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UNIT II

Computer Fundamentals

By ERROR

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TABLE OF
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION OF MEMORIES ..…………………..….1

what is memory …………………………………………………………………………… 4

what is RAM and ROM …………………………………………………………………… 8

what is cache memory ………………………………………………………………… 11

Software ………………………………………………………………………………………… 11

Hardware ………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Firmware and peopleware ……………………………………………………………… 14

operating System ……………………………………………………………………………… 17

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INTRODUCTION

A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most

electronic devices such as computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc
all have a storage device that stores data and/or programs.

There are two basic types of memory:

1. Primary/main memory
2. External/secondary memory
The different types of memory devices are:

• Primary Memory
• Random Access Memory(RAM)
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• Read-Only memory(ROM)
• MROM
• PROM
• EPROM - Erasable programmable read-only memory
• EEPROM - Electrically Erasable and Programmable
ROM
• Secondary Memory
• Hard disk drives (HDD)
• Solid-state drive (SSD)

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What is memory ?

Computer memory is any physical device capable of

storing information temporarily, like RAM (random-access
memory), or permanently, like ROM (read-only memory).
Memory devices utilize integireted circuits and are used
by operating systems, software, and hardware

Types of computer memories.

Memory is a fundamental computer component that empowers

efficient data access and processing. There are two types of
memory: primary (volatile) and secondary (non-volatile), each with
distinct purposes.
• A computer contains two types of memory: primary (vola-
tile) and secondary (non-volatile).
• Primary memory (RAM and ROM) allows quick data access
and temporary storage for running programs, while second-
ary memory (HDDs, SSDs, etc.) provides long-term data
storage.

Primary Memory : The main form of memory that the CPU

directly accesses for immediate use during active processing is
known as primary memory. Because data is only stored there while
the computer is powered on, it is known as volatile memory. The

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information kept in primary memory is lost when the computer

shuts down or loses power.

The two main categories of primary memory are

• RAM (Random Access Memory)

• ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Secondary Memory : A sort of computer memory used for long-

term data storage, even while the computer is off, is secondary memory,
often referred to as non-volatile memory. Secondary memory preserves
data longer than primary memory (RAM), which is volatile and temporary.
It functions as a storage repository for different files, programs, and other
data types that the CPU doesn’t need to access or process immediately.
HDD ( Hard Disk Drive ) and SSD ( Solid State Drive ) is an example of
Secondary Memory.

Q : Explain types of primary and secondary

memories.

A computer contains two types of memory: primary

(volatile) and secondary (non-volatile).

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Primary Memory : The main form of memory that the CPU directly
accesses for immediate use during active processing is known as primary
memory. There are two types of primary memories are explained below.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a crucial type of primary memory in a
computer system. It is volatile memory; the Computer’s Processor
(CPU), may quickly access the information it contains to utilize it when
processing is active. In contrast to secondary memory (such as hard drives
or solid-state drives), RAM doesn’t save data when the computer is shut
down.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Read-Only Memory(ROM) is a form of computer memory that stores data
permanently, retaining its contents even when the machine is powered off.
Data in ROM is “read-only” since, as the name implies, it cannot be easily
changed or replaced. It provides vital firmware, data, and instructions for
the computer’s fundamental processes, including booting and system in-
itialization.

Secondary Memory : Secondary memory is a type of

computer memory that is used to store data and programs
that can be accessed or retrieved even after the computer
is turned off. Unlike primary memory, which is volatile and
temporary, some of the examples of secondary memory is
explained below.

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1. Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Hard disc drives (HDD) are conventional mechanical data storage

components in computers. The read/write heads access and store
data on magnetic discs, also known as platters, which rotate at high
speeds. Magnetic patterns store data on the platters. HDDs are af-
fordable and offer large storage capabilities compared to other
storage technologies. However, their performance sometimes suf-
fers because the read/write process is mechanical. HDDs are still
often used for bulk data storage, backup, and archive needs even
though Solid-State Drives (SSD) are faster.

2. Solid-State Drives (SSD)

Solid-State Drives (SSD) are modern storage devices that employ
NAND flash memory to store data. SSDs have advantages over
Hard Disc Drives (HDD) because they are faster, more reliable, and
more energy-efficient due to their fewer moving parts. Data stor-
age eliminates the need for any mechanical parts by using memory
chips. This results in significantly faster data access. SSDs provide
much quicker read and write speeds, enhancing system performance
overall and accelerating application loading times. They are commonly
used as the primary storage drives in laptops and PCs, offering rapid boot
times and improved responsiveness. SSDs have grown in popularity be-
cause of their greater performance and dependability, although they are
often more expensive per gigabyte than HDDs.

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Explain types of RAM and ROM.

RAM
(RAM) comes in different types. The differences are due to the
function of the memory and the technology of memory and of other
computer hardware.

Two main types of RAM are:

• Static RAM
• Dynamic RAM
Static RAM
Static RAM is the full form of SRAM. In this type of RAM, data is stored
using the state of a six transistor memory cell. Static RAM is mostly used
as a cache memory for the processor (CPU).
Dynamic RAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is a type of RAM
which allows you to stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor
within a specific integrated circuit. Dynamic RAM is a standard com-
puter memory of the many modern desktop computers.
This type of RAM is a volatile memory that needs to be refreshed with
voltage regularly. Else it loses the information stored on it.

SRAM VS DRAM
SRAM DRAM

SRAM has lower access time, so it is faster DRAM has higher access time, so it is
compared to DRAM. slower than SRAM.

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SRAM DRAM

SRAM is costlier than DRAM. DRAM costs less compared to SRAM.

SRAM requires a constant power supply, DRAM offers reduced power consumption
which means this type of memory which because the information is stored in the
consumes more power. capacitor.

It is a complex internal circuitry, and it offers

It is the small internal circuitry in the one-
less storage capacity is available compared
bit memory cell of DRAM. The large
to the same physical size of a DRAM memory
storage capacity is available.
chip.

SRAM has a low packaging density. DRAM has a high packaging density.

ROM.
What is Read-Only Memory (ROM)?

ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a non-volatile memory

that is used to store important information which is used to op-
erate the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we
can only read the programs and data stored on it. It is also a pri-
mary memory unit of the computer system. It contains some
electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific
information. The information stored in the ROM in binary format.
It is also known as permanent memory.

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TYPES OF READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

Now we will discuss the types of ROM one by one:
1. MROM (Masked read-only memory): We know that
ROM is as old as semiconductor technology. MROM was
the very first ROM that consists of a grid of word lines
and bit lines joined together transistor switches. This
type of ROM data is physically encoded in the circuit and
only be programmed during fabrication. It was not so ex-
pensive.
2. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): PROM is a
form of Digital memory. In this type of ROM, each bit is
locked by a fuse or anti-fuse. The data stored in it are
permanently stored and can not be changed or erasable.
It is used in low-level programs such as firmware or mi-
crocode.
3. EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only
memory): EPROM also called EROM, is a type of PROM
but it can be reprogrammed. The data stored in EPROM
can be erased and reprogrammed again by ultraviolet
light. Reprogrammed of it is limited. Before the era of
EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM was used in micro-
controllers.
4. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-
only memory): As its name refers, it can be programmed
and erased electrically. The data and program of this
ROM can be erased and programmed about ten thousand
times. The duration of erasing and programming of
the EEPROM is near about 4ms to 10ms. It is used in mi-
crocontrollers and remote keyless systems.

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What is cache memory ?

Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory

that provides high-speed data access to a processor and stores
frequently used computer programs, applications and data.
A temporary storage of memory, cache makes data retrieving
easier and more efficient. It is the fastest memory in a computer,
and is typically integrated onto the motherboard and directly
embedded in the processor or main random access memory
(RAM).

Software
Software is a set of instructions, data, or programs used
to operate a computer and execute specific tasks. In sim-
pler terms, software tells a computer how to function. It’s
a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts, and
programs that run on devices such as PCs, mobile
phones, tablets, and other smart devices.

computer software can be divided into:

Application Software uses the computer system to perform spe-
cial functions beyond the basic operation of the computer itself.
There are many different types of application software because the
range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so
large—see list of software

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System Software manages hardware behaviour, as to provide

basic functionalities that are required by users, or for other software
to run properly, if at all. System software is also designed for provid-
ing a platform for running application software, and it includes the
following:
Operating system are essential collections of software that man-
age resources and provide common services for other software
that runs "on top" of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders,
shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In
practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional soft-
ware (including application software) so that a user can potentially
do some work with a computer that only has one operating system.
Device Drivers operate or control a particular type of device that
is attached to a computer. Each device needs at least one corre-
sponding device driver; because a computer typically has at mini-
mum at least one input device and at least one output device, a
computer typically needs more than one device driver.
Utilities are computer programs designed to assist users in the
maintenance and care of their computers.
Malicious software or malware, is software that is developed to
harm or disrupt computers. Malware is closely associated with
computer-related crimes, though some malicious programs
may have been designed as practical jokes.

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HARDWARE
What is computer hardware?

A simple definition of computer hardware is “any physical parts or

components that contribute to a computer system.” There are sev-
eral different kinds of hardware inside a PC. Both desktop and lap-
top PCs include these types of hardware, though the size and type
differ because of a laptop’s compact design.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE?

• Hardware: Think of computer hardware as the parts of your

computer that you can see and touch. These are the tangible
components that are likely fitted together inside your com-
puter case and installed with a screwdriver.
• Software: Computer software, on the other hand, is not some-
thing you can touch, but is defined as the programs you install
on your computer, providing a set of instructions that tell your
PC how to work.
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Firmware and Peopleware

Firmware

Firmware is defined as a category of software permanently embedded

into a device’s read-only memory, which provides instructions on
how the device is supposed to operate and minimizes hardware-level
security vulnerabilities.

Firmware, essentially, refers to software embedded in a piece of

hardware. It enables the most basic of devices to function. It is
usually stored on a read-only memory (ROM) chip, preventing it
from getting accidentally erased while remaining close to the de-
vice’s metal. End-users can only delete or modify firmware using
special programs. And it stays on those devices whether it is on or
off.

How does firmware work?

Firmware is the first part that runs when a device is powered on. It
sends instructions for execution to the device’s processor. For simple
devices such as remote controls, the firmware works continuously as
there is no software to replace it. In more complex devices, such as
computers, multiple firmware sets interact to achieve a common goal,
such as loading their operating systems.

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Types of firmware
• Low-level firmware: These cannot be modified or altered
since they are considered as integral hardware elements.
They are stored on nonvolatile memory chips such as ROM
and programmable ROM (PROM).
• High-level firmware: These forms of firmware often have
higher levels of instruction complexity than low-level firm-
ware, bringing them closer to the realm of software than
hardware. They are used in conjunction with flash memory
chips to make upgrades possible.
• Subsystem: They are parts of a more extensive system that
can work independently. It often looks like its device be-
cause the microcode for this firmware level is built into the
central processing unit (CPU), the liquid crystal display
units (LCD), and the flash chips. Also, it is like high-level
firmware in terms of operation.

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Peopleware
A term first coined by Peter G. Neuman
in 1977 , peopleware refers to the role people play in
technology and the development of hardware or
software. It can include various aspects of the process
such as human interaction, programming, productivity,
teamwork, and project management.

Peopleware is a term used to refer to one of the three core

aspects of computer technology, the other two
being hardware and software. Peopleware can refer to anything
that has to do with the role of people in the development or use
of computer software and hardware systems, including such
issues as developer productivity, teamwork, group dynamics, the
psychology of programming, project management, organizational
factors, human interface design, and human–machine
interaction

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Operating System
What is operating system?

Operating System lies in the category of system software. It ba-

sically manages all the resources of the computer. An operating
system acts as an interface between the software and different
parts of the computer or the computer hardware. The operating
system is designed in such a way that it can manage the overall
resources and operations of the computer.
Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized pro-
grams that handle all the operations of the computer. It controls
and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in
the computer, which also includes application programs and
other system software of the computer. Examples of Operating
Systems are Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

• Resource Management: The operating system manages

and allocates memory, CPU time, and other hardware re-
sources among the various programs and processes run-
ning on the computer.
• Process Management: The operating system is responsi-
ble for starting, stopping, and managing processes and
programs. It also controls the scheduling of processes
and allocates resources to them.

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• Memory Management: The operating system manages

the computer’s primary memory and provides mecha-
nisms for optimizing memory usage.
• Security: The operating system provides a secure envi-
ronment for the user, applications, and data by imple-
menting security policies and mechanisms such as access
controls and encryption.
• User Interface: The operating system provides a user in-
terface that enables users to interact with the computer
system. This can be a Graphic user interface (GUI) or
Command line interface (CLI) or a combination of both.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

There are several types of Operating Systems which are

mentioned below.
• Batch operating system
• Multi-programming system
• Multi-Processing System
• Multi-Tasking Operating System
• Time sharing operating system
• Distributed Operating System
• Network operating system
• Real-time operating system

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1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the
computer directly. There is an operator which takes similar
jobs having the same requirement and groups them into
batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs
with similar needs.
Batch Operating

Advantages of Batch Operating System

• It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for

any job to complete. Processors of the batch systems

know how long the job would be when it is in the queue.

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•Multiple users can share the batch systems.

• The idle time for the batch system is very less.

• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch sys-

tems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
• The computer operators should be well known with batch

systems.
• Batch systems are hard to debug.

• It is sometimes costly.

• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if

any job fails.

Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank
Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multi-Programming Operating System can be simply illustrated

as more than one program is present in the main memory and any
one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically used for
better execution of resources .

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Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

• Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the Sys-

tem.
• It helps in reducing the response time.

Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

• There is not any facility for user interaction of system re-

sources with the system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

Multi-processing operating system is a type of Operating System

in which more than one CPU is used for the execution of re-
sources. It betters the throughput of the System.

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

• It increases the throughput of the system.

• As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we

can proceed with another processor.

Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
• Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and

somehow difficult to understand.

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4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating System

with having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling Algorithm. It can run multiple
programs simultaneously.
There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.
• Preemptive Multi-tasking
• Co-
operative
Multi-
tasking

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