A Rough Guide to the Fundamental Group

Elisha Peterson
November 6, 2003

Contents
1 Getting Oriented 2

2 The Fundamental Group 2

2.1 Homotopies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 The Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Covering Spaces 3
3.1 Covering Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Deck Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4 The Classification of Surfaces 4

4.1 The Seifert-Van Kampen Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

5 Going Further 4
5.1 Higher Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

6 The Road Ahead 5

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1 Getting Oriented
The fundamental group is a tool used to study topological spaces; its most important prop-
erty is topological invariance, meaning that it is always the same for homeomorphic spaces.
What this means is that it can distinguish between non-homeomorphic spaces.
The easiest way to think of the fundamental group is as the set of loops embedded in a
space, or as the set of closed paths a creature in the space may traverse. There is a natural
equivalence relation between these paths given by homotopy: two paths are equivalent if
they can be ‘smoothly deformed’ into each other. Surprisingly, with this equivalence relation
one can give the very large set of paths the structure of a group.
This group tells a lot about the structure of a topological space. For every space, there is
a space with trivial fundamental group, called the universal cover which can be completely
wrapped around it. The universal cover is intricately related to the fundamental group.
We will see that the spaces it can ‘wrap around’ are in a 1:1 correspondence with normal
subgroups of the fundamental group.
The final section is on the Seifert-Van Kampen Theorem, a calculational tool allowing
us to calculate the fundamental groups of more complicated spaces. In particular, it will
lead us to the classification of surfaces.

2 The Fundamental Group

2.1 Homotopies
Homotopy: a family of maps parametrized by the unit interval, i.e., F : X × I → Y ,
or Fi : X → Y .
Then, F0 (X) and F1 (X) are homotopic maps, and we write F0 ' F1 . The homotopy
class [f ] of f is the set of maps homotopic to f . Two spaces are homotopy equivalent if
there exist maps f : X → Y and g : X → Y with g ◦ f ' 1X and f ◦ g ' 1Y , and we write
X ' Y . A space is contractible if it is homotopy equivalent to a 1-point space.
Deformation Retract: A ⊂ X for which there is an F : X × I → X with F0 = 1X ,
F1 (X) ⊂ A and F1 |A = 1A . A is a strong deformation retract if Ft |A = 1A for all t.
In either case, A ' X.
Relative Homotopy: a homotopy F : X × I → Y with Ft |A = 1A . We write F0 '
F1 rel A. If F and G are (relative) homotopies with F1 = G0 we can concatenate
F and G to obtain the (relative) homotopy F ∗ G.
An important class of homotopies are those rel X01 = X × ∂I. Using the fact that
F : X × I → Y is ' rel X01 to a reparametrization F (x, φ(t)), we have:
1. C ∗ F ' F ∗ C ' F rel X01 for a constant map C;
2. every F has an inverse F −1 with F ∗ F −1 ' C rel X01 ;
3. if F1 , G1 ' F2 , G2 then F1 ∗ G1 ' F2 ∗ G2 rel X01 .
In terms of homotopy classes, we have (1) [e] ∗ [f ] = [f ] ∗ [e] = [f ], (2) [f ] ∗ [f −1 ] = [e], and
(3) [f ] ∗ [g] = [f g] is well-defined.
For a mapping cylinder Mf , r : Mf → Y is a strong deformation retract, so we can
replace f : X → Y with inclusion X ,→ Mf (up to homotopy). Moreover, the homotopy
type of Mf (or Cf ) depends only on the homotopy class of f .
If, as well, F (zα , t) = zα0 ∀zα ∈ Z, we say that the homotopy keeps Z fixed, and we write
F : σ ' τ rel Z. In the case that Y = I, we say that F is a path-homotopy and that σ and
τ are path-homotopic. A map with F (0, t) = x0 ∀t ∈ I and F (1, t) = x1 ∀t ∈ I is said to keep
endpoints fixed, and written by σ ' τ rel (0, 1).
Given a space X, the space E is said to be a covering space of X if there is a map
p : X → E which is continuous, and a local homeomorphism.

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2.2 The Fundamental Group
Fundamental Group: the homotopy group π1 (X, {x0 }), the homotopy classes of
closed paths (loops) from the base point.

By considering a change of base point, it is clear that π1 (X, {x0 } depends only on the
path component of x0 . Since π1 (X × Y, {(x0 , y0 )} = π1 (X, {x0 }) × π1 (Y, {y0 }), we can
assume the space is path connected and omit the base point.
Simply connected: an arcwise-connected space with trivial fundamental group. Ho-
motopy equivalent spaces have the same fundamental group. Thus, contractible
spaces, which are homotopy equivalent to a point, are simply connected. Actually,
any loop S 1 → X which is homotopically trivial extends to a map S 1 ,→ D2 → X.

3 Covering Spaces
3.1 Covering Maps
Covering Map: a map p : X → Y (where X and Y are arcwise-connected, locally
arcwise-connected, Hausdorff spaces), for which each point y ∈ Y has a neighbor-
hood U with inverse image p−1 (U ) consisting of disjoint sets Uα each homeomorphic
with U by p|Uα . The number of points in the inverse image of a point is constant,
and called the number of sheets of the covering.

The simplest example of a covering space is R → S 1 with t 7→ e2πit (an infinite sheeted
covering). Similarly, the map S 2 → RP 2 from the sphere to the projective plane is a double
covering.
Lifting Problem: an important question for covering spaces: when does a map
f : W → Y lift to a map g : W → X with f = g ◦ p? The path-lifting property
says that a path f : I → Y can be uniquely lifted to a path g : I → X, and the
homotopy-lifting theorem says that a homotopy F : W × I → Y with partial lift
f : W × {0} → X can be lifted uniquely to a homotopy G : W × I → X. In general,
a unique lift exists iff f# (π1 (W )) ⊂ p# (π1 (X)), where the maps are assumed to
preserve base points.

Universal cover: Of particular note is the monomorphism p# : π1 (X) → π1 (Y ).

In particular, a space is simply connected iff it has no nontrivial covers. With few
conditions, every space has a unique simply connected covering space, called the
universal cover.

3.2 Deck Transformations

Note that, given a covering map p : X → Y , the group π1 (Y, y0 ) acts on the fiber p−1 (y0 ) as
a group of permutations. The action is given by lifting a loop in π1 (Y, y0 ) to a path starting
at some x ∈ p−1 (y0 )... the endpoint of this path is the result of the action.

Isotropy Subgroup: if J = π1 (Y, y0 ), this is given by Jx0 = {α ∈ J : x0 · α =

x0 } = ={p# : π1 (X, x0 ) → pi1 (Y, y0 )}. In this case, φ : Jx0 J → F is a bijection,
so there is a 1:1 correspondence between right cosets p# π1 (X, x0 )π1 (Y, y0 ) and the
fiber p−1 (y0 ). This in turn implies that the number of sheets of the covering map is
precisely the index of p# (π1 (X, x0 )) in π1 (Y, y0). In the specific case of the universal
cover, the number of sheets is just the order of π1 (Y, y0 ).

Deck transformation: given a covering map p : X → Y , it is a homeomorphism

D : X → X of the cover. Deck transformations form a group ∆ = ∆p under map
composition.

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 Now, it is natural to ask when we can consider the quotient X/∆ of X by deck transfor-
mations. One would expect to get Y . This particular case can be assured if the subgroup
p# π1 (X, x0 ) is normal in π1 (Y, y0 ), or alternatively if ∆ acts transitively on p−1 (y0 ), in which
case the covering map is said to be regular. In this case, we have ∆ ≈ π1 (Y, y0 )/p# π1 (X, x0 ).
In particular, if X is simply connected (perhaps the universal cover), then ∆ ≈ π1 (Y, y0 ).
Properly discontinuous action: the condition necessary for a group G acting on X
to give a regular covering map p : X → X/G, in which case π1 (X/G) ≈ G.
Covering spaces can be classified, up to equivalence, by the subgroups of π1 (Y, y0 ) (they
are in a 1:1 correspondence). If a space is assumed to be semilocally 1-connected or locally
relatively simply connected (meaning each point has a simply connected neighborhood), then
every connected space has a universal cover, which can be thought of as the set of paths
from a given point.

4 The Classification of Surfaces

4.1 The Seifert-Van Kampen Theorem
The Seifert-Van Kampen is a very important computational tool used for computing the
fundamental group, and essentially relates a space to (smaller) portions of that space.
Seifert-Van Kampen Theorem: if X = U ∪V , where U , V , and U ∩V are nonempty
and connected, then pi1 (X) ≈ π1 (U ) ∗π1 (U ∩V ) π1 (V ), with base point x0 ∈ U ∩ V .
Here, G1 ∗A G2 is a free group with amalgamation, meaning the group G1 ∗ G2 with
relations given by maps φ1 (a) = φ2 (a), where φi : A → G.
So, for example, if U ∩ V is simply connected, then π1 (X) ≈ π1 (U ) ∗ π1 (V ). Likewise, if
V is simply connected, then π1 (X) ≈ π1 (U )/N , where N is a subgroup of pi1 (U ) generated
by the image of π1 (U ∩ V ).

4.2 Surfaces

5 Going Further
5.1 Higher Homotopy Groups
Denote the set of homotopy classes of maps X → Y by [X; Y ], and of maps (X, A) → (Y, B)
by [X, A; Y, B].
Pointed Space: a space with a specified base point, such as (X, x0 ).
Homotopy Group: Maps preserving base points form the group [X; Y ]∗ so that
[SX; Y ]∗ ∼
= [X × I, A; Y, {y0 }], where SX = (X × I)/({x0 } × I ∪ X × ∂I) is the
reduced suspension. [SX; Y ] forms a group with operation being the composition
of maps, called a homotopy group.
nth Homotopy Group: The most often used homotopy group, defined by
πn (Y, {y0 }) = [S n ; Y ]∗ , where S n is the n-sphere, and can be thought of as the
n-fold reduced suspension of S 0 = {0, 1} with base point 0. An alternate definition
would be πn (Y, {y0 } = [I n , ∂I n ; Y, {y0 }], since S n is formed from I n by collapsing
the boundary to a point.
The homotopy of spheres is most easily calculated. πn (S n ) ∼ = Z, and πn (S k ) = 0 for
1 2 ∼ n ∼
n < k. πn (S ) = 0 for n > 1, but π3 (S ) = Z and πn+1 (S ) = Z2 for n > 2. In general, the
homotopy groups are stable, in the sense that πn+k (S n ) is independent of n for large n.
Functor: the homotopy group is functorial. This means that a map φ ∈ [Y, W ]∗
induces a group homomorphism φ# : π1 (Y, {y0 }) → π1 (W, {w0 }), with ψ# ◦ φ# =
(ψ ◦ φ)# and Id# = Id. Moreover, if ψ and φ are homotopic, then ψ# = φ# .

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6 The Road Ahead
The fundamental group is just the introduction to the vast subject of algebraic topology.
It is a rather intuitive concept, but can be very difficult to calculate. There is another
topological invariant, called homology, which turns out to be easier. It is less intuitive,
calculated in terms of boundaries and pieces of a space rather than something concrete.
However, the groups one obtains are always abelian; in fact, the first homology group is the
abelianization of the fundamental group.
Another vital aspect of modern algebraic topology is cohomology theory, which deals
with maps from bits and pieces of a space into some nice group like Z. It pairs up nicely
with homology, meaning there is a natural correspondence (called duality) between the two.
A third piece of algebraic topology is higher homotopy theory, which generalizes the
fundamental group to maps from spheres S n into a space. It retains the calculational
complexity of the fundamental group, and working with this complexity requires a very
deep theory best approached after working through homology and cohomology theory.