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UNIT-3
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

SYLLABUS:
Principle of operation, Common Emitter, Common Base and Common Collector
configurations, Transistor as a switch, Switching times.

COURSE OUTCOME:
By the end of the unit, students will be able to Classify and distinguish the different
configurations of a Bipolar Junction Transistor

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR: (Example Q: What is a BJT? What are the

different types?)

A Bipolar Junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device, constructed using two

diodes that are connected together to share one common semiconductor, either P or N.
Accordingly, two types of transistors can be developed by the way the two diodes are
connected together, viz. PNP and NPN transistors.
So Bipolar Junction Transistors are of two types
• NPN transistor or N-Transistor
• PNP transistor or P-Transistor

NPN Transistor
CONSTRUCTION (Example Q: Explain the Construction of an NPN transistor)

• NPN transistor is constructed by sandwiching a P-type semiconductor between two N-

type semiconductors.
• One terminal from each semiconductor is derived, thus the transistor will have three
terminals.
• The three terminals of the transistor are named Emitter, Base, and Collector.
• Emitter and Collector terminals are derived from the same type of semiconductors and
the Base terminal is made of a different or opposite semiconductor.
• In an NPN transistor Emitter and Collector terminals are derived from the N-type
semiconductors and the Base comes from a P-type semiconductor.
• Emitter terminal is taken out of a heavily doped N-type semiconductor while Collector
is derived from a moderately doped N-type semiconductor.
• The P-type semiconductor of Base is very lightly doped. Thus, the base semiconductor
forms two PN junctions, one with Emitter (N-type) semiconductor and the other with
Collector (N-type) semiconductor.

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• In NPN transistors, the majority charge carriers are electrons and thus conduction is
carried out by the flow of electrons from the Emitter to the Collector.

WORKING OF NPN TRANSISTOR (Example Q: Define Active, saturation, and

Cut-off regions of the transistor)

• The transistor operates when its Emitter-Base and Base-Collector junctions are biased.
• Depending on the voltages applied to the junctions, the transistor can be operated in
three different regions
• Active Region: Where the Emitter–Base junction is forward-biased and the Base-
Collector junction is reverse-biased.
• Transistor works as an amplifier when operated under the active region.

• Saturation Region: When both Emitter-Base and Base-Collector junctions are forward
biased transistor will go into saturation.
• Under saturation, the transistor acts as a short circuit (ON) switch as electric current
flows through the transistor with both junctions forward-biased.

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• Cut-off Region: Emitter-Base and Base-collector Junctions are both reverse-biased.

• No current will flow through the transistor as both junctions are reverse-biased and the
transistor acts like an open (OFF) switch.
• Most of the applications of the transistor require it to be operated in the active region.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS:
Bipolar Junction Transistors can be operated in

• Common Base (CB) Configuration

• Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
• Common Collector (CC) Configuration

COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION (Example Q: Explain the input and output

characteristics of a transistor in Common Base configuration)

• In a common base configuration, the emitter is the input terminal, the collector is the
output terminal, and the base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input
and output.
• That means the emitter terminal and common base terminal are known as input
terminals whereas the collector terminal and common base terminal are known as
output terminals.

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• In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common base
configuration is also known as grounded base configuration. Sometimes common base
configuration is referred to as common base amplifier, CB amplifier, or CB
configuration.

• The input signal is applied between the emitter and base terminals while the
corresponding output signal is taken across the collector and base terminals.
• Thus, the base terminal of a transistor is common for both input and output terminals
and hence it is named Common Base Configuration.
• The supply voltage between the base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply
voltage between collector and base is denoted by VCB.
• The Base-Emitter junction JE is forward biased by the supply voltage VBE and the
Collector-Base junction JC is reverse biased by VCB.
• Due to the forward bias voltage VBE, the free electrons (majority carriers) in the emitter
region experience a repulsive force from the negative terminal of the battery similarly
holes (majority carriers) in the base region experience a repulsive force from the
positive terminal of the battery.
• As a result, free electrons start flowing from emitter to base similarly holes start
flowing from base to emitter leading to electric current.
• The actual current is carried by free electrons which are flowing from the emitter to the
base. However, we follow the conventional current direction which is from base to
emitter. Thus, electric current is produced at the base and emitter region.
• Only a small percentage of free electrons from the emitter region will combine with the
holes in the base region and the remaining large number of free electrons cross the base
region and enter into the collector region.
• A large number of free electrons which entered into the collector region will experience
an attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery.
• Therefore, the free electrons in the collector region will flow toward the positive
terminal of the battery. Thus, electric current is produced in the collector region.
• The electric current produced at the collector region is primarily due to the free
electrons from the emitter region similarly the electric current produced at the base
region is also primarily due to the free electrons from the emitter region.

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• Thus the emitter current can be considered as the sum of base current and collector
current.
IE = IB + IC
• We know that the emitter current is the input current and the collector current is the
output current. The output collector current is less than the input emitter current, so the
current gain of this amplifier is actually less than 1.
• As the input Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and the output Collector-Base
junction is reverse biased, therefore, the common base amplifier provides a low input
impedance and high output impedance.
• Transistors with low input impedance and high output impedance provide a high
voltage gain.

• When the Emitter-base junction is forward-biased, electrons from the N-type emitter
start moving to the base as the width of the E-B junction decreases with the increase in
Emitter-base Voltage (VBE).
• The electron movement is accelerated by the VBE voltage. As Collector is connected to
the positive terminal of the battery it will attract the Emitter electrons and thus Current
starts flowing through the transistor.
• Thus, one can say that the Collector-Base voltage, VCB (reverse bias) also contributes to
the Emitter electron movement.
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

• A graph plotted between the input Voltage (VBE) and input current IE describes the input
characteristics of the transistor.
• To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VCB (collector-base voltage) is
kept constant at zero volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to
different voltage levels.
• For each voltage level of the input voltage (VBE), the input current (IE) is recorded.
• A curve is then drawn between input current IE and input voltage VBE at constant output
voltage VCB (0 volts).

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• This process is repeated for different values of output voltage VCB and every time the
input current values for different input voltages should be recorded.
• When VCB = 0V, the Emitter-Base junction behaves like a normal PN junction diode
with cut-in voltage starting at 0.7V. Thus, the curve rises to maximum after the cut-in
voltage.
• When VCB > 0V, i.e., Collector terminal is positive compared to the other terminals, it
will accelerate the emitter electron movement and thus (IE) current will result in the
input junction even before the VBE cut-in voltage. Thus, the characteristics shift towards
the left.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

• The relation between the output voltage VCB applied to the output (Base-Collector)
Junction and the output Current IC flowing through it is described by the output
characteristics.

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• Since in a Bipolar Junction Transistor, the Emitter current (IE) is the sum of the Base
(IB) current and the Collector (IC) current. Thus, to plot the output characteristics the
input current (IE) has to be kept constant.
• Now the output current (IC) values for different values of the output voltages (VCB)
should be noted. This procedure has to be repeated by keeping IE constant at different
values.
• From the characteristics it can be observed that the output current (IC) increases initially
with the increase in the output voltage (VCB) till it becomes equal to the constant input
current (IE) value.
• Thus, BJT is called a current-controlled device as the output current (IC) is
controlled by the input current (IE).

Transistor Parameters: (Example Q: Define the various parameters of the

transistor in Common Base Configuration)

The performance of a transistor in a particular configuration can be analysed by the following

four parameters

• Input Impedance (Zib): Defines the ratio of the input voltage (VBE) and input current
(IE) with the output voltage (VCB) kept constant. Units are ohm(Ω).

𝑽𝒊 𝑽
𝒁𝒊𝒃 = = ( 𝑰𝑩𝑬) Ω
𝑰𝒊 𝑬 𝑽𝑪𝑩 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

• Current Amplification factor (Aib): It is the ratio of the Output current (IC) flowing
through the transistor to the input current (IE) measured by keeping output voltage
(VCB) constant.
The Common Base Current gain is also denoted using α (Alpha)

𝑰𝟎 𝑰
𝑨𝒊𝒃 = 𝜶 = = (𝑰 𝑪 ) No Units
𝑰𝒊 𝑬 𝑽𝑪𝑩 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

• Reverse Voltage gain (Avb): The ratio of the input voltage (VBE) to the output voltage
(VCB) of the transistor with input current (IE) kept constant is defined as the reverse
voltage gain.

𝑽 𝑽
𝑨𝒗𝒃 = 𝑽 𝒊 = (𝑽𝑩𝑬) No units
𝟎 𝑪𝑩 𝑰𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

• Output Admittance (Y0): The ratio of output current (IC) to the output voltage (VCB)
obtained by keeping the input current (IE) of the transistor constant is known as Output
Impedance. Units are mho (℧)

𝑰 𝑰
𝒀𝟎 = 𝑽𝟎 = (𝑽 𝑪 ) ℧
𝟎 𝑪𝑩 𝑰𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

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Applications of Common Base Configuration (Example Q: Mention the applications

of a Common Base Transistor.)

• It is commonly used for amplifiers that require low input impedance, such as
microphones.
• It is used in very high and ultra-high frequency amplifier configurations because it
performs better at high frequencies. It is due to the input-output impedance and the high
voltage amplifications.
• It is used for impedance matching. If the circuit has high input resistance, the common
base provides it with the low output resistance. It is known as impedance matching.

Early Effect or Base Width Modulation (Example Q: What is Early effect or Base
width modulation? What is reach through?)

• When operated in the active region, the Emitter-Base Junction of the transistor will be
forward biased, while the Collector-Base junction will be reverse biased.
• When the input (forward bias) voltage VBE is increased, the width of the Emitter-Base
PN junction decreases.
• Increase in the (reverse bias) output voltage VCB, will increase the width of the
Collector-Base PN junction.
• If the output voltage VCB applied to the collector-base junction JC is further increased,
the depletion region width further increases.
• The base region is lightly doped as compared to the collector region. So, the depletion
region penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region.
• As a result, the width of the base region decreases. This dependency of base width on
the output voltage (VCB) is known as an Early effect or Base width Modulation.
• If the output voltage VCB applied to the collector-base junction JC is highly increased,
the base width may be reduced to zero and causes a voltage breakdown in the transistor.
This phenomenon is known as Reach through or Punch through.

COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION:(Example Q: Explain the input and output

characteristics of transistor in Common Emitter Configuration)

• In Common Emitter Configuration, Emitter terminal is used as the common terminal

and is grounded. Base is treated as the input terminal while Collector is considered as
the output terminal.

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• In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB

and output current or collector current is denoted by IC.
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

• The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current
(IB) and input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).
• Input characteristics are plotted with the input current or base current (IB) taken along
y-axis (vertical line) and the input voltage (VBE) taken along x-axis (horizontal line).
• To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at zero
volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
• For each voltage level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is
recorded.

• A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at constant output
voltage VCE (0 volts).
• Next, the output voltage (VCE) is increased from zero volts to a certain voltage level (10
volts), and the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 10 volts.
• While increasing the output voltage (VCE), the input voltage (VBE) is kept constant at
zero volts. After we kept the output voltage (VCE) constant at 10 volts, the input voltage
VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
• For each voltage level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is
recorded.

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• A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at constant output
voltage VCE (10 volts). This process is repeated for higher fixed values of output voltage
(VCE).
• When output voltage (VCE) is at zero volts and emitter-base junction is forward biased
by input voltage (VBE), the emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n junction diode.
• So, the input characteristics of the CE configuration is same as the characteristics of a
normal PN junction diode.
• The cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistor is 0.3
volts. In our case, it is a silicon transistor.
• So, from the above graph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small increase in input
voltage (VBE) will rapidly increase the input current (IB).
• In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (IB) is produced in the base
region which is lightly doped and has small width. So, the base region produces only a
small input current (IB).
• On the other hand, in common base (CB) configuration, the input current (IE) is
produced in the emitter region which is heavily doped and has large width. So, the
emitter region produces a large input current (IE).
• Therefore, the input current (IB) produced in the common emitter (CE) configuration is
small as compared to the common base (CB) configuration.
• Due to forward bias, the emitter-base junction acts as a forward-biased diode, and due
to reverse bias, the collector-base junction acts as a reverse-biased diode.
• Therefore, the width of the depletion region at the emitter-base junction is very small
whereas the width of the depletion region at the collector-base junction is very large.
• If the output voltage VCE applied to the collector-base junction is further increased, the
depletion region width further increases.
• The base region is lightly doped as compared to the collector region. So, the depletion
region penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region.
• As a result, the width of the base region decreases which in turn reduces the input
current (IB) produced in the base region.
• From the above characteristics, we can see that for higher fixed values of output voltage
VCE, the curve shifts to the right side. This is because for higher fixed values of output
voltage, the cut in voltage is increased above 0.7 volts.
• Therefore, to overcome this cut in voltage, more input voltage VBE is needed than
previous case.

OUTPUT CHARATERISTICS:

• The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (IC) and
output voltage (VCE).
• In the output characteristics graph the output current or collector current (IC) is taken
along y-axis (vertical line) and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal
line).

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• To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current IB is kept
constant at 0 μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels.
• For each level of output voltage, the corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.

• A curve is then drawn between output current IC and output voltage VCE at constant input
current IB (0 μA).
• When the base current or input current IB = 0 μA, the transistor operates in the cut-off
region. In this region, both junctions are reverse-biased.
• Next, the input current (IB) is increased from 0 μA to 20 μA by adjusting the input
voltage (VBE). The input current (IB) is kept constant at 20 μA.
• While increasing the input current (IB), the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 0
volts.
• After we kept the input current (IB) constant at 20 μA, the output voltage (VCE) is
increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of output
voltage (VCE), the corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.
• A curve is then drawn between the output current IC and output voltage VCE at constant
input current IB (20 μA). This region is known as the active region of a transistor. In this
region, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased.
• These steps are repeated for higher fixed values of input current IB (i.e., 40 μA, 60 μA, 80
μA, and so on).
• When output voltage VCE is reduced to a small value (0.2 V), the collector-base junction
becomes forward-biased. This is because the output voltage VCE has less effect on the
collector-base junction than the input voltage VBE.
• As we know that the emitter-base junction is already forward biased. Therefore, when
both the junctions are forward biased, the transistor operates in the saturation region.
• In this region, a small increase in output voltage VCE will rapidly increases the output
current IC.

Transistor Current equation:

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As the total current flowing in the transistor is due to minority charge carriers and majority
charge carriers, the overall current equation of the transistor can be given as

IC = βIB + (1+β) ICB0

Where β is the current gain of CE configuration, base current IB is the current due to majority
charge carriers and ICBO is the minority charge carrier current flowing through the reverse
biased collector-base junction.

Transistor Parameters:

Dynamic input resistance (ri)

Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base voltage
(VBE) to the corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the output voltage
or collector voltage (VCE) kept at constant. Units are Ohms

𝑽𝒊 ∆𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑹𝒊 = =( ) Ω
𝑰𝒊 ∆𝑰𝑩 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

In CE configuration, the input resistance is very low.

Dynamic output resistance (ro)

Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or collector
voltage (VCE) to the corresponding change in output current or collector current (IC), with the
input current or base current (IB) kept at constant. Units are Ohms

𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑽𝑪𝑬
𝑹𝒐 = =( ) Ω
𝑰𝟎 ∆𝑰𝒄 𝑰𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

In CE configuration, the output resistance is high.

Current gain (β)

The current gain of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the ratio of output current or
collector current (IC) to the input current or base current (IB) keeping the output voltage (VCE)
constant.

𝑰𝟎 𝑰
𝜷= = ( 𝑪) No Units
𝑰𝒊 𝑰
𝑩 𝑽𝑪𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Voltage Gain (AV)

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It is defined as the ratio of the output voltage (VCE) to the input Voltage (VBE) applied to the
transistor by keeping the input current (IB) constant.

𝑽𝟎 𝑽𝑪𝑬
𝑨𝑽 = =( ) No Units
𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝑩𝑬 𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑩

Applications of Common Emitter Configuration:

1. These are preferably used as the current amplifiers than as voltage amplifiers as they
have more current gain values than the voltage gain.
2. In the radio frequency circuitry this configuration is preferred.
3. For the lower values of noise and its amplification this configuration is preferred.

Relation between Current Gains α (Common Base) & β (Common Emitter): (Example Q:
Derive the relation between α and β current gains of the transistor.)

The Current Gain in Common Base Configuration is given as

𝐈𝐂
𝛂=
𝐈𝐄

Current Gain of Common Emitter Configuration is

𝐈𝐂
𝛃=
𝐈𝐁

From the relation between the currents of the transistor

𝐈𝐄 = 𝐈𝐁 + 𝐈𝐂

𝐈𝐁 = 𝐈𝐄 − 𝐈𝐂

𝐈𝐁 = 𝐈𝐄 − 𝛂𝐈𝐄

𝐈𝐁 = (𝟏 − 𝜶)𝐈𝐄

Now

𝐈𝐂 𝐂 𝐈 𝟏 𝐈𝐂 𝜶 𝐈𝐂
𝛃= = (𝟏−𝜶)𝐈 = (𝟏−𝜶) ∙ = as =𝜶
𝐈𝐁 𝐄 𝐈𝐄 (𝟏−𝜶) 𝐈𝐄

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𝜷
Similarly, 𝜶=
𝜷+𝟏

Example Problems:

1. The Value of α of a p-n-p transistor is 0.99. Calculate the value of current gain in Common
Emitter Configuration.

Sol: As we know the current gain β in Common Emitter Configuration is given as

𝜶
𝛃=
(𝟏 − 𝜶)

Thus
𝛼 0.99
β= = = 99
(1 − 𝛼) 1 − 0.99

2. The Emitter current flowing through an NPN transistor is 20 mA. If the base current is
around 100 µA, find the collector current flowing through the transistor.

Sol: Given
Emitter Current IE = 20mA

Base Current IB = 100 µA = 0.1 x 1000 µA = 0.1 mA

As we know relation between transistor currents

IE = IB + IC

Thus, IC = IE – IB = 20 mA - 0.1 mA = 19.9 mA

Hence IC = 19.9 mA

COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION (Example Q: Explain the input and

output characteristics of transistor in Common Collector Configuration.)

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• In Common Emitter Configuration, Emitter terminal is used as the common terminal

and is grounded. Base is treated as the input terminal while Collector is considered as
the output terminal.

• Common Collector Configuration is also known as Emitter Follower Configuration.

• The input supply voltage between base and collector is denoted by VBC while the output
voltage between emitter and collector is denoted by VEC.
• In this configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output current
or emitter current is denoted by IE.
• The common collector amplifier has high input impedance and low output impedance.
It has low voltage gain and high current gain.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
• The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current
(IB) and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC) by keeping output voltage (VEC)
constant.
• To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VEC is kept constant at 3V and
the input voltage VBC is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
• For each level of input voltage VBC, the corresponding input current IB is noted. A curve
is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBC at constant output voltage
VEC (3V).
• This procedure is repeated for different constant values of output voltage VEC.

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OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

• Plotted between output Voltage VEC and output current IE by keeping input current IB
constant.
• To determine the output characteristics, the input current IB is kept constant at zero micro
amperes and the output voltage VEC is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
• For each level of output voltage VEC, the corresponding output current IE is noted. A curve
is then drawn between output current IE and output voltage VEC at constant input current IB
(0 μA).
• This procedure is repeated for different incremental values of input (base) current IB and
thus the characteristics are plotted.

Transistor Parameters:
Input Resistance (Ri)
Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base voltage
(VBC) to the corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the output voltage
or emitter voltage (VEC) kept at constant.

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𝑽𝑩𝑪
𝑹𝒊 = ( ) Ω
𝑰𝑩 𝑽𝑬𝑪 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Output Resistance (Ro)

Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or emitter voltage
(VEC) to the corresponding change in output current or emitter current (IE), with the input
current or base current (IB) kept at constant.
𝑽𝑬𝑪
𝑹𝒐 = ( ) Ω
𝑰𝑬 𝑰𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Current Gain / Amplification factor (Ai)

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change in output current or emitter
current IE to the change in input current or base current IB with the output voltage VEC kept
constant. It is denoted by γ.
𝑰𝑬
𝑨𝑰 = 𝜸 = ( ) 𝑁𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑰𝑩 𝑽𝑬𝑪 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Voltage Gain (AV)

The ratio of change in the output voltage VEC for a corresponding change in the input voltage
VBC when the input current IB is maintained constant.
𝑽𝑬𝑪
𝑨𝑽 = ( ) 𝑁𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑽𝑩𝑪 𝑰𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Applications of Common Collector Configuration:

• This configuration is used in impedance matching circuits.
• It is used as a switching circuit.
• The high current gain combined with near-unity voltage gain makes this circuit a great
voltage buffer.
• It is also used for circuit isolation

COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS (Example Q: Compare CB,

CE and CC configurations of a transistor.)
S. Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector
No. Configuration Configuration Configuration
Emitter is the Collector is the Common
1 Base is the Common terminal
Common terminal terminal

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Emitter terminal is input and Base terminal is the input Base terminal is input and
2 Collector is the output and Collector is the output Emitter is the output
terminal terminal terminal
Also called grounded-Base Also called grounded- Also called grounded-
3
configuration Emitter configuration Collector configuration.

𝑰 𝑰 𝑰
5 Current Gain (𝜶) = 𝑰𝑪 Current Gain (𝜷) = 𝑰 𝑪 Current gain (𝜸) = 𝑰𝑬
𝑬 𝑩 𝑩

6 Very low input resistance Moderate input resistance High input resistance
Moderate/High output
7 Very high output resistance Low output resistance
resistance
8 Current gain is less than unity Current gain is High Current gain is very high
Voltage gain is less than
9 Volage gain is high Voltage gain is high
unity

TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH (Example Q: Explain the working of a transistor as

a switch)

Cut Off Region:

• When both the Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions of BJT are reverse biased, input
(Base) current (IB) will be zero, hence the output (Collector) current (IC) becomes zero.
• Width of the depletion regions increase with the increase in the reverse bias voltages and
thus no current flows through transistor.
• Hence, the transistor can be considered as Open Switch i.e., fully – off.

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Cu-off Region (Open switch) Characteristics:

• The input is connected to ground so it is maintained at zero potential.

• VBE is less that cut – in voltage 0.7 V.
• Both Emitter – Base junction and Collector – Base junction are reverse biased.
• The transistor is fully – off acting as open switch.
• The collector current IC = 0 A and output voltage Vout = VCC.

Saturation Region –

• Both the Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions of the BJT are forward biased.
• Base current will increase leading to an increase in the Output Collector Current.
• Due to forward biasing of the junctions the width of depletion layers will be small
causing minimum Collector – Emitter voltage drop.
• Thus, current flowing through the transistor will be maximum, and the transistor can be
operated as Closed Switch i.e. fully – ON.

Saturation Region (Closed Switch) Characteristics:

• Input is connected to VCC.

• Base – Emitter voltage is greater than cut – in voltage (0.7 V).

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• Both the Base – Emitter junction and Base – Collector junction are forward biased.
• The transistor is fully – ON and operates as a closed switch.
𝐕𝐂𝐂
• Collector current is maximum and can be given as 𝐈𝐂 = 𝐑𝐋

TRANSISTOR SIWITCHING TIMES (Example Q: What are the different

switching times of the transistor? Explain them with necessary waveforms.)

• Switching times of the transistor describe the time taken by the transistor to switch
between the OFF and the ON States.
• The transistor switching times are defined by applying a pulse of duration T at the input
of the transistor.
• When the input pulse is applied, it takes some time for the transistor (collector) current
to reach the steady state value, due to the presence of stray capacitances at the junctions
of the transistor.

• From the above figure we can observe that the output current of the transistor is
starting after sometime (td)of the application of the input pulse.
• Time delay(td) − The time taken by the collector current to reach from its initial value
to 10% of its final value is called as the Time Delay.
• Rise time(tr) − The time taken for the collector current to reach from 10% of its initial
value to 90% of its final value is called as the Rise Time.
• Turn-on time (TON) − The sum of time delay (td) and rise time (tr) is called as Turn-
on time.

TON = td + tr

• Storage time (ts) − The time interval between the trailing edge of the input pulse to
the 90% of the maximum value of the output, is called as the Storage time.

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• Fall time (tf) − The time taken for the collector current to reach from 90% of its
maximum value to 10% of its initial value is called as the Fall Time.
• Turn-off time (TOFF) − The sum of storage time (ts) and fall time (tf) is defined as the
Turn-off time.

TOFF = ts + tf

• Pulse Width(W) − The time duration of the output pulse measured between two 50%
levels of rising and falling waveform is defined as Pulse Width.

TOPIC BEYOND SYLLABUS

Transistor as an Amplifier:
• One of the key characteristics of a transistor is that it can be used as an amplifier.
• Transistors can act as amplifiers while they are functioning in the active region or when
they are correctly biased.
• The need for a transistor as an amplifier arises when we want to increase or amplify
the input signal.
• A transistor can take in a very (low amplitude) weak signal through the base junction
and release the amplified signal through the collector.
• For a transistor to work as an amplifier, we usually use the common-emitter
configuration.
• The figure below shows how the transistor is set up when it is connected to a circuit as
an amplifier.

• From the above figure, it is clear that on the output side, V0 = VCC – ICRC, where V0 is
the output voltage, IC is the collector current, RC is the load resistance, and Vcc is the
constant bias voltage.
• If we consider ∆V0 and ∆Vi as small changes in output and input voltages, respectively,
then ∆V0 / ∆Vi is called the small-signal voltage gain, Av of the amplifier.

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• Therefore, ∆V0= 0 – RC ∆IC

• The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents are observed
is called voltage gain.

Similarly, in the input side,

• Vin = IB RB + VBE

Or

• ∆Vin = ∆IBRB + ∆VBE ~ ∆Vin = ∆IBRB (∆VBE <<∆IBRB)

Or

• Av = ∆V0 / ∆Vin = – RC ∆IC / RB ∆IB = -βac RC / RB

where βac = ∆IC / ∆IB is the AC current gain.

• When there is a gain in terms of current due to the changes in input and output currents,
it is called current gain. β value can range between 20 and 500.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the construction and working of an NPN transistor.

2. Define Active, Saturation and Cut-off regions of operation of the transistor.
3. What are the different configurations of a Bi-polar Junction Transistor?
4. With the help of neat circuit diagrams explain the Input and Output characteristics of
transistor in Common Base Configuration.
5. Plot and describe the input and output characteristics of BJT under Common Emitter
Configuration.
6. What is early effect? Explain in detail about this phenomenon.
7. Define the parameters of the transistor in Common Collector Configuration and obtain
a relation between the current gains of Common Base (α) and Common Emitter
Configurations (β).
8. Explain the working of a transistor switch.
9. What are the different switching times of the transistor? Explain.
10. Compare CB, CE and CC configurations.

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OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Number of terminals of a transistor are __ [C]

A. 1 B. 2
C. 3 D. 4
2. Types of Bipolar junction transistor are [B]
A. NNP, PNP B. PNP, NPN
C. PPN, NPN D. PPN, NNP
3. The three terminals of BJT are [A]
A. Emitter, Base, Collector B. Drain, Emitter, Collector
C. Source, Drain, Collector D. Base, Drain, Emitter
4. In Common Base Configuration __ terminal is input and ___ is output terminal [D]
A. Base, Collector B. Base, Emitter
C. Ground, Emitter D. Emitter, Collector
5. Current gain of Common Emitter Configuration is given as [B]
𝐼𝐵 𝐼
A. 𝛽 = B. 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝐶
𝐼𝐶 𝐵

𝐼 𝐼
C. 𝛽 = 𝐼𝐸 D. 𝛽 = 𝐼𝐶
𝐶 𝐸

6. The magnitude of input resistance of Common Collector Configuration is [C]

A. Low B. Medium
C. High D. Zero
7. Time taken by the transistor current to increase from 10% to 90% of the maximum
value is [A]
A. Rise time B. Fall time
B. Delay time D. Storage time
8. In __ region of operation transistor works as an ON switch [B]
A. Active B. Saturation
C. Cut-off D. Ground
9. Common Collector Configuration is also known as [C]
A. Ground Follower B. Collector Follower
C. Emitter Follower D. Base Follower
10. The relation between currents of a transistor is given as [D]
A. IE = IB - IC B. IB = IE + IC

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C. IE = IC - IB D. IE = IB + IC

FILL IN THE BLANKS

1. Full form of BJT is Bipolar Junction Transistor.

2. Symbol of NPN transistor is and PNP transistor is

3. Current in BJT is due to majority and minority charge carriers.

𝛼
4. Relation between α and β current gains of the transistor is given as 𝛽 = 1−𝛼

5. In active region of operation, Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and Collector-

Base junction is reverse biased.

6. Common Emitter Configuration can also be called as Grounded Emitter configuration.

7. In Common Collector Configuration Emitter is considered as the output terminal and

Base is the input terminal.

8. The time taken by the transistor current to fall from the steady state maximum value to
90% of the maximum value is known as Storage time.

9. ON time of a transistor is a combination of delay time and rise time.

(Or) TON = td + tr

10. Early effect is also known as Base Width Modulation.

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