Department of Mechanical Engineering

Experiment No: Date:

PERFORMING DRILLING AND BORING OPERATIONS ON A LATHE

AIM:

To perform drilling and boring operations on the given workpiece using a lathe machine.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. The tool should be properly ground, fixed at the correct height and secured, and the
workpiece also be firmly secured.
2. Chips should not be allowed to wind around a revolving job and should be cleared as often
as possible.

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3. Operate the machine at optimal speeds.

4. No attempt should be made to clean the revolving job with cotton.
5. Care should be taken to obtain the required accuracy.
6. The machine should be stopped immediately upon hearing unusual noises.

THEORY:

1. Drilling:

Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal with the rotating edge
of a cutting tool called the drill. Drilling is used extensively for creating through or blind holes
or enlarging holes in a workpiece. This process involves feeding a rotating cutting tool (drill)
along its axis of rotation into a stationary workpiece. The axial feed rate of the drill is usually
very small when compared to its peripheral speed. Drilling is considered a roughing operation,
and therefore, the accuracy and surface finish in drilling are generally not of much concern. The
internal surface of the hole so generated becomes rough, and the hole is always slightly oversize
than the drill used due to the vibration of the spindle and the drill. If high accuracy and good
finish are required, drilling must be followed by some other operation such as reaming, boring,
or grinding. The drilling operations can also be accomplished in a lathe machine by holding the
tool stationary in the tailstock, and the workpiece is held and rotated in a chuck, as shown in
Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Schematic of drilling operation with a twist drill on a lathe

2. Boring:

Boring operation is used for semi-finishing or finishing the drilled holes. Finish boring is
particularly noted for its ability to achieve dimensional and surface finish tolerances. Boring is
performed for the following reasons.

i) To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only one cutting edge. This is
necessary where a suitable-sized drill is not available or where the hole diameter is so large that
it cannot be ordinarily drilled.

ii) To finish a hole accurately and to bring it to the required size.

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iii) To machine the internal surface of a hole already produced.

iv) To correct the roundness of the hole.

v) To correct the location of the hole as the boring tool follows an independent path with respect
to the hole.

Fig. 2 Schematic of boring operation with a bent rough-boring tool in a lathe

Lathe boring is a cutting operation that uses a single-point cutting tool or a boring head to produce
conical or cylindrical surfaces by enlarging an existing opening in a workpiece. For nontapered
holes, the cutting tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation. For tapered holes, the cutting tool
moves at an angle to the axis of rotation.

Lathe boring usually requires that the workpiece be held in the chuck and rotated. As the
workpiece is rotated, a boring bar with an insert attached to the tip of the bar is fed into an existing
hole. Depending on the type of tool used, the material, and the feed rate, the chips formed may
be continuous or segmented. The surface produced is called a bore. The geometry produced by
lathe boring is usually of two types: straight holes and tapered holes. To produce a taper, the tool
may be fed at an angle to the axis of rotation, or both feed and axial motions may be concurrent.
Straight holes and counterbores are produced by moving the tool parallel to the axis of workpiece
rotation.

PROCEDURE:

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RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Experiment No: Date:

PERFORMING MACHINING OPERATIONS ON SHAPER MACHINE

AIM:

To cut a rectangular groove in a cubical block using a shaper machine.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. The tool should be properly ground, fixed at the correct height and secured.
2. Follow correct clamping procedures and make sure that the workpiece is held tightly.
3. Operate the machine at optimal speeds.

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4. Care should be taken to obtain the required accuracy.

5. Use a brush or rake to remove the chips after the moving parts have stopped.
6. The machine should be stopped immediately upon hearing unusual noises.

THEORY:

A shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool intended primarily to produce flat surfaces.
These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. In general, the shaper can produce any
surface composed of straight-line elements. Modern shapers can generate contoured surfaces
also. The workpiece is fixed on the table, and the ram holds the single-point cutting tool. The
ram reciprocates, and the cutting tool, held in the tool holder, moves forward and backwards over
the workpiece. In a standard shaper, material cutting takes place during the forward stroke of the
ram, and the return stroke remains idle. The return is governed by the crank and slotted lever
quick return mechanism. The depth of the cut increments by moving the workpiece and the
workpiece is fed by a pawl and ratchet mechanism. A schematic of the shaper machine is shown
in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 A schematic of the shaper machine

1. Principal parts

Base: A base is the necessary support required for all machine tools. The base may be rigidly
bolted to the floor of the shop. It absorbs vibration and other forces that occur while performing
shaping operations.

Column: The column is a box-like casting mounted upon the base. It supports the ram that is
moving forward and backwards for operation. It also covers the drive mechanism.

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Crossrail: it is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. The vertical and
horizontal movement is given to the table by raising or lowering the cross rail using the elevating
screw and moving the saddle using the cross-feed screw.

Saddle: A saddle is mounted on the cross-rail to hold the table firmly on its top. The crosswise
movement of the saddle causes the table also to move crosswise direction when the cross-feed
screw is rotated.

Table: A table is mounted on the saddle. It moves crosswise by rotating the cross-feed rod and
vertically by rotating the elevating screw. Its surface features t-slots for holding the work.

Ram: A ram is a reciprocating member that holds a shaping tool. It is in the form of a semi-
cylindrical and ribbed inside, making it more rigid. It holds the screwed shaft for altering the
position of the ram with respect to the work.

Tool head: The tool head of the shaper holds tool rigidity, provides vertical and angular feed
moment of the tool and allows the tool to have an automatic relief during its return stroke. The
vertical slide of the tool head has a swivel head base, which is held on a circular seat on the ram.

2. Setting Shaper Stroke Length and Position

• Correctly mount the workpiece in the vice.
• Measure the length of the workpiece and add 25 mm (or 1") to determine the length of
the stroke.
• Use the start-stop button or the stroke regulator shaft crank and move the ram to the back
end of its stroke.
• Loosen the stroke regulator locknut.
• Turn the stroke regulator shaft until the stroke indicator shows the desired stroke length.
• Tighten the stroke regulator locknut.
• With the ram still at the back end of its stroke, loosen the ram positioning lock.
• Pull the tool head and the ram (or turn the ram adjusting screw) until the tool bit is within
12 mm (1/2") of the workpiece.
• Tighten the ram positioning lock.

PROCEDURE:

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RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Experiment No: Date:

PERFORMING SPUR GEAR CUTTING OPERATION ON A MILLING

MACHINE
AIM:

To cut a spur gear with the maximum number of teeth for a given module on a conventional
milling machine.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Job must be secured tightly between the centers of the indexing device.
2. Follow correct clamping procedures and make sure that the workpiece is held tightly.
3. The index crank must be rotated to the exact number of rotations.
4. Operate the machine at optimal speeds.

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5. The machine should be stopped immediately upon hearing unusual noises.

THEORY:

Spur gears are one of the most popular types of precision cylindrical gears. These gears feature
a simple design of straight, parallel teeth positioned around the circumference of a cylinder body
with a central bore that fits over a shaft. These gears are commonly used and practically adopted
by all standards worldwide. The durability and good operating conditions of the toothed gears
are largely influenced by the manufacturing accuracy and the structure and roughness of the
cooperating surfaces. For unit production of gears with large modules, milling operation using a
gear milling cutter can be adopted. The axial profile of the milling cutter's action surface
corresponds to the gear wheel inter-tooth cut profile. In the case of a spur gear, it will be an
involute profile that depends upon the parameters of the gear wheel being cut (the module, the
number of teeth, the profile angle). A schematic of the gear milling operation is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Schematic of the gear milling operation

1. Universal milling machine

A milling machine is a machine tool in which a cutter having multiple cutting edges is used to
remove the material from the workpiece. This machine can also hold more cutters at once, and
hence, it is widely used for production work, which requires accuracy and a better surface finish.
There are various types of milling machines that can be classified based on the nature of the work
and operations that are to be carried out. Column and knee-type milling machine is commonly
used nowadays in workshops. In this type of milling machine, the table is mounted on the knee
casting, which in turn is mounted on the vertical slides of the main column. The knee is vertically
adjustable on the column so that the table can be moved up and down to accommodate work of
various heights. The column and knee-type milling machines are classified on the basis of various
methods of supplying power to the table, different movements of the table and different axes of
rotation of the main spindle.

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A universal milling machine is a variation of the column and knee-type milling machine, which
can perform more functions than a standard mill. Its construction allows for vertical movement
of the spindle along the column and horizontal movement of the table on the knee, providing a
wide range of movement and flexibility for various milling tasks. The worktable of the universal
milling machine can swivel 45º on either side to enable helical milling work. Also, various
attachments, such as a rotary table, indexing head, or dividing head, make it adaptable to more
milling operations than other machine tools. Working as a horizontal or vertical milling machine
enables the use of many other milling cutters and more types of machining. A schematic of a
universal milling machine is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 A schematic of a universal milling machine

2. Parts of a universal milling machine:

Base: The base is the part upon which the machine parts are mounted. It is a type of foundation
for the machine. The base is mainly made of cast iron, so it has good strength and rigidity. It also
helps in the absorption of shocks.

Column: The main supporting frame, which consists of all the driving mechanisms and the
motor, is called the column. The driving mechanism usually consists of a cone pulley mechanism
in which the v-belt is being used to connect it to the motor. Further, by using this driving
mechanism, the speed of the machine can be controlled as per our requirements.

Table and Knee: The table and knee of the universal milling machine provide the necessary
movements to position the workpiece accurately and align it with the cutter. The knee can be
raised or lowered, while the table can be moved in longitudinal and transverse directions.

Spindle: It is situated in the upper part of the column, receives power from the motor through
belts or gears and clutches, and transmits it to the arbour.

Arbour: It is like an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely
mounted and rotated. The arbours are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the
machine spindles having taper holes at their nose.

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Chuck and tail stock: They are mounted on the table and used to firmly secure the mandrel as
well as the workpiece/gear blank.

Indexing plate: A circular or disc-shaped device used in machining operations to accurately

divide a full rotation into precise angular increments.

3. Simple Indexing

Simple indexing is also called as 9 indexing. It is more accurate and has a large range of indexing
than rapid indexing. For indexing, the dividing head spindle is turned by the index crank. The
worm shaft carrying the crank has a single-threaded worm which meshes with worm gear having
40 teeth. 40 turns of the crank are necessary to rotate the index head spindle through one
revolution. Therefore, one complete turn of the index crank will cause the worm wheel to make
1/40 of a revolution. To facilitate indexing to the fraction of a turn, an Indexing plate is used to
cover practically all numbers. The indexing plate comes with circles of holes in it; example, plate
with 15,16,17,18,19, 20 no of holes. To find the indexing crank movement, divide 40 by number
of division required on the work, [Index crank movement= 40/N], Where N is the number of
divisions required on the work.

4. Indexing calculation
• Diameter of the blank, d = (N + 2) × m
• Index crank movement (For simple indexing) = 40 / N
d
N, No. of divisions required = −2
m
d: Blank diameter
m: Module
• Depth of cut = 2.157 × m

CALCULATIONS:

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PROCEDURE:

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RESULT:

INFERENCE:

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Experiment No: Date:

STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON THE

SURFACE ROUGHNESS DURING STRAIGHT TURNING OPERATION
AIM:

To study the effect of cutting parameters on the surface roughness of the workpiece during straight
turning operation.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. The tool should be properly ground, fixed at the correct height and secured, and the
workpiece should also be firmly secured.
2. Chips should not be allowed to wind around a revolving job and should be cleared as often
as possible.

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3. Operate the machine at optimal speeds.

4. No attempt should be made to clean the revolving job with cotton.
5. Care should be taken to obtain the required accuracy.
6. The machine should be stopped immediately upon hearing unusual noises.

THEORY:

1. Stylus Profilometer
A Stylus Profilometer is a measuring instrument used to measure a surface profile in order
to quantify its roughness. Stylus profilometers use a probe to detect the surface, physically
moving a probe along the surface to acquire the surface height. A typical stylus instrument
consists of a stylus with a diamond tip (radius 2, 5 or 10 μm) that physically contacts the surface
being measured and a transducer to convert its vertical movement into an electrical signal. Other
components include a pickup, driven by a motor and gearbox, which precisely draws the stylus
over the surface at a constant speed; an electronic amplifier to boost the signal from the stylus
transducer to a useful level; a device, also driven at a constant speed, for recording the amplified
signal or a computer that automates the data collection. A diamond stylus is moved vertically in
contact with a sample and then moved laterally across the sample for a specified distance and
specified contact force. A profilometer can measure small surface variations in vertical stylus
displacement as a function of position. A typical profilometer can measure small vertical features
ranging in height from 10 nm to 1 mm. The height position of the diamond stylus generates an
analog signal which is converted into a digital signal, stored, analyzed, and displayed. A
schematic of the stylus-type profilometer is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Stylus-type profilometer

For the present study, the 2D surface roughness parameter, namely the Arithmetic mean
deviation of the assessed profile (Ra) is measured and analyzed. Analytically, Ra is defined as
per the formula given in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2 Measurement of Ra value

For digital instruments, an approximation of the Ra value may be obtained by adding the
individual z(x) values without considering the sign and dividing the sum by the number of data
points' n' as shown in Fig. 2. It is a practice to make assessments of Ra over a number of
consecutive sampling lengths and to accept the average of the values obtained. This will ensure
that Ra is typical of the surface under inspection.

PROCEDURE:

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OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE 1

Factors
Feed Depth of cut Spindle Speed Roughness value
Trials
(mm/min) (mm) (rpm) Ra

2
3

5
6

8
9

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS:

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INFERENCE:

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Experiment No: Date:

STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF GRINDING PARAMETERS ON

MICROHARDNESS OF MILD STEEL SPECIMEN
AIM:

To study the effect of grinding parameters on the microhardness of the mild steel specimen during
surface grinding operation.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not wear loose clothing or dangling jewellery, as they may get caught in the moving
parts of the grinder

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2. Operate the machine at optimal speeds.

3. Care should be taken to obtain the required accuracy.
4. The machine should be stopped immediately upon hearing unusual noises.

THEORY:
Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used to shape and finish
components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish obtained
through grinding can be up to ten times better than turning or milling.
Grinding employs an abrasive product, usually a rotating wheel brought into controlled contact
with a work surface. The grinding wheel is composed of abrasive grains held together in a binder.
These abrasive grains act as cutting tools, removing tiny chips of material from the work. As
these abrasive grains wear and become dull, the added resistance leads to fracture of the grains
or weakening of their bond. The dull pieces break away, revealing sharp new grains that continue
cutting.

The requirements for efficient grinding include:

1. Abrasive components which are harder than the work
2. Shock- and heat-resistant abrasive wheels
3. Friable abrasives. That is, they are capable of controlled fracturing.

Most abrasives used in industry are synthetic. Aluminium oxide is used in three-quarters of all
grinding operations and is primarily used to grind ferrous metals. Next is silicon carbide, used
for grinding softer, non-ferrous metals and high-density materials, such as cemented carbide or
ceramics. Super abrasives, cubic boron nitride or "CBN" and diamond, are used in about five
percent of grinding. Hard ferrous materials are ground with "CBN", while non-ferrous materials
and non-metals are best ground with diamond. The grain size of abrasive materials is important
to the process. Large, coarse grains remove material faster, while smaller grains produce a finer
finish.

The binders that hold these abrasive grains together include:

• Vitrified bonds, a glass-like bond formed of fused clay or feldspar.
• Organic bonds from synthetic resins, rubber, or shellac.
• Metal or single-layer bond systems for super abrasives.

Wheels are graded according to their strength and wear resistance. A "hard" wheel is one that
resists the separation of its individual grains. One that is too hard will wear slowly and present
dulled grains to work and overheat, affecting the final finish. If too soft a wheel is used, it will
deteriorate quickly, requiring frequent replacement.

1. Surface grinding
Surface grinding is a form of grinding process which produces flat, angular, or contoured
surfaces by feeding work in a horizontal plane beneath a rotating grinding wheel. Work is most
often magnetically attached to the table and maybe ground by either a traversing or rotating

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movement of the table. Most surface grinding machines use a horizontal spindle that adjusts up
and down, allowing the wheel's edge or face to contact the work. A schematic of the surface
grinding process on a horizontal-spindle surface grinder is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Schematic of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder and grinding action

2. Vickers Hardness

Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter in
the form of a pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces
subjected to a test force of between 1gf and 100kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to
15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left on the material's surface after removal of
the load is measured using a microscope, and their average is calculated. The area of the sloping
surfaces of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by
dividing the kgf load by the indentation area in square mm.

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Fig. 2 Schematic of Vickers hardness indentation

F Load in kgf
d Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV Vickers hardness number

PROCEDURE:

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 1

Factors Vickers
Trials d1 (mm) d2 (mm) davg hardness value
Feed Coolant (HV)
(mm/min) (rpm)
1

2 ON

4 ON

5 OFF

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RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS:

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INFERENCE:

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