achieve quick wins and stay
motivated
- Use management by objectives (MBO) to link short term achievements to the planned
long term goals
- Stay visible by practicing management by walking around
Topic 88: Process of Transformational Leadership
Step 4
Leading the Charge
- Transformational leaders focus attention on their people and work hard to help the
people achieve their goals and dreams.
- Leadership is a long term process, the leader needs to work constantly to build
relationships, earn trust and help the people grow as individuals.
- Meet the people individually to understand their developmental needs.
- Build trust with people by being open and honest in the interactions.
- Set aside time to coach the people – a skilled team is created when people are helped
to their own solutions and their self-confidence and trust in leader are also fortified.
Topic 89: Competencies of a Transformational Leader
Managing information and knowledge
- Inquisitive mind and critical thinking to apply research findings.
- Measure performance.
- Breakthrough technologies and networking.
Transformational Management
- Organizational and system shifts and learning
- Congregate vision and innovation
- Strategic alliances
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- Management of collaborative relationships
Business Acumen
- Financing strategies
- Organizational dynamics
- Human resource development
- Internal /external radar
- Marketing and branding
Topic 90: Competencies of a Transformational Leader
Process toolkit
- Negotiation skills
- Dispute and conflict resolution
- Group facilitation
- Concept mapping
- Future casting
- Lateral thinking
Continuous Personal Development
- Wide range of leadership styles
- Personal values, vision and goals
- Risk taking and courage
- Resilient and resolute
Summary
- Envisions a compelling future (Vision)
- Commits to the future (action)
- Sets high performance goals (Aspiration)
- Enables inspired action through teams (Collaboration)
- Executes energy and inspiration (Presence)
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Lesson 15
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURE
Topic 91: TL and Organizational Structure
Shamir and Howell 1999:
- Transformational leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective in organic
organizations than in mechanistic organizations.
- Organic organizations impose fewer constraints on members’ activities.
- They enable and encourage individual behaviour by both leaders and potential
followers.
- They provide both a greater need and a greater scope for the emergence of
transformational leaders.
- Mechanistic organizations, in contrast, provide fewer opportunities for organizational
members to exercise choice.
- They supress the expression of individual differences by both leaders and followers.
Topic 92: Importance of TL in Education Organization
- Transformational leadership plays an important role in education organization.
- It helps the organization with teaching and learning and decision making.
- In addition, professional development, transforming schooling and reforming the
education system are also empowered by transformational leadership.
- Transformational leadership is needed in educational institution on which a moral
foundation of legitimate values must rest (BASS, 1999).
Topic 93: Importance of TL 2
Teaching and Learning
- A school with transformational leading teachers provides inspiration and motivation
to the students to express creative behaviour.
- Leading to changes in both educational policy and teaching practices (ChanLin et
al.2006)
Decision making
- “An institution is intended to represent the good of its stakeholders”. (Brower and
Balch, 2005)
- In transformational decision making the decision reflects on the common good but not
the individual good.
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Reforming the Education system
- TL helps in setting clear and adequately high performance standards for schools and
teachers.
- Emphasizes a greater understanding, solving problem, EQ and personal skills and not
just memorization.
Topic 94: Evaluation of TL
- The evidence supporting the superiority of transformational leadership over
transactional leadership is impressive (khan, 2009)
- This leadership style has been favoured in many countries and at various job levels.
- A review of 87 studies, testing transformational leadership found that it was related to
the motivation and satisfaction of followers and to the higher performance and
perceived effectiveness of the leaders. (Khan, 2009)
- The overall evidence indicates that transformational leadership is more strongly
correlated than transactional leadership with lower turnover rate, higher productivity
and higher employee satisfaction.
- Well over 100 empirical studies have found TL to be consistently related to
organizational and leadership effectiveness-Bryman, 1992: Lowe et al 1996.
- Samples and contexts from Fortune 100 businesses to military units, to presidential
administrations.
Topic 95: Critique
- It is elitist and antidemocratic, too much emphasis is placed on the “”heroic” aspects
of leadership. (Northouse, 2007)
- They act independently of their followers – they create and transmit a vision of their
own in an effort to achieve change.
- Since transformational leaders change employees’ values and provide a new vision of
the future, question is: who decides if the new vision is better than the old one?
- Who determines whether the new direction is good?
- History provides us with examples of leaders who have exploited their people and
where their vision has eventually led to death and destruction of their followers. (e.g.
Hitler)
- Transformational leadership may be a personality trait or personal disposition which
might be difficult to change, rather than a behaviour that can be trained and developed
(Bryman, 1992)
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Topic 96: Summary-TL
- Several Theories have evolved after Burns introduced the concept of transformational
leadership (1978)
- Visions have been proposed by the theorists like Bass (1985), Bennis and Nanus
(1985), Tichy and Ulrich (1986) and Sashkin (1988).
- The most prominent of these and the one used most often is Bass’ theory of
transformational and transactional leadership. (Yukl, 1999)
- Bass differs from burns’ in viewing transactional and transformational leadership not
as being at opposite sides on a continuum but as two different facts where a leader can
be both transactional and transformational at the same time, though to different
degrees.
- Also in opposition to Burns, who argue that leader should strive for a transformational
leadership only, Bass argues that leaders can and should be both transactional and
transformational and that a combination of these two is the most successful kind.
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