Properties of materials

Part (1) Atomic structure

Atom is the building unit of any matter.

The atom consists of smaller sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

 Protons and neutrons form the nucleus of the atom while the electrons move around the
nucleus in energy levels (orbits) which is called electronic structure.
 The mass of the atom is the mass of the nucleus while the mass of the electrons are
negligible.
 Protons are positively charged.
Electrons are negatively charged.
Neutrons have no charge.
 The atom is neutral; because the number of positive protons is equal to the number of
negative electrons.
Protons = Electrons

 There is an attraction force between the protons and electrons (electrostatic attraction).
 Electronic structure
Electrons are arranged in energy shells around the nucleus. This arrangement is called the electronic
structure of the atom.

The first energy shell is filled with 2 electrons; the second energy is filled with 8 electrons; while the
other energy shells can hold more than 8 electrons but they are stable with 8 electrons.

The atom should follow the octet rule which means that the last energy level tends to contain 8
electrons to become stable.

NB: The last energy level is called the valence shell and the electrons occupying it are valence electrons.

The following diagram shows atoms of increasing mass.

Answer the following questions:

1. How many electrons are there in the carbon atom?

2. How many protons are there in the beryllium atom?

Answer the following question

The electronic structure of beryllium atom is written as (2,3)

Write the electronic structure for boron and carbon.

Boron:

Carbon:
 Properties of materials

Part (2) Periodic table

Elements are arranged in the periodic table.

The periodic table is structured as 18 columns (groups) and 7 rows (periods).

Each element in the periodic table has a symbol, atomic number and atomic mass.

 The atomic number is the number of protons (which is equal to the number of electrons in a
neutral atom).
 The atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons (also called nuclear mass = mass of the
nucleus).

Example: Lithium atom Atomic number

represents the
Atomic number = 3 3 number of protons

Li
Mass number = 7

Number of protons = 3

Number of electrons = 3 Mass number

7 represents the sum
Number of neutrons = ? of protons and
neutrons

 The atoms are arranged in the periodic table according to the increase of atomic number.
 Elements in the same group have the same valence electrons, thus they have similar properties.
 Period number represents the number of occupied shells of the atom.
 Hydrogen is the only element with one electron.

Use the periodic table to identify: atomic number, mass number, no. of electrons, no. of protons, no.
of neutrons and the electronic configuration

Sodium Magnesium
Atomic no: Atomic no:
Mass no: Mass no:

No. of electrons: No. of electrons:

No. of protons: No. of protons:
No. of neutrons: No. of neutrons:
Electronic configuration: Electronic configuration:
 Trends in the periodic table

Across the period, the metallic character decreases (non-metallic character increases)

Across the period, the atomic number and number of valence electrons.

Down the group, the atomic radius increases.

Special Groups in the periodic table

A) Alkali metals

 Group 1 elements all have 1 electron in their valence shell.

 Properties:
- Conduct electricity.
- Shiny when they are freshly cut.
- Softer than other metals.
- Lower density than other metals.
  Trends in group 1

- MP and BP decrease.
- Atomic size increases.
- Reactivity increases, why? (see atomic bonding)

B) Halogens

 Group 7 elements that have 7 electrons in their valence shell.

 Properties:
- Non- metals.
- Cannot conduct electricity or heat.
 Trends in group 7:

- MP and BP increase.
- Atomic size increase.
- Reactivity decreases, why? (see atomic bonding part)
C) Noble gases

 Group 8 elements that have 8 electrons in their valence shell.

 They’re also called Group zero because they are inert (totally unreactive).
 Properties:
- Unreactive because they’re stable with 8 electrons in their valence shell.
- All of them are gases.
 Trends in group 0

- BP and MP increase.
- Atomic size increase.
 Properties of materials

Part (3) Atomic bonding

As mentioned in the electronic configuration section, the electrons of the atom are arranged in different
energy levels.

The outermost energy shell (highest energy level) is stable when it’s completely full with electrons.

Elements react with each other to complete the valence shell with the missing electrons, reaching a
stable atom having 8 electrons in the valence shell.

Noble gases do not react because they already have a full valence shell.

Elements react by forming chemical bonds between their atoms.

Chemical bonds are formed in two ways:

1. The atoms can lose or gain electrons forming Ionic bonds.

2. The atoms can share electrons forming covalent bonds.
 A) Ionic bonding
Remember:
Protons = Electrons

That’s why the overall charge of the atom is neutral.

a) Losing electrons
Sodium atom has 11 electrons with electronic configuration of (2,8,1)

The sodium atom tends to lose the valence electron so the valence shell becomes full with 8 electrons
and the atom becomes stable (2,8)+

When the sodium atom loses an electron, the number of protons becomes greater than the number of
electrons by 1.

So, the sodium atom will change to a positive ion (having a positive charge): Na+
 b) Gaining electrons
Chlorine atom has 17 electrons with electronic configuration of (2,8,7).

The chlorine atom tends to gain one electron so the valence shell becomes full with 8 electrons and the
atom becomes stable (2,8,8)-

When the chlorine atom gains an electron, the number of electrons becomes greater than the number
of protons by 1.

So, the sodium atom will change to a negative ion (having a positive charge): Cl-
 c) Bond formation

The positive charge and negative charge can form a bond by electrostatic attraction.

Na+ + Cl-  NaCl

So, the ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.

An ionic bond is always formed between a metal and non-metal.

Examples of reacting metals of group 1 with non-metals of group 7

1. Sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride

2. Lithium + fluorine  lithium fluoride
3. Potassium + chlorine  potassium chloride
Other examples for ionic compounds

Some elements lose/gain more than one electron.

1. Magnesium oxide (MgO)

- Magnesium atom has 2 electrons in its valence shell (2,8,2)

An oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its valence shell (2,6)
- So, the magnesium atom loses two electrons and forming a positive ion Mg2+ while the
oxygen atom gains two electrons forming a negative ion O2-.
- The two ions are attracted forming MgO compound.

2. Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)

- Magnesium atom needs to lose 2 electrons while each chlorine atom gains one electron.
- So, each magnesium ion Mg2+ bonds with two chlorine ions Cl-.
 Reactivity of group 1 and group 7

We mentioned earlier that the reactivity of the alkali metals increases down the group, while the
reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group. Why?

1. Alkali metals have one valence electron that they want to lose and become stable.
The atomic number increases down the group, so the atomic radius (atomic size) increases due
to the increase of number of the energy levels.
As the atomic size increases down the group, the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus
and electrons decrease, so it is easier for the atom to lose its valence electron, thus it’s more
active.

Reactivity Increases

2. Halogens have 7 valence electrons so they want to gain one electron and become stable.
As the atomic size increases down the group, the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus
and the electrons decrease, so it is harder for the atom to attract an electron to its valence
shell, thus it’s less active.

Reactivity Decreases
 B) Covalent bonding

A covalent bond is formed between non-metals by sharing their outermost electrons.

Covalent compounds formation does not involve formation of ions.

The covalent bond is represented by the dot and cross model as shown in the example.

1. Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

- A hydrogen atom has 1 electron in its shell while chlorine has 7 valence electrons.
- Hydrogen shares with 1 electron as well as the chlorine, so that the valence shell is full for
the two atoms forming a hydrogen chloride molecule.
Remember: Hydrogen is stable by 2 electrons.

2. Hydrogen gas (H2)

- Each hydrogen atom shared its electron forming a hydrogen molecule H2 where each atom
is stable with 2 electrons.
3. Ammonia (NH3)

- Nitrogen atom’s electronic configuration is (2,5) so it needs three electrons to be stable.

- Each hydrogen atom shares with 1 electron so each nitrogen atom combine with three
hydrogen atoms sharing three pairs of electrons so all the atoms have full valence shells.

4. Other examples
 Properties of materials

Part (4) Giant compounds

A) Giant ionic compounds

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Ionic compounds are formed due to the electrostatic attraction of positive and negative ions that are
strong and act in all directions forming alternating giant structure of positive and negative charges and
called Lattice structure.

B) Giant covalent compounds

Most covalent compounds are simple compounds.
NB: The covalent bond that’s formed between the atoms is strong while the intermolecular forces
that hold the molecules together are weak.
 Some other covalent compounds are larger in size.

Example: Silicone dioxide (SiO2)

Giant Carbon compounds

Graphite and Diamond are two allotropes of carbon.

NB: Allotropes are different forms of an element.

So, graphite and diamond are macromolecules made of carbon atoms that differ in the structure and
properties.

NB: A macromolecule is molecule containing large number of atoms.

 Graphite Diamond
Each carbon atom makes three covalent bonds Each carbon atom makes four covalent bonds
with three other carbons forming layers which with four other carbons making a three-
can easily slide over each other. dimensional lattice structure.

Very soft and easily broken Very hard

Good conductor of electricity Bad conductor of electricity

Opaque black Transparent

Used to make lead in pencils and as lubricant for Used to make jewelry and drilling machines
moving machines
Point of comparison Ionic bond Covalent bond

Formed between Metal and non-metal Two non-metals

How? Electrostatic attraction between Formed by sharing electrons

+ve and –ve ions. between atoms.

Structure Giant lattice structure Simple structures with exception

of giant macromolecules like
graphite and diamond.

Properties 1. Solid at room temperature 1. Gases at room temperature

with high melting and boiling with low melting and boiling
points due to strong points due to the weak
electrostatic forces between intermolecular forces
the ions. between the molecules.
2. Conduct electricity in their 2. Do not conduct electricity
molten or aqueous forms because there are no free
only because the ions are moving ions.
freely moving. 3. Less soluble in water than
3. Soluble in water the ionic compounds.

Examples Sodium chloride CO2, H2O, HCl, NH3

 Chapter (1) practice questions
1. The diagram shows the atomic structure of aluminum.

a) How many electrons are there in one atom of aluminum?

___________________________________________________
b) Which scientist discovered the structure of the atom?
Darwin Einstein Pasteur Rutherford
c) In which group of the periodic table is aluminum found?
_____________________________________________________
d) Aluminum is used in the circuit boards and batteries of mobile phones.
Use ideas about properties to explain why.
______________________________________________________

2. The element fluorine is shown in the periodic table as:

Use the numbers listed below to complete the sentences that follow
9 10 19 28
A fluorine atom has:
a) An atomic number of: ________________________
b) __________________ electrons in an orbit.
c) __________________ neutrons in the nucleus.
d) An atomic mass of _________________________

3. From the list of chemical symbols, select the correct one for each of the elements shown:
C Ca Cl Co Cr
a) Calcium: __________________________
b) Carbon: ___________________________
 c) Chlorine: __________________________
4. The diagrams show the structures of the atoms of three elements (note: P, R and Q are not their
symbols)

a) To which group of the periodic table do these elements belong?

_____________________________________________________________
b) i) Give the symbol of element P: _______________________
ii) Give the name of element Q: ________________________

5. Look at the diagram of beryllium atom.

a) i) How many electrons are there in the atom?

________________________________________________________
ii) How many protons are there in the atom?
________________________________________________________
b) Write down the chemical symbol of beryllium.
________________________________________________________
c) Lithium is the third element in the periodic table.
Beryllium is the fourth element.
 Lithium has fewer neutrons than beryllium.
Describe two other ways in which the structure of a lithium atom is different from a
beryllium atom.
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________

6. Look at the diagram.

It shows some of the elements of the periodic table.

a) Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.

i) Write down the chemical symbol of the most reactive element in group 7.
___________________________________________________
ii) Write down the chemical symbol of the element with only three protons inside its
nucleus.
___________________________________________________
iii) Write down the chemical symbol of the element in group 2 and period 3.
___________________________________________________

b) Look at the diagram.

 Complete the diagram to show the arrangement of electrons in an atom of carbon.

7. Look at the information about different atoms.

Use the information above to answer the following questions.

a) Which two atoms have 10 neutrons in their nuclei?
___________________________________________________________
b) Which atom has six electrons in its valence shell?
___________________________________________________________
c) Which atom is found in group 1 of the periodic table?
____________________________________________________________
d) Some atoms have the same numbers of protons and neutrons.
There are two of these types of atoms in this list.
Which two?
____________________________________________________________
e) Which two atoms have three electron shells around the nucleus?
____________________________________________________________

8. Sodium and lithium are both elements in group 1 of the periodic table.
 a) Write down the number of protons in a sodium atom.
___________________________________________________________

b) Describe how lithium reacts with cold water.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c) Complete the diagram to show how the electrons are arranged in a sodium atom.

9. The diagram shows the group of periodic table containing Helium.

The elements are in the same order as they appear in the periodic table.

a) Which element in the group has the largest atomic number?

_______________________________________________________________
b) Describe how the radius of the atom changes as you go down the group?
_______________________________________________________________

10. The electronic structures of atoms P and Q are shown.

 P and Q react to form an ionic compound. What is the formula of the compound?
a) PQ2 b) P2Q c) P2Q6 d) P6Q2

11. Look at the diagram of the water molecule.

a) State the type of bonding in a water molecule.

_____________________________________________________________
Explain how you can tell.
_____________________________________________________________
b) An oxygen atom has the electronic structure 2,6.
To which group of the periodic table does oxygen belong?
_____________________________________________________________

12. The element rubidium is immediately below potassium in the periodic table.
It reacts with bromine to form the compound rubidium bromide.
Which descriptions of this compound are correct?
13. Look at the diagrams.
They show the electronic structures of a sodium atom and sodium ion.

a) Describe how a sodium ion is made from a sodium atom.

_______________________________________________________________
b) Look at the diagram.
It shows the structure of sodium chloride.
i) Write down the type of bonding in sodium chloride.
_________________________________________________________
ii) The bonding between sodium and chlorine atoms is strong.
Explain why.
_________________________________________________________
iii) Sodium chloride is a giant structure.
Circle its melting point.
-50°C 0°C 52°C 801°C

14. The table shows the electronic structures of four atoms.

Which two atoms combine to form an ionic compound?

a) W and X b) W and Y c) X and Y d) X and Z
 15. When lithium is added to water it forms lithium hydroxide and a gas.
a) Complete the word equation for the reaction between lithium and water.

b) The chemical symbol for lithium is Li.

The formula of water is H2O.
The formula of lithium hydroxide is LiOH.
Which of these substances is an element?
_________________________________________________________
Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c) Lithium is in group 1 of the periodic table.
The diagram shows some of the elements in group 1 of the periodic table.

Describe how the reactivity of the Group 1 metals changes as you go down the group.

___________________________________________________________________________