Abstract Algebra– Terms for Qualifying Examination

Elisha Peterson
November 6, 2003

1 Linear Algebra
Basis: given some subspace, it is a smallest set of elements which generate that
subspace; its size is unique, called the dimension of the subspace.
Rank: given a matrix M , it is the dimension of im M .

Null Space: the subspace K with M (K) = 0; the rank of a matrix plus the dimen-
sion of the null space equals the dimension of the overall space.
Similar Matrices: matrices A, B for which there exists an invertible matrix P with
A = P BP −1 ; basically means they’re the same up to a change of basis.
Trace: the sum of diagonal elements of a matrix.

Determinant:

Eigenvalue: a value λ such that Ax = λx for some x, which is called an Eigenvector.

2 Groups
2.1 Basics
Group: a set G with associativity (a(bc) = (ab)c), an identity (∃e ∈ G s.t. ae =
ea = a), and an inverse a−1 for all elements s.t. aa−1 = a−1 a = e.

Abelian group: a group which is also commutative (ab = ba).

Index [G : H]: the number of cosets of H in G, equal to |G|/|H| by Lagrange’s

Theorem.
Normal Subgroup: a subgroup K ≤ G with gkg −1 ∈ K for all g ∈ G, k ∈ K,
denoted by K / G.

Quotient Group: the group of cosets of a *normal* subgroup K, denoted G/K. By

Lagrange’s Theorem, the order of a quotient group is |G/K| = |G|/|K|.

Cyclic Group: a group which is generated by a single element, and therefore iso-
morphic to either the finite Zm (integers modulo m) or the integers Z.

Symmetric Group Sn : the group formed from the set of all permutations of the
letters {1, 2, . . . , n}. The even permutations form the Alternating Group An .

Cayley’s Theorem: every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a symmetric group;

this is either Sn where |G| = n or SG (the permutations on elements of G) if the
order is infinite. This result is most useful in the classification of groups.

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 First Isomorphism Theorem: for a homomorphism f : G → H, the kernel ker f is
a normal subgroup, and G/ ker f ∼= im f . Alternately, if K = ker f and π : G →
G/K is the natural map, then there exists an isomorphism φ with f = φ ◦ π. The
next two results are consequences of this theorem.
Second Isomorphism Theorem: if H, K are subgroups of G with H / G normal,
then the set of products HK is a group, H ∩ K is a normal subgroup of K, and
K/(H ∩ K) ∼ = HK/H.
Third Isomorphism Theorem: if H, K are normal subgroups with K ≤ H, then
H/K / G/K and (G/K)/(H/K) ∼ = G/H (allowing us to ‘cancel factors’).

2.2 Examples
Dihedral Group Dn : the group of symmetries of an n-polygon, consisting of n ro-
tations and n reflections.
Group of Units U (n): the set of elements of Zn which are relatively prime to n;
forms a group under multiplication.
Matrix Group: matrices GL(n, R) and GL(n, C) with nonzero determinant and en-
tries in R or C form a group; with extra conditions, GL(n, R) for a general ring
may also form a group.
Automorphism Group Aut(G): automorphisms of G.

Inner Automorphism Group Inn(G): the automorphisms of the form φa (x) =

axa−1 , also forming a group.

2.3 Solvability
Normal series: a sequence of groups H0 ⊂ H1 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Hk with Hi / Hi+1 for all i.

Composition series: a normal series with all nontrivial factor groups simple (called
composition factors).
Jordan-Holder theorem: Any two composition series of a group are equivalent;
thus, the length is an invariant of the group.
Solvable group: there is a normal series {e} = H0 ⊂ H1 ⊂ · · · ⊂ Hk = G with
factor groups Hi+1 /Hi abelian for all i.
Simple group: a group with no nontrivial normal subgroups.

Solvability of S n : for n ≥ 5, the symmetric group S n is nonsimple. Since it is also

nonabelian, it is not solvable.

2.4 Special Groups/Subgroups

Cyclic Subgroup hai: given a ∈ G, the elements hai = {1, a, a2 , . . .}.

Center Z(G): the elements which commute with all others; it is normal and
G/Z(G) ∼= Inn(G).
G/Z Theorem: states that Z(G) is cyclic (trivial) iff G is abelian.

Centralizer C(a): given a ∈ G, the elements C(a) = {g ∈ G : ga = ag}; also defined

for subgroups.

Normalizer N (H): given H < G, the elements x ∈ G with xHx−1 ∈ H.

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 N/C Theorem: N (H)/C(H) is isomorphic to a subgroup of Aut(H).

Stabilizer stab(a): given a ∈ G and a permutation group (or group action), the
permutations of G which fix a.

Orbit orb(a): given a ∈ G, the elements φ(a) for φ in a given permutation group
(or group action).

Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem: |G| = |orb(a)| · |stab(a)|.

2.5 Group actions/Sylow Theory

Group action: a group G acts on a set X if there is a function G × X → X with
(g, x) 7→ gx, such that (gh)x = g(hx) and 1x = x.

Left/Right/Conjugation Actions: an element g ∈ G provides a left action x 7→ gx,

a right action x 7→ xg, and a conjugation action x 7→ gxg −1 on the group G.

Conjugacy class: given a ∈ G, it is the elements cl(a) = {gag −1 : g ∈ G}. Its size
is |cl(a)| = |G : C(a)|.
P
Class Formula: |G| = P |G : C(a)|, the sum taken over conjugacy classes. Alter-
nately, |G| = |Z(G)| + |G : C(a)|.

Sylow’s First Theorem: if pk divides |G|, then G has a subgroup of order pk ; the
maximal such subgroup is the Sylow p-subgroup.

Sylow’s Second Theorem: every subgroup H < G with |H| = pk is contained in

some Sylow p-subgroup.
Sylow’s Third Theorem: any two Sylow p-subgroups are conjugate; the number np
of such is ≡p 1 and also divides |G|. The subgroup is unique iff it is normal.

Solvability of p-groups: every finite p-group is solvable, since it has a nontrivial

center.

2.6 Free Groups

Free group: a group generated by a set of symbols S consisting of formal finite
sequences (called words) of elements in S and their inverses.

Universal mapping property: Every group is a homomorphic image of a free group.

Existence of generators/relations in category of groups: every group is a factor

group of a free group, hence is definable by a set of generators and relations.

Free abelian group: given generators xi , it is the group hx1 i ⊕ · · · ⊕ hxk i.

Torsion subgroup: the subgroup of an abelian group consisting of all finite-order

elements.
Internal direct sums in abelian groups: a group G may be written G = H × K if
G = HK for (normal) subgroups H, K and H ∩ K = {e}. In this case, H ⊕ K ∼ =
H × K, so the internal product is isomorphic to the external product.
Primary decomposition of abelian torsion groups: a free abelian group has torsion
subgroup isomorphic to Znp11 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Znpkk where the primes pi and coefficients ni are
unique up to reordering. The remainder of the group will then be Znk+1 .

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3 Categories
Category: consists of a set of objects, a set of morphisms Hom(A, B) between
every ordered pair (A, B) of objects, and a composition Hom(A, B)×Hom(B, C) →
Hom(A, C) for every triple of objects which is associative. Moreover, the Hom(A, B)
sets are disjoint and there exists an identity morphism 1A ∈ Hom(A, A).
Examples of categories: Sets with functions, groups with homomorphisms, com-
mutative rings with ring homomorphisms, etc. are all categories.
Equivalence morphism: a morphism f : A → B such that there exists a morphism
g ∈ Hom(B, A) with gf = 1A and f g = 1B ; essentially an isomorphism.
Functor: a functor is a map T between objects and maps in two categories which
(i) takes objects to objects; (ii) takes maps to maps; (iii) preserves composition of
maps; (iv) preserves the identity morphism.
The Hom functor: given an object A in a category C, it is the functor TA : C → S
to the category S of sets with B 7→ Hom(A, B) and the map f ∈ Hom(B, B 0 ) taken
to the map Hom(A, B) → Hom(A, B 0 ) with h 7→ f h.
Coproducts (direct sums): also called the free product and denoted by A1 t A2 or
A1 ⊕ A2 ; formally, one has injection morphisms αi : Ai → A1 t A2 such that for
every object X and morphisms fi ∈ Hom(Ai , X), there exists a unique morphism
θ : A1 t A2 → X such that θαi = fi .
Products: formally, it is the object P = A1 u A2 together with morphisms pi ∈
Hom(P, Ai ) such that for every object X and morphisms fi : X → Ai , there exists
a unique morphism θ : X → P such that pi θ = fi ; different just in that the ‘arrows
are reversed’; often coincides with the coproduct.

4 Rings
4.1 Basics
Ring: a set R with two operations with (R, +) an abelian group, associative under
·, and distributive (a(b + c) = ab + ac)). The additive identity is denoted 0.
Commutative Ring: a ring R with · commutative.
Ring with unity: a ring R with multiplicative identity 1.
Field: a ring R with (R∗ , ·) also an abelian group.
Left Ideal: a subring A ⊂ R with ar ∈ A for all a ∈ A, r ∈ R. A right ideal is
similarly defined.
(2-Sided) Ideal: a subring A ⊂ R which is both a left and right ideal.
Quotient Ring: the set of cosets of an ideal A ⊂ R, denoted R/A.
Isomorphism Theorems: completely analogous to those for groups.

4.2 Examples
Matrix Ring: given a ring R, one can form a ring of matrices Mn (R) consisting of
n × n matrices with entries in R, using matrix addition and multiplication.
Group Ring: also called a Group Algebra P and denoted kG, where k is a ring and G
a group; it is the set of formal sums gi ∈G αi gi with αi ∈ k, multiplication given
by αi gi · αj gj = αi αj gi gj , and the obvious addition. Thus, it is essentially a vector
space over k with G as basis, equipped with a multiplication.
Real Quaternions:

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4.3 Integral Domains
Zero Divisors: nontrivial elements a, b ∈ R with ab = 0.
Integral Domain: a commutative ring with unity and no zero divisors; equivalently,
with a cancellation law ab = ac =⇒ b = c.
Prime Ideal: an ideal A ⊂ R with ab ∈ A implying either a ∈ A or b ∈ A. In this
case, R/A is an integral domain.
Maximal Ideal: an ideal A ⊂ R contained in no other nontrivial ideal of R. In this
case, R/A is a field.
Zorn’s Lemma: equivalent to the axiom of choice; states that every nonempty par-
tially ordered set in which every chain has an upper bound has a maximal element.
Chinese Remainder Theorem: for rings, states that if I1 , . . . , In are pairwise co-
prime ideals, and a1 , . . . , an ∈ R, then there exists a single r ∈ R such that
r + Ii = ai + Ii for all i.

4.4 Factorization
Principal Ideal: an ideal A ⊂ R of the form hai = {ra : r ∈ D} for some a ∈ R;
thus, the smallest subring containing a.
Principal Ideal Domain (PID): a ring where every ideal is principal.

Prime Element: an element a ∈ D of an integral domain with a|bc implies either

a|b or a|c.
Irreducible Element: an element a ∈ D with a = bc implies either b or c is a unit.
Unique Factorization Domain (UFD): a ring where unique factorization into irre-
ducibles (up to units) holds. Every PID is a UFD.
Euclidean Ring/Domain (ED): an integral domain with a division algorithm; there
is some function d : D∗ → Z+ 0 such that d(a) ≤ d(ab), b 6= 0 implies there are
q, r ∈ D such that a = bq + r and d(r) < d(b). Every ED is a PID.
Polynomial Ring: given a ring R, it is the formal set R[x] consisting of a0 + a1 x +
· · · + an xn with ai ∈ R. If R is an integral domain, so is R[x]; if R is a field, R[x]
is a PID; if R is a UFD, so is R[x].

4.5 Artinian/Noetherian Rings

Simple Ring: a ring with no nontrivial (2-sided) ideals.

Semisimple Ring: a ring which is a direct sum of minimal ideals.

Division Ring (Skew Field): a ring with every nonzero element having an inverse,
but not necessarily commutative; the matrix ring Matn (∆) over a division ring ∆
is a simple ring.
Artinian Ring: a ring where every descending chain of ideals I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ · · · stops.

Noetherian Ring: a ring where every ascending chain of ideals I1 ⊂ I2 ⊂ · · · stops;

more simply, every ideal is finitely generated.
Wedderburn’s Theorem for Simple Artinian Rings: a simple artinian ring is iso-
morphic to Matn (∆) for some division ring ∆.
Hilbert Basis Theorem: if R is a commutative noetherian ring, then so is R[x].

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4.6 Localization
Multiplicative Set: a subset of a ring including the unity and closed under multi-
plication.

Fraction Field (Field of Quotients): given an integral domain D, it is the set of

pairs (or quotients) of elements of D modulo an appropriate equivalence relation;
like constructing the rationals from the integers.
Quotient Field:

Local Rings: rings with a unique maximal ideal; the other elements are precisely
the units of the ring.

5 Modules
5.1 Basics
Module: given a ring R, an R-module is an abelian group M with scalar multi-
plication R × M → M satisfying the expected laws (similar to those for vector
fields).

Examples: vector spaces over a field F are F -modules; abelian groups are Z-modules
(looking at the exponents); a commutative ring R is an S-module for any subring
S ⊂ R, including itself.
Exact Sequence: a sequence · · · → Mn+1 → Mn → Mn−1 → · · · of R-modules and
R-maps fi : Mi → Mi−1 with im fi+1 = ker fi for all i.

Exactness Properties of Hom:

Modules over Matrix Rings: one can form a module over a matrix ring Mn (R) as
the set of n-tuples of elements of R, using standard matrix multiplication.
Modules over Group Rings: one can form a module over a group ring kG just as
for any other ring.

5.2 Free/Generated Modules

Free Module: an R-module M which is isomorphic to a direct sum of copies of R;
every R-module is a quotient of a free R-module.
Invariance of Rank: for a commutative ring R, every free R-module has the same
rank, the same number of elements in any basis; not true for non-commutative rings.
Presentation of a Module: every R-module is a quotient of a free R-module; this
provides the basis (generators) for a presentation, with the relations given by the
factor submodule.
Finitely Generated Module over a PID: when R is a PID, a finitely generated R-
module M is a direct sum M = tM ⊕ F , where F is a free module.
Applications: this implies primary decomposition theorems for both abelian groups
and torsion R-modules.
Applications to Canonical Forms of Matrices and Abelian Groups:

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5.3 Tensor Products
Tensor Product: formally, given R-modules A, B, it is the space A ⊗R B and a map
A × B →f A ⊗R B such that for all bilinear maps A × B →g G into an abelian group
G, there exists a map h : A ⊗R B → G which commutes with the previous two;
informally, it is the unique space such that all maps into and out of it are linear.
Localization:

Algebras and Base Change:

Exactness Properties of Tensor Products:

Exterior Algebra:

5.4 Projective/Injective Modules

Projective Module: a module P for which every short exact sequence 0 → A →i
B →p P → 0 is split; equivalently, given a surjection A → B and a map P → B,
there exists a pullback map P → A commuting with the other two.

Injective Module: a module E for which every short exact sequence 0 → E →i

A →p B → 0 is split; equivalently, given an injection A → B and a map E → A,
there exists a map E → B which commutes.
Homology:

The Snake Lemma:

Facts on derived functors including Tor and Ext:

6 Field Theory
Field: a set R with (R, +) and (R∗ , ·) both abelian groups.

6.1 Field extensions

Field Extension: a field E ⊃ F containing F .

Algebraic Element (Extension): an element a ∈ E ⊃ F of an extension field which

is the zero of a polynomial in F [x] (an extension with every element algebraic).

Transcendental Element/Extension: an element (extension) which is not algebraic.

Characteristic: the additive order of the unity 1 in a field, or 0 if the order is infinite.

Finite Field: must have order pn , denoted GF (pn ), with (GF (pn )∗ , ·) cyclic and
(GF (pn ), +) isomorphic to Zp ⊕ · · · ⊕ Zp .

Algebraic Closure: the smallest extension field of F containing all algebraic ele-
ments over F , so every polyomial splits.
Transcendence Basis: given a field extension E ⊃ F , it is a maximal algebraically
independent subset B ⊂ E, with transcendence degree defined to be |B|, basically
the number of elements which must be adjoined to F to obtain E.

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6.2 Splitting fields/normal extensions
Splitting Field: an extension field E ⊃ F which contains all the zeros of a specified
polynomial p(x).
Normal Extension: an extension which is the splitting field of some set of polyno-
mials.
Extension of Isomorphisms:

Separable Polynomial: a polynomial with no repeated roots.

Separable Extension: an extension with every element separable, meaning either

transcendental or with minimal polynomial separable.

6.3 Galois Theory

Galois Extension: an extension E ⊃ F which is the splitting field of a polynomial
in F [x]; a separable extension.

Galois Group: the group Gal(E/F ) of automorphisms of E which fix F ; isomorphic

to a subgroup of S n where n is the degree of the polynomial with splitting field E
(since its elements must permute the roots of the polynomial).
Galois Correspondence: given a Galois extension E ⊃ F , there is a 1 : 1 correspon-
dence between intermediate fields K (E ⊃ K ⊃ F ) and subgroups of Gal(E/F ),
given by the map K 7→ Gal(E/K).

Cyclic Extensions: first, in a Galois extension E/F of prime degree p, where F

includes a primitive root of xp = 1, then the Galois group is Zp and E = F (β) for
some β p ∈ F .
Roots of Unity: for ω a primitive nth root of unity, we have Gal(Q(ω)/Q) ∼
= U (n).

Ruler and Compass Constructions: an n-gon is constructible iff a primitive nth

Q
root of unity is constructible; the only possible choices are 2k pi , where the pi are
primes of the form 2m + 1.
Solvable by Radicals: f (x) ∈ F [x] which splits in some extension F (a1 , . . . , an ) and
there exist ki ∈ Z+ such that aki i ∈ F (a1 , . . . , ai−1 ). In this case, the Galois group
of the extension F (a1 , . . . , an ) is solvable.
Norms:

Traces:

Computations of Galois Groups:

7 Representations
Representation (of a Group): a homomorphism σ : G → Mn (C) from a group into
a complex matrix ring.
Trivial Representation: the representation taking G to the identity matrix I.

Faithful Representation: a representation carrying the full group structure; hence,

ker σ = 0.
Module Correspondence: there is a bijective correspondence between CG-modules
and complex representations.

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Regular Representation: the representation corresponding to the group algebra CG
acting on itself to form a CG-module.

Equivalent Representations: two representations σ, τ : G → Mn (C) for which there

exists a matrix P ∈ Mn (C) such that σ(g)P = P τ (g) for all g ∈ G; equivalent
representations come from the same module.
Irreducible Representation: a representation with no nontrivial invariant sub-
spaces; in terms of modules, there are no nontrivial submodules.
Reducible Representation: may be written in block-triangular form; for finite
groups this implies Completely Irreducible, which is simply block diagonal form.

Character: basically, the trace of a representation: given σ : G → Mn (C), it is the

function χσ : G → C given by χ(g) = tr(σ(g)); constant on conjugacy classes.

Irreducible Character: the character of an irreducible representation.

Class function: a function, like the character, which is constant on conjugacy
classes; actually, the irreducible characters form the basis for the class functions
of a group.