Part 1: The Basics

When you first approach the language analysis texts, skim

through them looking for the following things:

1. Contention(s)
Definition: A statement communicating the author’s main point of view: what the writer or writers
want you to agree with. The contention is the broadest possible argument, and should be present
throughout the whole of the text. All of the arguments presented in the text will support the overall
contention.

Be aware: If there is more than one article there might be more than one main contention. This allows
you to establish a contrast.
Look to determine if the contention in a single article is consistent.
Establish if the supporting graphics or headlines support or compete with the contention being put
forward.

2. Supporting arguments
Definition: Supporting arguments are the two or three main reasons used to justify the overall
contention. These supporting points do not permeate the entire text, but are the main reasons given for
the overall argument.

Example: If the article is about allowing girls to play in the local football team, supporting arguments might
be:
The girls (how they are depicted; brave or reckless and irresponsible)
The parents of the teenagers (how they are depicted - supportive)
The football club (how they are depicted – out of date or forward thinking)

Be aware: The friction between the points of view will generate the possibility of establishing who has
the better argument and where it is most effective.

3. Writer’s position

Definition: You need to identify who the writer or writers are and how this influences their views in
the debate. This involves their job and political orientation. It may also involve their race, gender,
religion, sexuality etc, although you should be careful to refer to these characteristics only if the
author makes it clear it has had an influence on the argument.
Example: Devout Catholics would oppose legalizing abortion. Their faith is influencing their views.
By way of contrast, a feminist might be expected to support a woman’s right to choose. The
orientation of these individuals is influencing the stance taken.

Be aware: Your task is not to say if the writer’s point of view is correct or incorrect. You are there to
establish how effectively the writer has communicated a point of view. Have the techniques
employed been effective and appropriate given the topic and nature of the discussion.

4. Tone
Definition: Tone refers to the voice or attitude of the writer. When determining tone, look not at what
is stated, but how it is stated. To identify the tone of a piece, think about how the piece made you feel
as a reader and what impressions are generated about the author.

Sample list of tone words (of course, there are plenty more!)

1. angry 27. desperate 53. enthusiastic

2. sarcastic 28. superficial 54. snooty
3. sweet 29. sad 55. dreamy
4. harsh 30. artificial 56. lighthearted
5. cheerful 31. authoritative 57. humble
6. pleasant 32. surprised 58. instructive
7. sharp 33. ironic 59. disinterested
8. disgusted 34. content 60. uninterested
9. haughty 35. hurt 61. cheery
10. soothing 36. confused 62. manipulative
11. mel ancholic 37. questioning 63. contradictory
12. depressed 38. inquisitive 64. aggravated
13. ecstatic 39. arrogant 65. serious
14. agitated 40. condescending 66. calm
15. sympathetic 41. coarse 67. proud
16. seductive 42. romantic 68. apathetic
17. hollow 43. upset 69. encouraging
18. humorous 44. paranoid 70. consoling
19. passive 45. pleading 71. friendly
20. persuasive 46. numb 72. loud
21. afraid 47. cynical 73. brash
22. tired 48. facetious 74. apologetic
23. happy 49. hating 75. appreciative
24. disappoi nted 50. nervous 76. joyful
25. dejected 51. loving 77. miserable
26. excited 52. scornful 78. Vibrant

Examples:

a) Outraged, angry: This is the most ridiculous proposal I have ever heard! Why should my tax-payer
dollars go towards supporting this scheme?
 b) Sarcastic: I’m sure that you didn’t mean to hurt him, after all, you did hit him over the head with a
bottle while he wasn’t looking. Everyone can see how that would be deemed an accident.

c) Hurt, surprised, dejected: How could you even think I would suggest that? You know I
love the Richmond Football Team. I would never ridicule their performance..

Be aware: Establishing the tone provides the general umbrella under which ideas can be grouped.
It’s a way of structuring your response. A single writer may transition between several tones or we
can contrast the different tones of multiple writers.

5. Audience
Definition: The intended audience of a text is the people the author is targeting. Think about who the
author is trying to reach with their message. To identify the audience, think about:

-Whether anyone is being directly targeted: For instance, is the text written or presented to a
particular person or persons? Does the text appear in a publication for a specific group of people (such as
retirees, movie goers, or fashion devotees)?
- The content: Who is influenced by the content of the article? Whose interests are
represented, or whose opinion does the author seek to challenge?
-The tone and techniques used: Who would react to the tone? Are the techniques markers of a
particular group – “gnarly dude”? What sort of people would respond to them? Who would be alienated?
Be aware: The audience may well determine the approach and style taken by the writer/speaker. A large
public audience will require different techniques and approaches to an individual reading a paper over a
morning cup of coffee.

Part 2: Persuasive Techniques

The next step is to think about the persuasive techniques that the
authors have used to support their contentions. There are three
broad types of persuasive techniques that you should be aware of; logos,
pathos, ethos.

Be aware: Do not fall into the trap of focusing only on techniques you can name. If something feels
persuasive to you, this is because it is persuasive, whether it has a “name” or not.

Logos – ‘Logic or Reason’

Definition: Logos (Greek for “word‟) is an appeal based on logic or reason. It refers to the
internal consistency of a message the clarity of the claim, the logic of its reasons and the
effectiveness of its supporting evidence.
SAMPLE

The following discussion between Constable O’Laughlin, Anna Ferral of the Environment Protection
Society and the Arts Centre’s Hugh Riddington-Smythe was aired on 3AW after members of LEO,
Liberation Of Environment group, scaled the tower of the arts centre this morning and unfurled banners
in an attempt to highlight the current government’s appalling record on environmental protection.

Host: And how does the police force feel about the actions of LEO? Was there any harm caused by their
actions?

Constable: Whenever someone breaks the law there is some harm done. The perpetrators scaled the
tower at approximately 5.30 this morning. I had to deploy my constables to redirect traffic as the
spectacle caused traffic chaos and thereby endangered the public. We could not retrieve the perpetrators
for fear of risking the lives of those on duty. When you speak of harm, you need to define it in terms of
potential community danger and our need to minimize the chances of harm occurring.

Anna: Really constable, you’re being far too serious. Think what a magnificent act this was. Like
lions in the night, the LEO group stalked upon their prey and mauled the sitting government in the week
before the election. You must applaud their daring escapade as they have highlighted one of the most
overlooked aspects and issues in our society today – the environment.

Constable: Don’t be ridiculous. We have a violation of property, potential traffic chaos and others will
have to go up there and repair all the damage that has been made all the riskier by those vandals disabling
all the backup security so that no one can bring them down. The RACV data on these sorts of incidents
reveal there is a 20% increase in traffic congestion and a 5% increase in traffic accidents that can be
attributed directly to protests like this.

Hugh: I’m trying to look at the positives. If the sign had been better painted we could have excused the
cost of repairing damage as an offset against a performance work of art – the unfurling of the piece, and it
has brought attention to the Arts Centre but I’m afraid the board of trustees will not look at it in that light.
There is a definite cost involved here to the center.

Anna: People seem to ignore the damage to the environment; the seals throttled by getting their necks
caught in discarded plastic can holders, the chipping of ancient timbers and clear felling of forests. And
what has this government done about it? They’ve extended the licenses of some of the major criminal
companies.

Host: Well, I’m afraid that’s all we have time for now. Obviously this issue will continue to reverberate
in the community with action pending in the courts. 3AW will keep you informed.

Analysis:-

Cause and effect I had to deploy my constables to redirect traffic as the spectacle caused traffic chaos and
thereby endangered the public. We could not retrieve the perpetrators for fear of risking the lives of those on duty.
Support assertions with reputable data The RACV data on these sorts of incidents reveal there is a 20%
increase in traffic congestion and a 5% increase in traffic accidents that can be attributed directly to protests like
this.

Appeal to an authority The RACV data . . .

Appeal to reason There is a definite cost involved here to the center.

Formulaic summation Well, I’m afraid that’s all we have time for now. Obviously this issue will continue
to reverberate in the community with action pending in the courts. 3AW will keep you informed.

“Logos” techniques
Expert opinion

Expert opinion is when highly-regarded academics or organizations considered experts on an issue give
their opinion on it. Eg: According to Professor John Stapleton of Melville University, drivers who speed
are more likely to be killed.

Research

Eg: According to the Transport Board, 13 862 people were caught speeding last year, 3576 more than in
the previous year. Therefore, despite the operation of speed cameras, speeding is increasing

Eg: A recent study conducted by the University of Shacksville has confirmed that people who drink too
much alcohol have a higher risk of developing liver disease.

Anecdotes

A short, personal story told by an everyday person. Anecdotal evidence connects with people’s experiences
and feelings and can be more interesting to readers, capturing their attention and leaving them receptive to
the authors„ arguments. Personalized, first-hand experience can also have a strong emotional impact on
readers, arousing their sympathy.

Eg: Two large, long-haired dogs were allowed to roam the streets on Friday afternoon. They came into our
yard and killed our pet rabbits. This is why dog owners should obey their local council’s rules.

Reputable sources

If statistics are given, are the sources cited? The Australian Bureau of Statistics, for instance, is reputable
because it is independent and has a reputation for gathering statistics in a reliable way. If, however, a survey is
conducted by a pharmaceutical company suggests that a particular drug should be marketed Australia wide as
a cure for a particular disease, we can question the validity of this source and raise the possibility of it being
biased

Appeals to common sense and rationality:

Does what the author is saying make sense? Is it a sensible solution to a complex or emotive problem?

Cause and effect statements and logical conclusions:

Does the author show a clear link between the cause of a problem and the solution he or she is
proposing?
Recognition of opposing viewpoints

Does the author acknowledge alternative views and their merits? These alternatives can be dismissed,
but this shouldn’t be done off-hand or for no reason – the author should present clear, cogent
arguments to rebut any opposing viewpoints.

Pathos – ‘Emotion’

Definition: Pathos (Greek for “suffering” or “experience”) is an appeal based on

emotion (often found in advertisements, for example.) Language choice affects the
audience’s emotional (as opposed to “logical” or “reason-based”) response. An
appeal to pathos
causes an audience not just to respond emotionally but to identify with the writer’s
point of view.

Example:-

Peter Wilson struggles to drag himself out of bed each day. If he manages to rise before noon he will
consume a cocktail of medication for breakfast and then spend the rest of the day sitting in front of the
television. He will stare at the screen until it’s time to go back to bed. This is his life ever since the car
crash that crippled his once muscular frame and that took the joy from life.

Peter’s wife, Melissa, was killed by a drunk driver almost four years ago. “Every day’s a living hell,” he
says. “I can’t go anywhere or do anything without thinking about Melissa. In the and, I just stopped
leaving the house.”

The monster responsible for Melissa’s death is now living in the lap of luxury. He was sentenced to
three years at the new Wilmott Centre, a minimum security “rehabilitation facility” based on
human rights principles. Apparently, human rights entails living in self contained cottages, full
access to education, sport and entertainment facilities, even your own TV. What happened to the
days when criminals were treated like the scum they are? What price a life? Now, kill a young
woman in the prime of her life, get a slap on the wrist and, to add insult to injury, grant them a
lifestyle fit for a king!

“It makes my life unbearable, knowing he’s living it up in Wilmott. He’s been rewarded for taking my wife’s
life,” Peter says.

Imagery (Metaphors & Similes) cocktail of medication, the monster

First names Peter, Melissa – humanizes them as opposed to ‘the monster’
Peter is characterized as caring and suffering – “I can’t go anywhere without thinking about Melissa”
Contrast Peter’s ‘hell’ as opposed to ‘lap of luxury’
Quotation marks “rehabilitation centre” suggests it is the opposite
Exaggeration education, TV, sport, entertainment = lack of accountability
Rhetorical question What happened . . .? What price . . .? emphasizes the disparity
The driver a monster, drunk and no name
Anecdoate everyone has to get out of bed – we can all identify with this.
Appeal appeal for justice in the rhetorical questions.

Pathos techniques
1. Connotations
Definition: A connotation is the emotional meaning associated with the word. Connotations can be
historical, biblical or current social references. For example:

If a man is killed we imagine that he has died.

If a man is ‘slaughtered’, we understand that he was violently and brutally killed.
If a man is ‘euthanised ’, then we understand his life has been compassionately and
gently ended. Thus the connotations or ‘suggestions ’ behind each word differ.

Effect: Connotations have the effect of positioning the reader to feel a certain way about a topic. Readers
usually respond to them on an emotional level because of the images they tap into when they hear a
particular word or phrase.

Attacks/praise is also a very common technique – where the writer:

• Denigrates or humiliates another
• Discredits opponents
• Attacks a person or their credibility, rather than an idea
• Discredits another idea

2. The sound of language

a) Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of a sound, often at the beginning of a word, that plays
on the same constant or syllable. For alliteration to occur, a sound must be repeated several times
in a short space e.g. “Dirty deeds done dirt cheap!” Be aware of alliteration. Only make note of
alliteration that has a purpose i.e. supports an argument.

b) Repetition : Repetition is the repeating of words and phrases throughout a text. Repetition
doesn’t necessarily make a statement true but it makes sure that a reader remembers the
statement.

c) Colloquial language and idioms: Colloquial language, or slang, is language that is used in every
day conversation. It is persuasive because it is friendly and invites the audience to see the writer as
being “one of us”, someone who is on the same wavelength. There appears to be no pretension about
someone who uses such language, making their message more palatable to readers, e.g. “G’day
mate!”

d) Clichés: Clichés are overused expressions, e.g. “There’s a time and a place for
everything.”Clichés can be used because they often carry an array of connotations. They can also
help readers to feel familiar with the material presented and thus attract their attention. On the other
hand, however, the overuse of clichés in intellectual writing can detract from the quality of the
writing

3. Generalizations

Definition: A generalization is a phrase that is said to be true for all because it is true for some.
Generalizations are also known as stereotypes e.g. “All teenagers are fat and lazy. ”

Effect: They can be persuasive because they appeal to our general sense of what seems true and they also
appeal to social stereotypes and racial prejudices which are familiar. This familiarity can lull the reader into
accepting the claim

4. Hyperbole or exaggeration

Definition: Hyperbole is the use of language to denigrate an opposition to make them appear ridiculous,
e.g. “Those who support this ridiculous idea would have us believe that it will dramatically improve the
quality of modern living. Of course it will! And it will probably cure cancer, eradicate pollution, improve
traffic flow and make the kids go to bed when we tell them!”

They may also emphasize the author’s point e.g. if someone were to describe the damage caused by a
storm as “pretty bad”, the reader won’t be likely to think much of it. However, if they were to describe
the aftermath as a storm as being “like a warzone” the effect is to emphasize the severity of the situation
(even if the only damage was a few broken windows).

5. Inclusive language

Definition: Inclusive language refers to the use of pronouns such as “you and me”, “we” and “our”.
Through these words, the writer seeks to identify with the readers.

Effect: The writer is identifying as one of us, implying that we are equally affected by the issue and that
he or she speaks for our concerns. For instance, “people like you and me don’t want to see this happen. We
know how socially destructive it will be, and we don’t want our kids growing up in that sort of society.”

6. Rhetorical questions

Definition: A rhetorical question is a question posed for persuasive effect without the expectation of
a reply, e.g. “How much longer must we suffer in silence?”

Effect: The effect of a rhetorical question is to encourage the reader to think about what the (often
obvious) answer to the question must be. Make sure you are very specific with your explanation of the
effect, however: what is the obvious answer? What does the author want you to think and how does the
question he or she posed lead to that conclusion?

7. Appeals to emotion and to values

Definition: Writers often appeal to values that they think that the reader will hold.

Here is a list of appeals to values:

a) F
amily values: Appeals to family values evoke ideas of belonging, security,
caring/nurturing, togetherness, safety, love and comfort.
b) Justice/fairness: An appeal to a sense of justice or fairness is often used when the rights of
two opposing sides come into conflict, especially when one side appears to be being treated
unfairly
c) Modernity: Advertisers tend to use this type of appeal most often they urge consumers to
 buy the latest in technology or fashion, and do so by hinting that those who do not consume
the latest products are old-fashioned and outdated.
d) Generosity: An appeal to generosity makes the reader feel like they would be acting
greedily or selfishly in their own interests, rather than the greater good, if they do not agree
with a certain proposition.
e) Humanitarianism: Appeals to humanitarianism play on people’s desire to
promote general human welfare it evokes notions of kindness, sympathy and
benevolence.
f) Hip pocket nerve (money) and self interest: Appeals to self interest are designed to make
the reader feel that something they personally value is being threatened, or that they will be
better off as a result of a particular proposal.
g) Belonging: An appeal to belonging makes the reader feel as though they will be
excluded if they do not agree with a certain proposition.
h) Patriotism: The term “un-Australian” is an example of an appeal to patriotism. References to
the national interest, Australia’s interest in the world and its economic well being, international
reputation, and safety, and the respect that other nations feel for it are examples of appeals to
patriotism
i) Tradition: An appeal to tradition suggests that because “we’ve always done it like this ‟ or
“our ancestors fought for this”, an idea is inherently good. Going against it would mean going
against everything we (as a culture, a nation etc) stand for.

Here is a short list of appeals to emotion:

a) Nostalgia: Nostalgia is the feeling one gets when they look back on the past fondly. Often,
appeals to nostalgia are used to justify a return to older, simpler times.
b) Guilt: Guilt is a powerful emotion and writers who make their audience feel guilty about an
issue (and, in particular, about not acting upon an issue) can be very persuasive
c) Sympathy/empathy: Encouraging people to feel sympathy for someone (sorry for them) or
empathy (put themselves in another’s shoes)
d) Fear: Appeals to fear may rely on fear of physical violence or death; of loss of security,
family, stability, money, safety; of change; of a specified negative event.
e) Compassion: A description of the plight of the underprivileged is designed to appeal to the
reader’s sense of compassion it aims to make them feel outraged, sorry, or upset. Whatever the
emotion elicited, the aim is to cause the reader to feel like they want to take some action in
response to the situation

Effect: Once you have identified the emotional appeal, you should be able to identify its
effect, as the author is trying to position you to feel a particular way about their topic.

Example (appeal to humanitarianism): Philip Craig positions the reader to feel sorry for the people
affected by the tsunami and, more importantly, encourages them to feel altruistic, when he describes
the Samoans as “poor, downtrodden people who continue to suffer due to the lack of Western aid.”

Ethos – ‘Anecdotal/Expert Opinion’

Definition: Ethos (Greek for “character”) or an ethical appeal means convincing
 based on the character of the author. We tend to believe those people we respect not
only those who are an authority on the subject, but also those who are likeable and
worthy of our respect.

Example:

I am a refugee rights advocate with over 20 years experience. My efforts have been decried as everything
from foolish to disgusting to un-Australian. However, since Australians are at heart sincere, honest people,
I know that you can understand the principles of basic human rights that everyone should have. I, like
every other Australian, am a woman concerned about injustice.

Ever since my family resettled here many, many years ago, I have known Australia is a just and
reasonable country. My family came here to escape the war in their own country, and was given
sanctuary by a kind and generous population. So, when I was old enough to make a difference, I decided to
focus my energies towards helping some of the most disenfranchised of our population: refugees.

I am not foolish, nor un-Australian. I am deeply committed to the principles upon which Australia stands
proud: justice, equality, a fair go for all. This is why I support the extension of basic human rights to all
refugees, and that is why I have serious questions about the current political attitude of stopping the
boats.

Personal credibility authority as a spokesperson – 20 years experience, a refugee

Praise of audience sincere, honest, generous, kind, proud, just
Personal concerns making a difference
Australian what is being Australian? Are you just?
Australia’s future direction serious questions

“Ethos” techniques
Ethical appeals are used to establish the writer as fair, open- minded, honest, and knowledgeable about the
subject matter. The writer creates a sense of him or herself as trustworthy and credible. When used correctly,
the writer is seen as...

Well-informed about the topic

Confident in his or her position
Sincere, honest, respectable and trustworthy
Understanding of the reader's concerns and possible
objections
On the reader’s side
Reasonable and rational
Humane and considerate