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Classification based on development of oscillatory motion:

Vibration and Time Response
• Transient. vibration of system until it reaches steady
Vibration. Oscillatory motion of a dynamic system about
state, e.g., random, nonperiodic or unsteady periodic
its equilibrium. Vibratory motion of dynamic systems can
vibration.
be classified as:
• Steady state. steady periodic vibration or equilib-
1. Deterministic vibrtation. oscillations expressed rium state.
by explicit mathematical relation.

(a) Periodic vibration. motion repeats itself after a

certain interval of time (period T ). • Forced vibration. vibration of a system due to the
i. Harmonic (sinusoidal) presence of external disturbances.
ii. General • Free vibration. periodic motion which continues af-
ter removal of an external disturbance, i.e., free vibra-
• Steady periodic vibration
tions are due to initial disturbances.
• Unsteady periodic vibration

(b) Nonperiodic vibration. motion does not repeat

Restoring force. a variable force that brings the system
itself.
to an equilibrium position. That is, if the system is per-
2. Random vibrtation. no explicit math relation. turbed away from the equilibrium, the restoring force will
tend to bring the system back toward equilibrium, e.g., the
spring force of a spring-mass-damper system.

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For a periodic vibration

Cycle. the pattern which repeats itself in time in a peri-
odic vibration.
Frequency. # of cycles executed in unit time (f = T1 ), 1
Hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second.
Circular frequency. frequency expressed in radians per
2π
unit time, ω = 2πf = T
.
Natural frequency, ωn. frequency of harmonic free vi-
bration of a system which is an invariant property of the
system (determined by system parameters).
Resonance. If system is excited by a periodic distur-
bances with a frequency equal to ωn, resonance occurs.

System modeling:
• Discrete (lumped-parameter) system, e.g., one
degree of freedom system. Three basic ideal elements
– mass
– spring
– damper (dashpot)
• Continuous (distributed-parameter) system

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Free Vibration of Particles

Undamped Free Vibration. Equation of motion rep-
resents an oscillatory motion

meq ẍ + keq x = 0

ẍ + ωn2 x = 0
keq
where the natural frequency is ωn2 = meq and the period of
2π
osillation is Tn = ωn
. The solution is a periodic function of
time with a frequency of ωn

x(t) = A cos ωnt + B sin ωn t

x(t) = C sin (ωn t + ψ)
x(t) = D cos (ωnt + γ)

where A & B (C & ψ, or D & γ) are identified from the

initial conditions; displacement x0 and velocity ẋ0
ẋ0
x(t) = x0 cos ωnt + sin ωnt
ωn

 ⎛ ⎞


 ẋ0 x0ωn ⎟
x(t) =  + ( )2 sin ⎜⎝ωnt + tan−1( )⎠
x20
ωn ẋ0
√
where C = A2 + B 2, ψ = tan−1( BA ).

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Note. When initial displacement x0 is zero A = x0 = 0, For the range of the damping factor 0 ≤ ζ ≤ ∞, the
ẋ0
and when initial velocity ẋ0 is zero B = ωn = 0. radicand (ζ 2 − 1) could be positive, zero or negative, cor-
responding to three categories of damped motion.
Damped Free Vibration. Equation of motion is rep-
resented by a 2nd order homogeneous differential function I. Overdamped Systems (ζ > 1)
• Two distinct real negative numbers for λ1 and λ2.
meq ẍ + ceq ẋ + keq x = 0
Solution x(t) is summation of two exponential decays
ẍ + 2ζωnẋ + ωn2 x = 0 x(t) = A1eλ1 t + A2 eλ2t, i.e., x → 0 as t → ∞

ceq
• Motion exhibits no oscillations, no period associated
where the viscous damping factor/ratio is ζ = 2ωnmeq
, and
with motion
0 ≤ ζ ≤ ∞. The solution is an exponential function of
time x(t) = Aeλt. Substituting x(t) in the equation of • A1 and A2 are calculated using the initial conditions;
ẋ0−x0λ2 0 λ1
motion (λ2 + 2ζωnλ + ωn2 )Aeλt = 0 and rearranging results A1 = λ1 −λ2
and A2 = − ẋλ0+x
1 −λ2

in the characteristic equation

II. Critically Damped Systems (ζ = 1)
λ2 + 2ζωnλ + ωn2 = 0
• Two identical real negative roots λ1 = λ2 = −ωn
The roots of this quadratic (algebraic) equation are
x(t) = (A1 + A2 t)e−ωnt
λ1 = ωn(−ζ + ζ2 − 1)
• Motion is non-periodic and decays with time (x → 0 as
λ2 = ωn(−ζ − ζ 2 − 1)
t → ∞)
The general solution for the equation of motion is
√ √ • A1 and A2 are calculated using the initial conditions;
λ1 t λ2 t (−ζ+ ζ 2 −1)ωnt (−ζ− ζ 2 −1)ωnt
x(t) = A1e +A2e = A1 e +A2e A1 = x0 and A2 = ẋ0 + ωnx0

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Note. A critically damped system yields the highest peak

but approaches the equilibrium faster than an overdamped x(t) = e−ζωnt (C sin (ωdt + ψ))
system with the same initial conditions.
Solution has two components, an exponential decay e−ζωnt
and a periodic component C sin (ωdt + ψ), i.e., it is a pe-
riodic solution with decaying amplitude (envelopes of the
response curve are defined by ±Ce−ζωnt). C and ψ are
calculated using the initial conditions.

III. Underdamped Systems (ζ < 1)

The radicand ζ 2 − 1 < 0 and the response is

√ √
(−ζωn +iωn 1−ζ 2 )t (−ζωn −iωn 1−ζ 2 )t
x(t) = A1 e + A2e

x(t) = e−ζωnt A1eiωdt + A2e−iωdt Determination of Damping Ratio Experimen-

√ tally (for an underdamped system ζ < 1)
where the damped natural frequency is ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
2π 1. Excite the system by initial conditions
and the damped period of oscillation is Td = ωd . Using the
Euler formula e±iθ = cos θ ± i sin θ and rearranging 2. Plot the displacement x(t) vs. time t
x(t) = e−ζωnt ((A1 + A2) cos ωdt + i(A1 − A2 ) sin ωdt) 3. Measure two successive amplitudes xi and xi+1

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Forced Vibration of Particles

−ζωn ti
xi(t) e Forced vibration. motion of vibratory system under
= −ζω (t +T ) = eζωnTd
xi+1(t) e n i d the action of an external disturbance
i (t) • external force
For the logarithmic decrement δ = ln xxi+1 (t) , and using
√
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 • base excitation
⎛ ⎞ • force generated within the system (unbalanced)
⎜
⎜
xi(t) ⎟⎟ 2π 2πζ
δ = ln ⎝ ⎠ = ζωn Td = ζωn ( )=√
xi+1(t) ωd 1 − ζ2 External harmonic force. Consider the following sin-
gle DOF system subjected to an external harmonic force
δ
ζ=√ F (t) = F0 sin ωt, where F0 is the force amplitude and ω
4π 2 + δ 2
is the driving frequency (not the natural frequency of sys-
4. For small damping where the two successive amplitudes tem) in radians per second. From the FBD, the equation
are nearly equal, for higher accuracy, measure two am- of motion is
plitudes that are n cycles apart

xi(t) xi(t) xi+1(t) xi+2(t) xi+n−1(t)

= ··· = enδ
xi+n(t) xi+1(t) xi+2(t) xi+3(t) xi+n(t)

⎛ ⎞
⎜
⎜
xi(t) ⎟⎟ 2πζ
δn = ln ⎝ ⎠ = nδ = n √
xi+n(t) 1 − ζ2

δn −kx − cẋ + F0 sin ωt = mẍ

ζ=
(2πn)2 + δn2 F0 sin ωt
ẍ + 2ζωnẋ + ωn2x =
m

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I. Undamped forced vibration. (c = 0, ζ = 0) and is a measure of severity of vibration. M (and X)

F0 approaches infinity (resonant) as the driving frequency ap-
ẍ + ωn2x = sin ωt
m proaches the natural frequency (ω → ωn), M > 0 for
The solution x(t) is a sum of complementary (transient) ω < ωn and the vibration is in phase with force, M < 0
solution xc(t) and particular (steady-state) solution xp(t), for ω > ωn and the vibration is 180◦ out of phase with F .
x(t) = xc(t) + xp(t). Complementary solution is identical
to the free vibration case, and particular solution has the II. Damped forced vibration.
form xp(t) = X sin ωt, where X is the amplitude of the The solution is x(t) = xc(t)+xp(t), where xp(t) = X1 cos ωt+
solution, ω is the frequency of applied force and 2π/ω is X2 sin ωt = X sin(ωt − φ) for the external harmonic force
the period of steady-state response. X can be calculated of F (t) = F0 sin ωt. Substituting the latter expression into
by substituting xp(t) = X sin ωt in the equation of motion F0 sin ωt
the equation of motion ẍ + 2ζωnẋ + ωn2x = m
F0/k
which gives X = 1−(w/wn)2
F0/k
X= 2
F0/k {[1 − (w/wn)2] + [2ζω/ωn]2}1/2
xp(t) = sin ωt
1 − (w/wn)2 ⎡ ⎤
⎢
⎢
2ζω/ωn ⎥⎥
φ = tan−1 ⎣ ⎦
x˙0 F0/k 1 − (w/wn)2
x(t) = x0 cos ωnt + sin ωnt + sin ωt
ωn 1 − (w/wn)2
For underdamped systems (0 < ζ < 1), the complete
The non-dimensional ratio of the steady-state amplitude X
solution is
to static deflection δst = F0/k is known as the magnifica-
tion factor (amplitude ratio) M x(t) = Ce−ζωnt sin(ωdt + ψ) + X sin(ωt − φ)

X 1 where C and ψ are determined from the initial conditions

M= =
F0/k 1 − (w/wn)2 (x0 and ẋ0).

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The magnification factor M is a function of ζ and ω/ωn • When ω = 0, M = 1 and phase angle φ = 0 regardless
of damping (static case).
X 1
M= = 2 2
F0/k {[1 − (w/wn) ] + [2ζω/ωn]2}1/2 ω
• When ωn
 1, M → 0 and φ → π.

To reduce the amplitude of vibration, the damping ratio π

Phase angle φ. when ω = ωn, φ = 2 regardless of value
ζ could be increased or the driving frequency ω could be
of ζ. For non-zero damping, at ωc phase angle is different
altered to be further from the resonant frequency.
than φ = π2 .

Magnification factor M

• When ζ = 0, M peaks at ω = ωn. For lightly damped

systems (ζ < 0.05), Mmax occurs in the immediate
neighborhood of ω/ωn = 1 and is Mmax ∼ = 1/(2ζ),
i.e., the critical driving frequency is ωc ∼
= ωn.
√
• For 0 ≤ ζ < 1/ 2, Mmax = √1 > 1 occurs at
2ζ 1−ζ
1−
−ζ 2
√
ωc = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2 ≤ ωn.
√
• For 1/ 2 ≤ ζ < 1, there is no peaks and Mmax = 1
occurs at ω = 0.
√
• As ζ varies from 0 to 1/ 2 = 0.707, ωc shifts from ωn
to 0.

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Base excitation. The excitation of the mass is due to Applications: Vibration measuring instruments
the movement of base or foundation to which the mass is (seismometers, accelerometers). The entire system is sub-
connected by springs. jected to the motion xB (t) = b sin ωt of the frame. If the
position of mass m relative to the frame is x(t)
d2
−cẋ − kx = m (x + xb)
dt2

ẍ + 2ζωnẋ + ωn2x = bω 2 sin ωt

The steady-state solution xp(t) will be

b(ω/ωn)2
xp(t) = 2 sin(ωt − φ)
{[1 − (w/wn)2] + [2ζω/ωn]2}1/2

If X represents the amplitude of relative response xp(t),

then the nondimensional ratio X/b is X/b = (ω/ωn )2M .
−k(x − xB ) − cẋ = mẍ
When ω/ωn is large, X/b ∼ = 1 for all values of damping
kb sin ωt ration ζ (instrument acts as a displacement meter).
ẍ + 2ζωnẋ + ωn2x =
m
2 2
When ω/ωn is small, X/b ∼= (ω/ωn ) or X ∼ = b(ω/ωn) ,
where compared to the external harmonic force case, F0 is
where bω 2 is the maximum acceleration of the frame (in-
replaced by kb.
strument may be used as an accelerometer).

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X (w/wn)2
= 2
b {[1 − (w/wn)2] + [2ζω/ωn]2}1/2

⎡ ⎤

−1 ⎢⎢ 2ζω/ωn ⎥⎥
φ = tan ⎣ ⎦
1 − (w/wn)2

• When ζ = 0, X/b peaks at ω = ωn.

√
• For 0 ≤ ζ < 1/ 2,
⎛ ⎞
⎜
X⎟ 1
⎝ ⎠ = √ >1
b max 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
is obtained at
ωn
ωc = ωres = √ ≥ ωn
1 − 2ζ 2
√
• For 1/ 2 ≤ ζ < 1, there is no peaks and (X/b)max = 1
occurs at ω  ωn.

• When ω = 0, X/b = 0 (static case).

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Vibration of Rigid Bodies Frequency of vibration. When a linear undamped

Equation of motion of a vibratory system (particle or rigid system oscillates with simple harmonic motion about the
body) can be obtained using equilibrium position, the energy changes from maximum
kinetic and zero potential at the equilibrium position (zero
• Free-body diagrams and Newton’s second law
displacement) to zero kinetic and maximum potential at
• Energy methods maximum displacement

Energy Methods Tmax = Vmax

a) Conservative Systems (free vibration) For harmonic free oscillation, x(t) = xmax sin(ωnt + ψ)
When there is no or negligible damping the total mechani- (θ(t) = θmax sin(ωnt+ψ)) and maximum velocity is ẋmax =
cal energy of the system is conserved. Then, the principle ωnxmax (θ̇max = ωnθmax). Substituting these in Tmax =
of conservation of energy is applied to establish the equa- Vmax , the expression for the natural frequency is obtained.
tion of motion, and when the motion is simple harmonic,
to determine the frequency of vibration. b) Forced Vibration
For damped or undamped forced vibration, the time
Equation of motion. For undamped free vibration,
derivative of the total energy is equal to the resultant power
the total energy (total kinetic energy T plus total elastic
input Pin to the system
and gravitational potential energy V = Ve + Vg ) is con-
d d
stant, Ttotal + Vtotal . The differential equation of motion is (Ttotal + Vtotal ) = (T + V ) = Pin
dt dt
obtained by taking the time derivative of the total energy
where Pin includes the power of input forcing and the lost
d d
(Ttotal + Vtotal ) = (T + V ) = 0 power due to damper (nonconservative forces such as the
dt dt
damper force are included in the power term).

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c) Equivalent Systems Note. It is possible to construct an equivalent torsional

To analyze vibration of rigid bodies (and complicated sys- system with equivalent mass moment of inertia, torsional
tems), these systems could be converted into equivalent spring, torsional damper and external forcing (torque).
spring-mass-damper systems with equivalent mass meq , equiv-
alent spring constant keq , equivalent damper constant ceq ,
and equivalent external forcing, feq (t); all reduced to the
point which moves with a displacement of x(t), velocity of
ẋ(t) and acceleration of ẍ(t)

meq ẍ + ceq ẋ + keq x = feq (t)

From energy relations:

• Total kinetic energy of the system is Ttotal = 12 meq ẋ2

• Total potential energy of the system is Vtotal =
1 2
2 keq x

From power relations:

• Total power dissipation of the system due to all

damping effects is Pd = ceq ẋ2
• Total power input to the system due to all external
t) ẋ
forcing is Pf = feq ((t)

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Vibration Notes (L. Notash)