Data Communications and Computer Networks SS caer eee] Ratz communication technologies deal with means and methods of data transfer from one location to another Nawiage between computing and data communication technologies is one of the most exciting developmcne that tas revolutionized information age. This development gave birth to computer networks A computer network is a network of computers. It connects multiple computers in a manner to enable meaningful vad gmeion and exchange of data among them. Sharing of information, resources (both hardware and sofwre), ‘nd processing load among the connected computers is the main objective of a compuver newark {nhs chapter, we will first eam about data communication technologies, and then leam how to use these ‘schnologies for building different types of computer networks. The chapter deale with the following concepss 1. Basic elements of a communication system. * Techniques, channels, and devices, which communication systems use to transmit data from one location to another. 3: Types of computer networks. Communication protocols and their use in computer networks Internetworking tools and their use in building large computer networks, Wireless communication technologies and wireless networks Characteristics and advantages of distributed computing systems,ter Networks _ ([3587]_ chapter 17: Dats Communications and Comput “BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM essage from one point to another, The three basi ler of transferring op Communication is the proce: any communication system are (see Figure 17:4 sends 1 mess 1. A sender (source) that creates and Ike: 2. A medium that carries the 1% 3. A receiver (sink) dhat receives the mess ender (source) Carries the messay Receives the message Creates and sends a message Figure 17.1. Basic elements of a communication system, For example, when you speak to your friend on telephone, you are the sender, telephone line is the medium, sj your friend is the receiver. This is a simple example of voice communication, Similarly, in data commun, machines (such as computers, terminals, peripheral devices like printer pace? sender and receiver are normally disks, etc.), and transmission medium is a wiredAvireless data communication channel (such as telephone li. optical fiber, microwave links, satellite links, etc.). Electronic systems that transfer data from one point to anos, are called data communication systems. Unlike computers that process data, data communication systems transn data from one point to another. J DATA TRANSMISSION MODES pate Eee The three modes of data transmission are simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex (see Figure 17.2). They ae described below: 1. Simplex. A simplex communication system can transmit data in one direction only. It is suitable for connecting send-only (such as keyboard) or receive-only (such as printer) devices. At first thought, this mode may appear adequate for applications in which flow of information is unidirectional. However, almost all data processing applications require bidirectional communication because even when flow of data is unidirectional (such as from a terminal to a computer), an application requires a return path to sea! acknowledgement, control, or error signals. Without this capability, a sender might send data and never know that the receiver never received it (due to some problem somewhere). Hence, simplex circuit a seldom used. 2. Half-duplex. A half-duplex communication system can transmit data in both directions, but in only 0" direction at a time. Hence, it can alternately send and receive data. It requires two wires. It is suitable fe voice communication using telephones in which only one person speaks at a time. Itis suitable aso Ff connecting a terminal to a computer in which the terminal transmits data and then the computer FesP with an acknowledgement. 3. Full-duplex. A half-duplex system needs to switch direction each time the direction of data ws! reverses. This requires a special switching circuit anda delay of about 150 milliseconds. When on?!" with high processing capabilities of modern computers, this delay is often unacceptable. Moreovet 5°" applications require bi-directional data transfer simultaneously. Systems with such requirements ¥8¢* aData Transmission Speed [359 | et cously. It requires ex communication system, which allows data to flow in both directions simultaneously. It req 2 ‘rires. Tt improves efficiency because it eliminates the direction switching delay of a half-duplex oo (b) Halt-duplex. ae | Figure 17.2. Modes of data transmission, ATA TRANSMISSION SPEED Sunduidth of communication system refers to its data transfer rate (amount of data thatit can transfer per unit of {nes analogous to a road's width. Wider a road, the more traffic it can handle in a given time. Similarly, ‘ghrthe bandwidth of a communication system, the more data itcan transfer in a given time. Sandvidh is measured in bits per second (bps) (also called baud). Generally, baud is identical to bits per second ths). Hence, arate of 300 baud means 300 bps. However, technically, baud refers to number of signal (tat) clans per second. Hence, by using more sophisticated coding techniques, 1 baud can represent 2 or even 3 bps lower, for most communication systems, 1 baud represents one signal change pet second, and is equivalent te + bs Ausedon data tansmission speeds, three basic categories of communication channe's (paths) are: Narrowband. Narrowband or sub-voice grade channels have speed in the range of 45 to 300 baud. Low- speed devices (such as low-speed terminals) and communication systems for low data volumes (such as telegraph lines) use narrowband channels. Voiee-band. Voice-band channels have speed up to 9600 baud Their major application is in ordinary ‘lephone voice communication, hence the name “voice-band”. Communication systems for data ‘tansmission from slow 1/0 devices to CPU or vice-versa use voice-band channels, Broadband. Broadband channels have speed of 1 million baud or more. Commtinication systems for ‘asmission of large volumes of data at high speed (Such as high-speed computer-to-computer ‘ommunication or data transmission to several different devices simultaneously) use broadband channels. Cos Shecne’2 Tatsmission service increases with speed. Hence, a thorough analysis of business needs and “ciel costs is necessary to make a proper choice of communication channel for an application,oneand Computer NewOHS [360] Chapter 17: Data Comm DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA ‘slong time, For example, shouting to another es voice as sound waves. Telephone lines” te considerably. Like telephone lines, thee ‘The sender-n transmission from one point ty any involves. voice several types of physical channels Some popular data wansmission mei me nel Twisted-Pair Wire A pwisted:pair wire consists of two bunches of insulation, then twisted around each other to reduce int called unshielded nwisted-pair (UTP) cable because other bunches of copper wires, nothing else shields it from outside Jn copper wires, each bunch enclosed separately in a play rference by adjacent wires (sce Figure 17.3). Its sin than the plastic insulation around the two india, interference UTP cables are used commonly in local telephone communication and short distance (up to about 1 kr) dia data tansmiccion. Normally, they are used to connect terminals to main computer, if they are placed ata shin Gistance apart For distance up to 100 meters, they provide data transmission speed of up to g600 bps, and Tonger distances (such asin local telephone lines) they provide speed of the order of 1200 bps. UTP cables are inexpensive, and easy to install and use. However, their use is limited because they easily pick up noise signals (resulting in high error rates) when line length extends Figure 172. Atwistedpairwire (UTP cable beyond 100 meters. Coaxial Cable Coaxial cables consist of a central copper wire surrounded by a PVC insulation over which there is a sleeve ot copper mesh (see Figure 17.4). The copper mesh sleeve is shielded again by an outer shield of thick PVC mater Signal is wansmitted by inner copper wire, and is electrically shielded by the outer copper mesh sleeve. Coaxial cables offer much higher bandwidths than UTP cables, and can transmit digital signals at rates up to 10 mega bps. They are used extensively in long distance telephone lines for both voice and data tansmission. Telephone companies often VC package several coaxial cables into a very large cable, which can Copper oe pie handle over 40,000 telephone cals simultaneously. Furthermore, Outer PVC. ruesh shield coaxial cables have much higher noise immunity, and can offer cleaner and crisper data transmission without distortion or loss Figure 17.4. A coaxial cable. Cental of signal Microwave System Microwave systems use very high frequency radio signals to tra communication). However, at microwave frequencies, electromagnetic waves tall buildings or hills. Hence, transmitter and receiver of 4 microwave system, mounted on very high tow‘ ‘mit data through space (wireless cannot bend oF pass obstacles ihe eo,lit This may not be possible for very long distance transmission, Moreover, signals become ig a certain distance and require power amplification ¢ hens of line- ight and power amplification of weak signals, microwave systems use repeaters <3 Pot 25 t0 30 kms in between transmitting and receiving stations (see Figure 17.5). A microwave otek of places it ist repeater inno ight of transiting station and its st repeater in ne Hi sic station. It also places any two consecutive repeaters in line-of-sight of cach other. Each of oi ce ein es ampli andreas dat sigs ao ws Transmitting antennas Receiving antennas 7 KQ a a a Inbeeween [7 repeates. NJ Receiving station ‘Transmitting station Te Line of ight —Pke— Line of ight —ple— Line of sight —] Figure 17.5. A microwave communication system. haovave systems have speed of about 16 Giga bps (+ Giga = 20°). They can support about 250,000 voice weaves simultaneously. As they support wireless communication, they do not requie laying of cables and spread cost of land digging, However, since their initial installation cost is high, they are cost effective only for ‘pmmnication systems that Link big cities with heavy telephone lata trafic between them. Communications Satellite io problem with microwave communication is that curvature of earth, mountains, and other structures often Buck the line-of-sight Hence, long distance transmission requires several repeater stations, increasing data "asision cost between two points. Satellites overcome this problem. Conmsnicton satellites are microwave relay stations in outer space. A space shuttle launches a satellite and tas itin cuter space precisely 3,000 kms above the equator with an orbit speed that matches earth's rotation we exocly. Being in geosynchronous orbit, a satellite is stationary relative tothe earth, and alvways stays over ‘sn iton he ground. This allows » ground sation to im sane at ied pont in ths st. Each Sean ceive and evans signal to slghly les than athe earth's erfce Bees the earth is round Pv, © provide dia tansmision service worldwide, there sould bs at least thee stelites in schonows orbit Hundreds of satellites are now in orbit to handle intermational and domestic dat, voice, and Aoimsiaon neds. The positions of INSAT sere of Indian satelite in outer space are such ha they ‘munication between any two locations in India hog Sonnac, microwave signal at 6 GHz or 14 GHz (GH is read as gigahertz, and 1 GHz = 10° Hz) sft roma tansmiteron eth toa satelite posioned in space (ee Fig 17.6) By the time this signal eS be satelite, itbecomes weak due to 36,000 kms travel. A transponder, mounted on the satellite, amplifies 'gnal and transmits it back to the earth at a frequency of 4 GHz or 11 GHz. A receiving station on the ~ 7 a ‘Trailer containing HH leader containing synchronizing end of block indication andother information (b) Synchronous transmission Figure 17.13. Modes of data transmissionwivching Techniques [SAA] nchronous Transmission sy jronons HANENNSSION, A COMMUNI atin ysten g nape cThanacters antes how ks nel y cach Block te convert it into a fianwe fer Tigre ts eal the teckes ron pation soon, whi eveiving device dees to set He slack tn tenhuomean wah weiner ert Minot» sentty the sender and meer A Mh cantnininy he cha yal ek fs Ahoy the We nnber af characters ina Mock may be variable amd tans cama henleceenatn falle rH » the message characters of a Block The tailer cantaine an endl nf merece heey , . jasetet fo and acter hon of any transmission ertot Heme on crete TIsAI0I, + comeenie sion toe ames an entre block of characters anil then trancmite iat ene nous fansmission 1s suitable for communication between buffered devices [aah av bemamay ow nen, Between a computer and printer, oF between a computer and a hulferedl tevanal) In sete cate ss ponte, logical data Mock length would he 8o or r gy chars ter Jronows wansmission has much higher data transmission rates than asynchrn e eed for individual start-stop bits for cach character. Its main dieadvants ssorage at both sender and receiver ends to assemble blocks, and need for a is Hence, synchronous equipment usually cost more. SWITCHING TECHNIQUES * form, data communication takes place between two directly connected de npractical or uneconomical to connect two devices: directly. Instead, communicanoe betw destination node often takes place by transmitting data from source to destination through + aevarce ’ “iste nodes. These nodes provide switching facility for moving data from node tw node «us ws destination node, Three different methods of establishing communication links between 4 sealer ane Kiis more reliable than a star network because communication isnot dependent on a single central nod. a link between any two nodes fails, or if one of the nodes fails, alternate routing is possible. Disadvantages + jo a ring network, communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the netwosk Hence, addition of new nodes in a network increases communication delay. 2 Itrequires more complicated control software than star network. Completely Connected Network Figure 17.19 shows a completely connected network, in which cach node has 2 direct link, called point-to-point link, with all other nodes in the network. The control is distributed with each node deciding its communication priorities Advantages Figure 17.19. A completely connected network. + Its very reliable because any link failure will affect only direct Communication between the nodes » Bach node of the network need not have individual routing capability, 3. Communication is very fast between any two nodes, DisadvantageNetwork Topologies [377 ulti-access Bus Network x 1720 shows a multiaccess bus network, FW and shore forall he communiatn nach (ta destination address to the message and checks whether apiees free, it broadcasts (places) the message on the ine, As the ne Npet the MeSSARE is addressed yy se The messa ted Slaowledgement t0 source node and frees the line ‘aultidrop’, of “broadcast” network, It ig appropriate for use framnicaon channel fo connect compu iters that. coanicodon netW0rk, in which many conr node wants ta send a mee He wo another node, x "As soon as the line Inne, each node checks see node that sends an so known as “multipoint” ct network, which wes a high-speed mall ares. Its also appropmate for saline Phical locations share one eatellite cornet unkeation Fine j sage travels an the 's picked up hy addres ype of network is al in a local are confined to atdifferent geogra Advantages Comptes (reds) + Ihelps in reducing the number of physical lines, + Fale of's node dee nat affect communicston among other nodes in the network, Addition of new nodes tothe network s easy. Disadvantages 1. All nodes in a network must have good communication and decision-making capability, 2 Ifthe shared communication line fails, entire network fails Figure 17.20. A muit-access bus networs Hybrid Network 2 pure star or ring or uses a hybrid network that is a a network depends on needs and nts of star, ring, and completely different network topol n. In some cases, Connected networks. Figure 17.21 shows an ¢» logies. Exact configuration of hybrid network may have componet -xample of a hybrid network stuctur of the organization Ring Star Completely connected ton of ring, sta, Figure 17.21. A hybrid network having a combinat : ‘and completely connected network topologi"ea networks (L, Five types of networks in common use are pr '9), cam, areata iD. area networks (CANS), metropolitan-area networks (MANs), and eee ore ae called long-haul networks. Figure 17.22 shows the differences among, differentiating features used to classify such networks. Ate aly on the key Personal Area Local/Campus Area | 4, litan Ai Key jetropolitan Area Wide Area Sr. ating | Network (PAN) or ‘Network k (MAN) differentiating Mp “ Network (MAN) | Network (Way, No, | “ingrentiag Picuaet inet (LAN/CAN) ) Within few tens of | May exeng ‘Geographical Within few nd over acon ee kilometers kilometers several thousand aoe Kilometers 2 | Purpose ‘enable To enable To interconnect LANs | To interconnect at conmucsion | commacaton | ecaudinseon | Taso | among computing among computing _| metropolitan area ACTOSS cities or devices within an devices within a countries office roomora house | building (LAN) ora ofan individual campus (CAN) of an | ‘organization 3 | Communication | Infrared, radio-wave | Twisted pair, coaxial -| Fiber optics, telephone | Fiber optics, channel used cable, fiber optics | lines, microwave links | telephone lines, commonly microwave links, satellite channels 4 | Ownership Personal Single organization | Interconnected LANs | Interconnected usually belong toa | LANs may belong single organization | toa single or multiple organizations 5 | Communication | Negligible Low Medium High cost 6 | Communication | Bluetooth, EDA Ethernet, Token sing | ATM, Frame relay, | ATM, Fame technologies | (Infrared Data X25, and IP relay, X25, and used commonly | Association), UWB IP (Ultra Wide Band) radio Figure 17.22. Types of networks and their key differ...d Internet of Things The Internet an DEFINITION (WHAT IT IS?) <4 network of computers, which links my networks sharing a common mechanism for addressing ( tocols for communications between two computers on the network y different types of computers all o identifying) computers, a BRIEF HISTORY has its root in the ARPANET system of the Advanced Research Project Ag The Intern Department of Defense. ARPANET was the first WAN and had only four sites in 1969. The Inter ing computers. Initially, research organizations and universit: I cas of ARPANET for interconne 1d exchange information. In 1989, the U.S. Government lifted restrictions on the use of the basi to share allowed its usage for commercial purposes as well. Since then, the Internet has grown rapidly to be world’s largest network. It now interconnects more than 50 billion devices, and more than 5 billion users ar the world to communicate with each other. The Internet continues to grow at a rapid pace. ITS BASIC SERVICES The Internet provides the following four types of basic services to its users.Wt ew Services COA geatronie Mall senses’ (R000 96 ma Ans ea v9 nts TS detain, Bee gel eee ee ad «has many similatities with postal mal se oe postal service All Internet see esal adress Fac Interne as has Toga aoe ue ae a foe When ‘sending a mail to another user, a sender specifies the e-mail silvee at : ess of the eveiver of a postin postal mail ystem E-mail tervcr leery so sleas os ‘emnabos. The teceiver extracts the mail from hislher maitbor and reads sicas ina postal-mal system. After reading the message, the teceiver san sa i ce, or respond to it by sending another message hack ces in e-mail service can contain not only text documents but also image, aio, 0 se ris that the data must be in computer-readable format syaheail service, the Internet has proved to bea rapid and productive communication wolf 1 smpred to paper mail, telephone, and fax many prefer e-mail because of ts fll {pis faster than paper mail, Unlike telephone, the persons communicating need not be available at the same tse +. Unlike fax documents, the receiver of an e-mail document can store itin a computer sed a9 wing editing programs File Transfer Protocol (FTP) computer to another on the Internet. A tle ma fe, sound, software, et FTP service enables an Internet user to move a file from one Contain any type of digital information ~ text document, image, artwork, movi Dovnloading is the process of moving a file from a remote computer to one's own computes and ces of moving a file from one"s own computer to a remote computer. |nFTP service, a file transfer takes place in following manner: \. A user executes the fip command on bis fer local computer, specifying less ct the cere computer ay ® parameter, st press) establishes a cmt iE an computer (called! FTP led FTP server proves 2. An FTP process running on user’ FTP process running on remote computer (call 3. The system then asks the user to enter his/her login nae 2 ! that the user possesses permission to access the remote Comat 4 After successful login, the user dowloads or uploat the ake fi) tle tole) and put (fr uploading) commands. ‘The user can also list directories, © rem computer, before decing which filed) w wane sul passwort the cele computer to ensure ba cc uw transfer files wofzom it With this restriction ts IPR te wer ned aces ig for 9 ot am Tn inert coe Son st impossible to provide access rights tothe large number ° me istnenanse=se398 ppter 18: The Internet and Internet of Things sharable computer allowing a The user can then download fies lh Publicly accessible sites because any wset on the Internet can access them d cede valle useenarne and psy ‘ | pasword fi, FTP service also provides restricted file avcess feature: For this, user : t lt enly ath, files on that computer. For esample, an organization may use this Feature te computer to Persons access the files on ils server comypter Telnet Telnet service enables an Intemet user to lo That is, a user can execute the telnet con computer. This action is also called “remote login.” n to another computer on the Internet from hist local comp, nd on hisAher local computer to start a login session on To star.a remote login session, a user types felnef command and address ofthe remote computer on hist or, computer, The remote computer then authenticates the user by asking him/her to enter a login rame (user 1D) vs 2 password. If the user specifies a correct login name and password, the remote computer logs in the wser, say From now onwards (until the felnet session is active), anything th telnet command then enters input mode. User types on the local computer is sent to the remote computer for processing. Some common uses of telnet service are: +. For using computing power of a remote computer. For example, when a user's local computer is a2 ordinary personal computer while the remote computer is a powerful supercomputer, and the user needs process a job on supercomputer. For using some software on a remote computer, which is not available on user's local computer. 3. For accessing information from a database or archive on a remote computer. An information archive of interest toa user, such as public database or library resources, may be available on the remote compute. 4 For logging in to one’s own computer from another computer. For example, if a user is attending 2 conference in another city, hehe can use a computer on the Internet in that city to telnet to his het owe computer in his her office and access information stored on it. Usenet News Usenet service enables a group of Internet users to exchange their views Adeas Anformation on some common tp of interest with all members belonging to the group. Several such groups exist on the Internet and are called newsgroups. For example, a newsgroup named comp.security misc consists of users having interest in comput security issues. A newsgroup is like a lange notice board accessible to all members belonging to the group. A member, who wants to exchange his/her views/deasAnformation with other members, creates a specially formated message 84 The software posts the message on the vit! } the posted message, just as anyone submits it to the usenet software-running on his/her own compu notice board. Any member belonging to the same newsgroup having access to a notice board can read a notice posted on it There are two types of newsgroups ~ moderated and non-moderated. Ina moderated newsgroup, only selects members have right to post (write) a message directly on a virtual notice board, whereas in a non-maderated in read (s