GUIDE NOTES IN

INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL
SCIENCE

BY

MR. Bwire Stephen

New edition 2023

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1: MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE............................1

1.1: MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE...............................................................................1
1.2: NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE..................................................................................2
1.3: THE SCOPE/SUBJECT MATTER OF POLITICAL SCIENCE..........................................5
UNIT 2: APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE................................9
2.2 Traditional Approaches in the Study of Political Science.......................................................9
2.3 Scientific/Empirical Approaches to the study of Political Science......................................12
UNIT 3: POWER, AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY.........................................................14
3.1 POWER...............................................................................................................................14
3.1.1Introduction.........................................................................................................................14
3.1.2Meaning of Power...............................................................................................................14
3.1.3 Dimensions or Facets of power..........................................................................................14
3.1.4 Resources of power............................................................................................................15
3.1.5 Styles of exercising power.................................................................................................16
3.2 AUTHORITY......................................................................................................................16
3.2. 1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................16
3.2.2 Forms of Authority............................................................................................................17
UNIT 4: THE CONCEPT OF STATE.......................................................................................19
4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................19
4.2 Defining the Concept State...................................................................................................19
4.3 Characteristics of a State.......................................................................................................19
4.4 Organs/Components of a State..............................................................................................20
4.5 Types/Stages of the State......................................................................................................22
4.6 Differences between State and Government.........................................................................23
4.7 Functions of the State............................................................................................................24

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 4.8 Theories of State Formation..................................................................................................24
UNIT 5: THE CONCEPT GOVERNMENT.............................................................................31
5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................31
5.2 Classification (Forms) of Governments................................................................................31
5.3 The Concept Separation of Power........................................................................................33
5.4 Parliament as an Arm of Government..................................................................................34
5.4.1 Functions/role of Parliament..............................................................................................34
5.4.2 Declining Role of Parliament.............................................................................................36
UNIT 6: CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONALISM...................................................40
6.1 Introduction..................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2 Classification of constitutions...............................................................................................41
6.3 The Role of Constitutions in a Democratic Society..............................................................45
6.4 CONSTITUTIONALISM............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
UNIT 7: THE POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES..............................................................................47
7.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................47
7.2 LIBERALISM.......................................................................................................................47
7.3 CONSERVATISM...............................................................................................................49
7.4 SOCIALISM.........................................................................................................................51
UNIT 8: DEMOCRACY..............................................................................................................56
8.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................56
8.2 Procedural minimal conditions for a Democratic State........................................................57
8.3 How Democracies Differ......................................................................................................57
UNIT 9: GOOD GOVERNANCE..............................................................................................60
9.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................60
9.2 Key Features of Good Governance.......................................................................................61
UNIT 10: ELECTIONS AND VOTING BEHAVIOUR...........................................................63
10.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................63

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 10.2 Importance of Elections in a Democratic Society...............................................................63
UNIT 11: POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS IN UGANDA..........................65
11.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................65
11.2 Background to Political Parties...........................................................................................65
11.3 Political Parties in Uganda since Independence (1962)......................................................65
11.4 Role Played by Political Parties in Uganda‟s Quest for Democracy..................................66
11.5 Weaknesses of Political Parties in Uganda.........................................................................66
11.6 Challenges of Political Parties in Uganda...........................................................................66
11.7 Solutions to the Challenges of Political Parties in Uganda................................................66
11.8 Political Party Systems in Uganda......................................................................................67
11.9 Key Principles of the Multiparty Political System in Uganda............................................67
SELECTED READINGS............................................................................................................68

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 UNIT 1: MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

1.1: MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Introduction
There is no universally accepted definition of the concept Political Science. In simple terms,
Political Science is the scientific study of politics. The subject therefore involves understanding two
key words, i.e. politics and science.
What is politics?
According to Heywood (2004), there are almost as many definitions of politics as there are
authorities willing to offer an opinion on the subject. We will therefore consider a number of
definitions based on how different scholars perceive it. These include;

1. The concept Politics comes from a Greek word „polis’ which means matters of the State.
Politics can therefore be defined as the field of study that deals with matters of the State.
2. Heywood (2004) portrayed Politics as the exercise of power or authority, as a process of
collective decision making, as the allocation of scarce resources, as an arena of deception
or manipulation and so forth.
3. According to the power perspective, politics is defined as the struggle for and exercise of
power and influence in society.

4. Governance view which is perhaps the most common definition attached to Politics sees
the concept as the art/science of managing society.
5. The Conflict Perspective defines politics as mechanisms through which conflict in society
are managed or resolved. This arises from the view that conflict is part and partial of
society.

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 6. From the distributive point of view, politics is about resources and how these resources are
controlled and managed.

7. Lasswell (1936), defines politics as concerning who gets what, when and how.

8. Easton (1981) on the other hand defines politics as the authoritative distribution of
resources and values.

1.2: NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Introduction
There are contentious arguments on the nature of Political Science. Whereas others claim it is an art,
others argue it is a science. Others still claim it is both an art and science.

What is a Science?
Science comes from a Latin word Scientia which means knowledge. Science is therefore a field of
study that aims at developing reliable explanations of phenomena through repeatable experiments,
observation and deduction.

Characteristics of Science
For any study to be regarded scientific, it must have the following characteristics;

1. Empirical

All scientific studies must be observable. Anything that cannot be observed is not
scientific.

2. Experimentation

This means carrying out and investigation to test the hypothesis. Scientific studies therefore test the
truth about the objects under the conditions determined by him/her.

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 3. Measurement and Quantification

All scientific studies tend to attach numbers/numerals to the objects studied eg. height,
weight, length etc

4. Objectivity

This means staying neutral and not have any bias about something or somebody. All scientific
inquiries must be objective. Personal interest of the researcher should not influence the results
of the research.

5. Universal laws

Every scientific study ends at generating laws which are true across space and time e.g law of
gravity.

6. Predication

To predict means to foretell or foresee the likely outcome of something. Scientific

investigations therefore use existing knowledge to predict the possible outcome of political and
social action.

7. Control

This involves the use of existing knowledge to control/regulate either political or social
phenomena.

8. Explanation

This refers to establishing causal relationship between variables eg why do voters vote the way
they do.

Arguments Against the Study Of Politics Being Scientific

Some analysts argue that politics is not a science because of the following;

i. Objectivity

It is assumed that political scientists are part and partial of the community they are studying. This
means that they cannot be objective i.e they will be bias as such their personal interests tend to
influence the outcome of the results being investigated.

ii. Experimentation
It’s argued that unlike in the natural science it’s not easy for a Political Scientist to experiment
on political objects he/she controls.

iii. Measurement

Most of the concepts used in the study of politics is abstract and it’s not easy to measure or
quantify them. g democracy.

iv. Universal laws

It’s also argued that unlike the natural sciences, it’s not easy to come up which laws which are
universal in the study of politics. This is particularly due to the different dynamics that exist in
different societies today.

v. Control

Even if the political scientist knew the causes of a given political problem, controlling its
occurrence would be difficult for two reasons;

a) Unlike in natural sciences, there is no single cause for any particular problem
b) One political action may have contradictory effects.

Arguments for the study of Political Science being scientific

1. Political scientists use the same methods of research/ investigation like natural scientists.
2. Measurement. This may be difficult but not totally impossible. After voting for example,
it is easy to measure the popularity and power of a candidate or government using
election results
3. Laws, theories and generalizations. Compared to natural sciences formation of laws
which are universal in the study of politics is rather difficult but not totally impossible
e.g. law of social evolution of states.
 4. Prediction. Through opinion polls for example, Political Scientists have come up with
mechanisms of predicting the outcome of certain political actions especially elections.

1.3: THE SCOPE/SUBJECT MATTER OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Introduction
This part attempts to explain what is entailed in Political Science as a discipline.
Scope of Political Science
Political Science as a discipline is divided into numerous sub-themes which include the following;

1. Political Philosophy

This is a sub-field of Political Science which deals with values that are essential to the good citizens
and a just State. It has been the concern of numerous political thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle,
Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Marx e.t.c on key issues about the State.

The key questions of political philosophy include the following;

a) How did the State come into the existence?

b) How can the State be organized to ensure good life for its citizens?
c) What is the relationship between the State and its citizens?
d) Does the State have any obligation towards its citizens? Alternatively do citizens
have any obligation towards the State?
e) Why do people obey authority? What’s the basis for political obligation?
f) What are human rights? Are they natural or created by human beings for specific
reasons?
2. Public Administration

This is a branch of Political Science that attempts to explain how the State functions. It describes
and analyses administrative roles, practices and performances. Some of the key questions are the
following;

i. What are characteristics of administrative organizations?

ii. How are decisions and public policies made?
iii. Should individuals participate in the decision making process? If so what should be the
degree/form of their participation?
3. International politics/relations
This is a branch of Political Science that deals with the relationship between States and other actors
in the international system. The key questions asked are;

i. Who are the actors in the international system? Are they States, individuals, multinational
companies or any other actors?
ii. Why do States or other actors relate with each other in international system? Do they seek
to maximize power or do they seek to advance some economic interest?
iii. What’s the nature/characteristics of the international system?

4. Comparative politics
This is a branch of Political Science which deals with the similarities and differences that exist
between political systems. Similarities among political systems are used to establish/generate
theories and generalization about political behavior.

5. Political Economy

This is a branch of Political Science that attempts to explain the relationship that exists between
politics and the economy. It is based on the assumption that the nature of the economy significantly
affects the character of politics and the nature of political systems significantly affects the character
of the economy.
Importance of Studying Political Science

1. To deepen the knowledge and understanding on political processes and how they influence
socio-economic life in society.
2. To understand and comprehend the meaning, nature and scope of Political Science
3. To understand the approaches and methods of studying political phenomena
4. To make a comparison of historical and modern forms of political organizations
5. To link administrative thought and practice in the context of diverse administrative systems
and cultures.
6. To provide students with an institutional background to the field of Political Science.
7. To illustrate the application of political concepts to administrative practice.
8. To equip students with skills to comprehend the challenges of State management
 UNIT 2: APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 2.1
Introduction
An approach is a way of looking at things. Approaches to a study of Political Science are
therefore the way of looking at political phenomena.

An approach involves two basic things namely;

a) Unit of analysis i.e. what are you analyzing. The analysis may focus on the political
process; comparing the different units selected in the study of politics. ie a political
scientist may choose to compare how different political institutions such as parliament
work; scientific method which involves among other things sampling, questionnaire etc.
b) Level of analysis. This may be at micro level or macro level.

Approaches to the study of politics are divided into two major categories. These include
Traditional and Scientific Approaches;

2.2 Traditional Approach in the Study of Political Science

There are a number of traditional approaches that are usually used in attempting to understand
political science. These include; historical, philosophical, institutional and Marxist approaches.
We examine each of them in detail below;
1. Historical approach

The unit of analysis is historical events. The assumption is that historical events are important in
understanding the present and predicting future political action. The historical approach assumes
that;

 Current political problems have got their roots in history.

 What happens now has a lot of historical aspects from which we can draw lessons.
 To predict the future, Political Scientists tend to have their basis on historical events
that have happened before.
2. Normative Approach (Philosophical)

This is derived from the word norm.

The unit of analysis are norms or political ideals and values e.g democracy, justice, freedom,
liberty etc. This approach is linked to political thinkers and philosophers such as Plato and
Aristotle.

The main characteristics of this approach are as follows;

 a) It is speculative not empirical. Its concerned with what ought to be and not what exists.
Plato’s pre-existence therefore states how do you create an ideal state in which everybody
is happy and therefore no conflict.

b) Prescriptive. The approach prescribes on how a just society can come in existence, how
freedom and democracy can be attained, the best way to attain liberty etc.
c) Ethical i.e. value laden. It’s concerned with government of goodness and badness eg is
democracy good? Is freedom good?

3. Institutional Approach

Institutional approach is one of the oldest and probably the most needed approach in the study of
politics.

The unit of analysis is political institutions and structures. These include; Political parties,
interest groups, military, executive judiciary, parliament etc. The main concerns are;
a) How are these political institutions organized?
b) What functions do they perform with in the political system?
c) What is the membership of these political institutions and political structures?
d) What changes are taking place within these political institutions?

Criticisms of the Institutional Approach to the Study of Political Science

a) It’s accused of focusing on the political institutions of the developed world while
ignoring those in the developing countries.
b) It’s formal and legalistic. It only focuses on political institutions that have been provided
for under the existing law.
c) It ignores other actors in the political process such as
individuals. Whereas its true individuals are shaped by institutions, they also have the
capacity to shape these institutions.
d) It ignores non-political factors such as Economic, culture etc which influence the
working of political systems in general and political institutions in particular. In other
words there an assumption that there is an attempt to separate politics from the economy
and culture.

4. Marxist approach
It is sometimes referred to as political economy or class analysis approach.
It is associated with the writings of Karl Max. The unit of analysis is the social classes, workers,
peasants, capitalist middle class e.t.c
A social class refers to a position occupied in the political process.

This approach assumes that the economic superstructure determines the nature of politics. The
argument is that the State is always under the control of a dominant social class and this class
uses the state in particular and politics in general to advance its class interests vis-a-vi other
social interests.

2.3 Scientific/Empirical Approaches to the study of Political Science

5. Comparative method

It is regarded as one of the most scientific approaches to the study of politics. It involves
looking at the similarities and differences which exist within political systems. The similarities
are used to make generalization and theories about politics as well as to remove ethnocentrism.
The comparative approach to the study of political science focuses on the following;
 Comparison of different political systems/states e.g Uganda and Kenya
 Comparing different political structures and the functions they perform in
different political systems.
 Comparing political behavior within different political systems.

6. Behavioral approach
This is sometimes referred to as behaviorism. It is an approach in the study of Political Science
that focuses on analyzing only observable behaviors of political actors. The unit of analysis is
individual behaviors and their actions in the political process.
According to David Easton, the Behavioral Approach is based on the following assumptions;

a) Regularities.
According to this approval, despite the differences that exist within human beings, amidst
different circumstances, there is something common in their behavior i.e. there is some element
of uniformity in human behavior. People will always uniformly react to circumstances.
b) Verification.

They also believe in empirical testing of knowledge in order to establish its validity i.e. for
knowledge to be scientific it should be subjected to verification including experimentation.

c) Proper techniques.
In order to ensure objectivity, behaviorists emphasize the use of correct techniques e.g sampling
in acquiring and interpreting data.
d) Quantification.
They also believe that scientific knowledge should be subjected to measurement and
quantification.

e) Values
Behaviorists believe in a cautious approach in analyzing political behavior. They argue that
empirical judgment and value judgment should not be mixed together.
f) Systematization
This means orderly and organized arrangement and analysis of political behavior. Behaviorists
believe in systematic analysis of political behavior to arrive at truth and build generalizations.

g) Pure Science
According to Robert Dahl, the behavioral approach is a protest movement from the traditional
approach which was inadequate in explaining political phenomena scientifically. Behaviorists
therefore in their approach meticulously analyze political behavior and arrive at conclusions and
generalizations.

UNIT 3: POWER, AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY

3.1 POWER
3.1.1Introduction
According to Heywood (2002), all politics is about power. The practice of politics is often
portrayed as little more than the exercise of power, and the academic subject as, in essence, the
study of power. Without doubt, students of politics are students of power: they seek to know who
has it, how it is used and on what basis it is exercised.

With Heywood’s assertion as expressed above, power, like the concept state is therefore very
central to the study of politics.

3.1.2 Meaning of Power

Heywood (2002) argues that power is an „essentially contested‟ concept
and that no settled or agreed definition can ever be developed. This therefore means that there
are various meanings of political power but the most important are the following;
i. The ability to influence the behavior of others against their will ie the capacity to involve
others do things they would not have done out of their free will.

ii. The ability to achieve a desired outcome by whatever means.

iii. The transformational capacity posed by some social and political structures which may
be acting independent of the will of individuals.
3.1.3 Dimensions or Facets of power
It’s argued that power has got three different dimensions. These include;
a) Power as decision making
According to this dimension, power is the ability to influence the content of public
decisions.
b) Power as agenda setting
This is the ability to set/control the political process by determining what to be done, when
to be done and by who should it be done.
c) Power as thought control
This is the ability to influence others by shaping what he/she thinks, wants or needs ie it is a
form of ideological indoctrination or psychological control eg church is a major source of
controlling peoples thoughts.
3.1.4 Resources of power
The ability to influence other people’s behavior, or the ability of states to influence the actions of
other states is determined by a number of factors.
These include;

1) Military capability/weapons at one’s disposal e.g. USA has the largest military
capacity and weaponry.
2) Level of economic development in case of states and for individuals ones economic
status.
3) Strategic location. A country’s location vis-a-vi other states may determine how
influential it may be.
4) Population size and the quality of population. A large population determines the size of
the military. It’s also a potential market. e.g China ’s about 2 billion people is a big
potential for market and military compared say to the whole of Africa’s 800 million
people. The quality of population is also important e.g. Denmark ’s 5 million quality
population is economically powerful than Uganda‟s38millionpeople.
5) Information and technology. High level of technology determines a country’s economic
development. Its military capability and its ability to get information from other states.
6) Political and diplomatic skills.

3.1.5 Styles of exercising power

 Coersion including military action
  Economic sanctions which includes withdraws of financial assistance, cutting
trade ties etc
 Threats
 Manipulation

3.2 AUTHORITY
3.2.1 Introduction
According to Heywood (2012), although politics is traditionally concerned with the exercise of
power, it is often more narrowly interested in the phenomenon called „authority‟, and especially
„political authority‟. In its broadest sense, authority is a form of power; it is a
means through which one person can influence the behavior of another. However, more usually,
power and authority are distinguished from one another as contrasting means through which
compliance or obedience is achieved.
Whereas power can be defined as the ability to influence the behaviour of another, authority can
be understood as the right to do so. Power brings about compliance through persuasion, pressure,
threats, coercion or violence. Authority, on the other hand, is based upon a
perceived „right to rule‟ and brings about compliance through a moral obligation on the part of
the ruled to obey.

From the above therefore, authority is defined as the power based on legitimacy i.e. people
exercising authority have the right to do so either because of existing rules and procedures
or because of tradition. It’s only different from power in that it’s not might that determines
rightness.
It should be noted however that the relationship between authority and an acknowledged right to
rule explains why the concept is so central to the practice of government: in the absence of
willing compliance, governments are only able to maintain order by the use of fear, intimidation
and violence
3.2.2 Forms of Authority
According to Max Weber a German sociologist there are 3 forms of authority. These include;
charismatic authority, traditional authority, and legal-rational authority. Each of them is
explained in detail as below;

a. Charismatic authority

This is devotion to an individual because of his/her exceptional quality e.g exemplary character
orator, heroism,(exemplary character, Nyerere, Jesus), (Orators e.g Obote), physical appearance
eg Amin was huge (fat), Mussolini etc.
b. Traditional Authority
This is based on the acceptance of those chosen to rule in accordance with the customs and
practices with in a particular tradition.

There are three forms of traditional Authority. These include;

i. Gerontocracy

This is authority based on age. People claim their right to rule on the ground that they are
the most elderly people in society.

ii. Patriachialism

This is a form of authority in which men exercise power as heads of families (house hold)
over female (women) and children.

iii. Patrimonialism (sultanism)

This is a form of political dominations or political authority based on a personal and bureaucratic
power exercised by a royal family eg kings, queens, emperors etc.

c. Legal rational authority

This is a form of authority in which an individual exercises power on the basis of office he/she
occupies ie once he/she looses the office he is occupying, he looses authority as well. This
therefore means the office is more important than the individual who occupies it.

Characteristics of Legal-Rational Authority

The basic characteristics of this type of authority are as follows;

i. There are rules and procedures which govern the conduct of the person exercising
authority if that individual fail to abide by his/her rules he/she may loose the office
ii. People exercising authority are selected on the basis of their technical
qualification
iii. There is promotion according to seniority or performance.
iv. Hierarchy of command. Each lower office is under the control and supervision of a high
one
v. People exercising authority are gemmated by a fixed salary

vi. Division of labour. Within a particular organization there are specialized functions and @
area of specialization is headed by a different person who exercises authority. Unlike in
traditional authority where there is limited specialization.
vii. There is separation of office and the individual occupying it he cannot appropriate the
resources of his office as his personal property.

UNIT 4: THE CONCEPT OF STATE

4.1 Introduction
Like many concepts in the study of politics, the concept State has no universal meaning.
According to Heywood (2002), the term „State‟ can be used to refer to a number of things: a
collection of institutions, a territorial unit, a historical entity, a philosophical idea and so on. In
everyday language, the State is often confused with the government, the two terms being used
interchangeably.
However, although some form of government has probably always existed, at least within large
communities, the State in its modern form did not emerge until about the fifteenth century. The
precise relationship between State and government is, nevertheless, highly complex. Government
is part of the state, and in some respects is its most important part, but it is only an element
within a much larger and more powerful entity.
4.2 Defining the Concept State

Max Weber defines the State as a community of people who have the monopoly to use physical
violence within a given territory.
A State is also defined as public power machinery that controls and protects people and their
property within the boundaries of a nation. By a nation we mean a group of people closely
related by common language, history, descent etc and occupy the same territory.
4.3 Characteristics of a State
From Weber’s definition, a state is assumed to possess the following characteristics/elements;
a) Territorial Dimension
A State exists within a specific territory or Geographical area.
b) Population

A State must possess a community of people who claim to possess rights within a specific
geographical area; the rights should be both political and civil rights.

c) Government

Every State must possess a government -this is a group of people responsible for public policy
making and implementation within a State.
In contemporary political thought states without government are referred to as “collapsed states”
eg Somalia.

There can also be States with government but are referred to as “collapsed states” eg Mubutu‟s
reign in Zaire (Congo).

d) International recognition

A political community might be occupying a territory with a government. However unless the
international community recognizes that political community to be a state then according to
international law it cannot be regarded as a State. E.g until recently, Palestine was not
recognized as a state.
e) Sovereignty/independence

Every state must be sovereign i.e. it must have a right to exercise absolute and unrestricted
power within a given territory.

4.4 Organs/Components of a State

A State is comprised of a number of organs/components. These include;

1. Political Apparatus (Executive)

These comprises of the President, cabinet ministers and other government appointees. Usually,
these are appointed rather on personal interest than on merit. Its important to note that their
appointment/position usually changes with change of government.
2. Legislative Apparatus (Parliament)

This is the National Assembly comprising of periodically elected Members of

Parliament for a particular period of time to represent people’s views in their respective
constituencies.

3. Repressive Apparatus (Security)

This is the organ of the State responsible for protecting the territorial boundaries of the State as
well as keeping law and order. They include the army, police, prison.

4. Indirect Repressive Apparatus (Judiciary)

This organ of the State is sometimes referred to as the regulatory apparatus. They help the State
to regulate the behavior and conduct of the people. They include the judges and magistrates etc.
They do regulate people’s conduct by trying suspects and giving punishment to offenders eg
imprisonment for a particular period of time.
 5. Administrative Apparatus (Civil Service)

This is the organ of the State responsible for the implementation of government/public policy.
They include all Civil Servants, teachers, doctors etc who administer in government departments.
In each Ministry, the Permanent Secretary is the highest Civil Servant. It is also important to note
that their appointment/ term of office is usually not affected by change of government.

6. Ideological Apparatus

This is the organ of the State responsible for explaining government policies, political beliefs and
values. They train people to be patriotic and have nationalistic culture and ideas. These includes
State radios/television, news papers, political schools like National Leadership Institute (NALI),
Kyankwanzi.

4.5 Types/Stages of the State

The Primitive State

In this type of a State, people live in a society where there is little or no science and technology.
As such citizens in this type of a State are characterized by little production, subsistence
production as well as dependence on environment for Agricultural production.

Slave State

In this type of a State, there is slight improvement in the level of technology.

Here, property is owned by the slaves who make decisions to favour themselves.

Feudal State

As the technology continues to improve, greater areas of land need to be cultivated beyond the
scope of slaves. At this stage, slaves become unprofitable. However, they are allowed to own
small pieces of land though renting from the landlords. Furthermore, landlords charge rent from
the peasants (serfs) with a lot of exploitation by kings, noblemen and the church.

Capitalist State

This is a type of State based on the private ownership of resources and means of production. Here
the workers provide labor yet are exploited by the capitalist (bourgeoisie) by paying little. The
capitalist in this type of State enjoys substantial state power.
Socialist State

This arose as a result of the weaknesses of the capitalist State where there was a lot of
exploitation of the workers by paying them little and denial of rights to own property and the
means of production.
In this type of State therefore, all resources were supposed to go to the public not to the state or
individuals. This means the workers dictate what is to be produced and share it accordingly. It is
therefore a type of State where power belongs to all.
Communist State

It is a type of State where power lies in the hands of the community. In this type of State,
everybody is a worker with nobody as the boss but centrally administered by all. The proponents
of this type of State argue that with time there will be no need for State control.

4.6 Differences between State and Government

1. States are permanent once constituted, they have a long time to disappear unless they
have been conquered by another. Government on the other hand changes quite often.
2. Territorial dimension. The state cannot exist outside a given territorial area. Government
on the other hand may exist outside a territory eg Lule government was imposed in
exile; at one point, Somalia government was leading while in Djibouti
3. States are inclusive while governments are exclusive. States include both the governors
and the governed while governments are constituted only by those who govern. Any
person outside the governing circle is not part of government ie government is just part
of the state. It’s a means through which authority of the state is brought into operation.
4. In theory, a State is perceived to be neutral. It represents the permanent interests of
society ie the common good or general will. Governments on the other hand are not
expected to be neutral there present partisan interests ie the interests and ideology of
those in power
4.7 Functions of the State
A State performs a number of functions. Among others these include the following;
a) It promotes peace and unity within the boundaries of a nation.
b) It protects people and property from internal and external aggression
c) It provides social services eg education, health etc
d) It promotes international relationships
e) It maintains/sustains the cultural and moral values of the nation
f) It makes laws for the smooth running of the nation
g) It collects taxes, tariffs, fines etc to raise revenue used for the provision of social
services
h) It improves the standards of living of its citizens.

4.8 Theories of State Formation

 When we talk of theories of the State, we attempt to answer the following questions;

1. How did the state come into existence? Is it natural or artificial?

2. What role does the state play in society? Is the role negative or positive?
3. To what extent should the State get involved in the economic management of
society? Should it be in a small or big extent?
4. What interests does the State represent?
5. Is the State autonomous and independent of the interests of the individuals and of the
groups in it or does it represent interests of specific groups?
6. What’s the relationship between the State and its citizens?
7. What is the basis of political obligation i.e. why do individuals obey and respect the
State?

The following theories have attempted to answer the above questions.

a) Theory of divine origin

b) Conquest/force theory
c) Patriarchal theory/genetic
d) Social contract theory
e) Marxist theory
f) Feminist theory

1. THE DEVINE THEORY

This theory was developed in the middle ages during the feudal era. The key proponents of this
theory are the Christian Political Thinkers such as St Augustine, St Aquainas etc. It was later
developed by a British Political Theorist called Sir Robert Filmer.

The divine theory of State formation is founded on the following assumptions;

a) A state is natural. It was deliberately created by God.

b) Leaders are Gods representations on earth. Disobedience to leaders is
disobedience to God. (Rom 13:1-7)
c) Rulers are answerable to God and not to their subjects.
d) There should not be separation between the State and the Church because the
State exists to fulfill the will of God.

Weaknesses of the Devine theory

 It is speculative not based on empirical facts.
  History does not provide any evidence to support the view that States were created
by God.
 It is undemocratic because it stipulates that leaders are accountable to God
and not their subjects.

2. THE CONQUEST (FORCE) THEORY

According to this theory, the State originated as a result of a conquest of the weak by the strong.
The physically weak were permanently overpowered by the physically strong who retained
control and coercive power.
3. THE PATRIARCHAL THEORY
 Here, the State had its origin in the family.
 The state was formed with the expansion of the family.
 Many families became a clan, many clans became a tribe in a village setting and ultimately
many village settlements assumed that form of state with a population, a territory and a
supreme body executing authority.

Criticisms of the Patriarchal Theory of State Formation

This theory has been criticized by several scholars on grounds that;

 It assumes members of a nation State have the same history, a common ancestor, culture
ie they are linked by blood.
 Feminists criticize the theory that it supports the nation that men should be dominant in
politics/State since the State is an expansion of the family where men are perceived as
leaders.
 It has no roots in history. There is little evidence in history to show that States were
formed in that manner.

4. THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

It’s associated with the works of Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679); John Locke; J.J
Rousseau (1712-1778).
This theory is founded on the following assumptions;
 State is not natural. It emerged as a result of a voluntary agreement made by individuals.
  What existed in the first society was “a state of nature”. The state of nature was characterized
by the following;
 Unrestricted freedom. Every person was free to do whatever he/she wanted.

 There was no authority or government to regulate the behavior/conduct of individuals.

 What existed was the law of nature ie the ability to determine what was right and wrong
(common sense).
 As a result in the state of nature might determined right.
 Individuals abused, exploited and enslaved one another ie according to Thomas Hobbes life
in the state of nature was solitary, poor, nasty brutish and short.
 In order to escape the type of life that existed in the state of nature, individuals came
together and through an agreement (social contract) they formed a State.
 In the social contract individuals surrendered the right to govern themselves to a single
sovereign leader.
 The state that was formed had the responsibility to protect people’s life and property and to
ensure social and political stability.
 According to this theory therefore, individuals obey the State because they were part of the
agreement that led to its formation.
 The State according to this theory is seen as neutral and a judge among competing groups
and individuals in society.

5. THE MARXIST THEORY OF THE STATE

This theory is associated with the writings of Karl Max, Fredrick Engles and Lennin.
 According to Marxism, the State is not natural but emerged at a particular moment in
social development.
 The 1st society that existed was primitive and communal. This society was characterized
by the following;
a) Communal/collective ownership of property
b) Egalitarianism. French word meaning equality. Everybody was equal to one
another. Social classes did not exist.
c) Because there were no social classes there was no exploitation and oppression of
one person by another i.e. primitive communalistic society did not experience any
social conflict.
  Marxist believes conflicts are a result of an unequal distribution and ownership of
resources.
 In the absence of social conflict, a State was unnecessary or any other form of authority
was unnecessary. A primitive communalistic society was Stateless.
 According to the Marxists, the following elements emerged in society which contributed
to the formation of the State;
a) A State according to Marxism emerged when society started
producing social surplus.

b) Social classes emerged, one class controlled social surplus and the means of
production and another class had no access to social surplus and the means of
production.
c) The relationship between these social classes was antagonistic.
A conflict existed between the two over the control of social surplus and the
means of production.
d) The state emerged in this process or the process of class struggles when one
class emerged dominant and developed instruments of coercion by which it used
to control social surplus and to dominate and exploit other classes ie according
to Marxism, a state is an instrument of class domination and exploitation.

Similarities between Social Contract and Marxist Theories of State Formation

1. Both theories argue that at one moment societies existed without State.
According to social contract this period was called a state of nature and according to
Marxism it was called primitive communalism.

2. According to both theories, the State is artificial and not natural. It emerged at one period
in the social existence of human beings.

3. Both theories have been criticized for being ahistorical in that they cannot be supported by
historical evidence. At no moment have human beings ever sat and formed a State, likewise
Marxist theory of the State cannot be supported by concrete historical evidence.

4. Both theories have been accused of universalizing the process of State formation i.e. this
process was universal across space and time. Marxist theory of State formation may be true
in Europe but elsewhere, the process of State formation was different.

Differences between social contract And Marxist Theories Of State Formation

 1. Both theories differ in their description of life in the state of nature. According to social
contract theory, life in the state of nature was brutal and short while the Marxist theory, life
in the primitive communal society was good characterized by social equality and lack of
social conflict.
2. According to social contract theory, a state is neutral. It stands above the interests of any
social group. It’s the judge between conflicting social groups. According to Marxism, a state
is not neutral. It represents the interests of a dominant economic class.

3. According to social contract theory, the State plays a positive role in the society while the
Marxist theorists the role of a state in society is negative differences an instrument of class
domination and exploitation.
4. According to social contract theory after the formation of the state, it becomes a permanent
feature of society. According to Marxism at one stage in the history of human kind, the state
will disappear/wither away” this is a period when a workin g class takes over the State and
uses State power to abolish private property, social inequality and all forms of exploitation
when everybody is equal in social terms the role in the State is irrelevant.

UNIT 5: THE CONCEPT GOVERNMENT

5.1 Introduction
In its broadest sense, the concept government can be taken to mean any mechanisms through which
ordered rule is maintained. It is through government that collective decisions are made and
enforced.

In the narrow sense, government is understood to refer to formal and institutional processes by
which rule is exercised at community, national and international levels. As such, government can be
identified with a set of established and permanent institutions whose function is to maintain public
order and undertake collective action.

According to Heywood (2004), the institutions of government are concerned with the making,
implementation and interpretation of law, law being a set of enforceable rules that are binding upon
society. All systems of government therefore encompass three functions: first, legislation or the
making of laws; second, the execution or implementation of laws; and third, the interpretation of
law, the adjudication of its meaning. In some systems of government these functions are carried out
by separate institutions – the legislature, the executive and the judiciary – but in others they may all
come under the responsibility of a single body, such as a „ruling‟ party, or even a single individual,
a dictator.

5.2 Classification (Forms) of Governments

In the fourth Century, Aristotle devised a system of classifying various forms of government. His
system dominated political thinking for the next 2500 years. He held that governments could be
classified on the basis of who rules and who benefits from the rule.
According to him, government can be placed in the hands of a single individual, a small group or
the many. In each case, however, government can be conducted either in the selfish interests of the
rulers or for the benefit of the entire community. As a result, Aristotle therefore identified six forms
of government as illustrated below;
Table Showing Aristotle’s Classification (Forms) of Government
Who Rules/ Benefits One A Few Many

Rulers Tyranny Oligarchy Democracy

All Monarchy Aristocracy Polity

Source: Heywood (2004:65-70)

By comparing the six forms of government as illustrated above, Aristotle was trying to identify
the ideal form of rule.
Aristotle suggested that, Tyranny, Oligarchy and Democracy are all debased or perverted forms
of rule in which a single person, a few people and the masses respectively govern for their own
interest.
In contrast, Monarchy, Aristocracy and Polity should be preferred forms of rule because the
individual, small group and the masses respectively govern in the interest of all.
Aristotle declared tyranny as the worst of all forms of rule because it reduces the status of the
citizens to slaves. On the other hand, he argued that monarchy and aristocracy were impractical as
they were based on God-like willingness to place the good of the community before the ruler’s
own interest.
To Aristotle, Polity which is ruled by many in the interest of all is the most desirable and practical
form of rule. He however criticized popular rule on the basis of the majority who in most cases
are poor resenting the wealth of the majority.
For this reason, Aristotle therefore advocated a „mixed‟ form of rule which combines the
elements of both democracy and aristocracy and would leave government in the hands of the
middle classes‟, those who are neither rich nor poor.
It should however be noted that modern government, however, is far too complex to be classified
simply on an Aristotelian basis.

5.3 The Concept Separation of Power

Democratic governments around the world have three arms with each arm (organ) playing a
distinct role in theory. The practice is however, different. The three arms of government include;
the Executive; Legislature (parliament); and the Judiciary. In order to understand organs of
government in a democratic society, one has to look at the concept/theory of “separation of power”
This was a constitutional concept stated by Montesquieu (1689-1755) in his book called The
Spirit of Laws(1748).

According to him, the doctrine of separation of powers has the following elements;

a) A democratic government has three (3) major functional divisions ie Legislature- males
laws; Executive- implements law; and the Judiciary-interprets law/adjudicate on the
meaning of the law.

b) The doctrine of separations of powers presupposes that each of the three (3) functions of
government should be entrusted to a separate branch/organ. The philosophical
assumption is that if government power was fragmented or divided tyranny would be
kept at bay and liberty would be guaranteed.

c) In practice the concept of separation of powers demands that there should be no overlap
of personnel between the different branches of government i.e Members of Parliament
(MPs) should not be part of Executive and vise versa.
d) It is also an acceptable feature of democratic practice that the judicial powers must always
be independent of the executive and parliament ie neither the executive nor parliament
should interfere in the working of the judiciary.

5.4 Parliament as an Arm of Government

The power of Parliament is seen as an important index of a Democratic government. A weak

parliament is an indicator of a non-democratic while a strong one is an indicator of a good/strong
democratic government.

5.4.1 Functions/role of Parliament

Since time immemorial, the role of Parliament is misunderstood. Parliaments around the world
(where they exist), are supposed to perform a number of functions. In the context of Uganda, the
functions of Parliament are enshrined in Article 79 of the 1995 Constitution. Such functions include
the following;

1. Legislation

This is a law making /policy making role parliaments perform. Historically it is supposed to be the
most important function of parliament. However, in this regard parliaments can be divided into
three types/parts.

a) Policy making parliaments- such types of parliament enjoy a significant degree of

autonomy in policy formulation and they have an active impact on the process of policy
making.
b) Policy influencing- such parliaments may not have the powers to formulate policies but
they can significantly transform the policies and laws initiated by the executive.
c) Executive dominated parliaments- such parliaments exert marginal influence on the
executive. They merely rubberstamp executive decision.
2. Representation

Parliament provides the link between governments and the people. MPs
Don’t see themselves as policy makers but as people representing the
interests of their constituents to the executives.

3. Oversight functions

This is increasingly becoming the most important function of modern parliaments. It involves
parliament supervising the executive.

In Uganda’s context this function includes the following;

a) Vetting government appointments eg ministers, Ambassadors,

permanent secretaries etc.

b) Debating and passing government budget proposals

c) Censoring members of the executive whose performance is unsatisfactory for

various reasons.
 d) Through the Public Accounts Committee (P.A.C) parliament is supposed to
scrutinize government expenditure and income.

e) Members of the execution can be called upon to answer questions relating to their
performance.

f) Before government borrows from the donor community it must get consent from
parliament.

g) Parliament is supposed to determine the deployment of Ugandan troops outside the

country.

4. Political Legitimacy

Since parliament is composed of peoples representatives its assumed that whatever decisions
they make are done with the mandate of the people who elected them. The decisions therefore
are acceptable to the entire population.
5. Political Recruitment

Its argued that Parliament provides a pool of talent from which leading decision makers emerge.

Parliament is a training ground for leaders in various aspects;

 It improves their communication skills

 It enhances their knowledge base because they get a lot of information from the
executive which other citizens cannot access
 Through various leadership responsibilities eg chairing committees, parliament also
enhances people’s leadership skills.
 It gives them visibility.

5.4.2 Sovereignty of Parliament

In simple terms supremacy of Parliament means the sovereignty of the Legislature within a political
system. It further implies the independence of parliament from influence and control from other
organs of government.
This concept originates from the English Constitutional Law which was developed through the
enactment of the Bill of rights which emphasized representation of people in decision making. The
people are represented through a system of representative democracy by their dully elected
representatives. These representatives act as Parliament and check on the excesses of the Executive
arm of government.
This doctrine consists essentially rules that govern the relationship between the Legislature and the
Judiciary where it requires the latter to apply the law formulated by Parliament. Wade summed it
when he noted that “once an Act of Parliament is shown in Court, it should not be questioned but
applied” By implication, Courts of Law should give their full obedience to Parliament.
Today, the doctrine of Sovereignty of Parliament has been adopted with varying degrees in different
constitutions around the world. In Uganda, whereas Article 97 provides for immunity of Parliament,
there are allegations of Parliament not enjoying this privilege in some instances.

In general, the Doctrine of Sovereignty of Parliament is said to exist where the following aspects are
in place. They include;
1. Legislative Powers
A sovereign Parliament will usually have exclusive legislative powers i.e. the power to make laws
that govern the country. In Uganda, this is enshrined in Article 91 of the 1995 Constitution (as
Amended).

2. Territorial Jurisdiction
The laws that Parliament passes do apply to all occupants of the country of which it is legislating. It
should also be noted that Parliament may also legislate outside its territory. However, these laws
only affect her citizens who live in that foreign territory.
3. Parliament Can Not be Limited by Courts
Under the unwritten law of Britain, Parliament is free to make any law because any law made by
Parliament can not be said to be unconstitutional.
In written constitutions however, Parliament in exercise of its legislative duties should do so in
accordance with the law (constitution). Otherwise it can be struck down as null and void e.g. Anti-
Homosexuality Bill, Extension of Parliament’s Tenure from 5-7 years.
4. Parliament’s Immunities and Privileges’ Power (Art 97)
As a democratic institution, Parliament as the representative of the people sometimes equates to the
sovereignty of the people they represent i.e. people exercise power through Parliament. In this
respect therefore, Parliament is given privileges to perform its function.
 5. The Power of Continuity

Parliament can not restrict subsequent Members of Parliament by passing laws which would limit
future Parliaments.

6. Power of Freedom of Expression

In democratic countries, Parliament is given extra privileges that allow them to speak without fear
or favour. This is seen in such a way that Parliamentary speeches can not be made a subject of
defamatory proceedings. Statements that would others tantamount to defamatory may not be so if
said within Parliament.

7. Power to Amend Rules of Procedure (Art 94 (1))

Parliament usually has power to regulate its proceedings when dispensing legislative functions. This
is not subject to inquiry by any other organ of government. Further still Parliament has its own
system of disciplining its members without any interference from any other organ of government.

5.4.3 Declining Role of Parliament

Most parliaments around the world are declining in terms of their key responsibility of
legislation and policy making.

It’s argued that America’s Congress which is regarded as the strongest Parliament in the world
almost 80% of the laws are initiated by the Executive.

Reasons why parliaments are declining

1. The rise of disciplined parties and the phenomena of parliamentary government. The
parliamentary system requires that MPs from the ruling party must support the policies
and decisions of executive since they are the majority in parliament, parliament is
reduced to rubber stamping.
2. The growing role of government in economic management and social service delivery
requires that government initiates policies in their social sectors.

3. Globalization
This has reduced the sovereignty of states. They no longer have the powers to make
decisions for certain reasons. Decision making is increasingly being done by World Bank,
IMF, and WTO etc.
This problem is compounded by the fact that most developing country citizens are
dependent on these global institutions for economic survival.
 4. The rise of strong interest groups with direct access to the executive undermines the role of
parliament as a representative body.
5. The emergence of direct forms of democratic practices has also removed several functions
which initially used to be performed by parliament eg through Decentralization, local
government at various levels have the power to make their own laws and policies that are
relevant to their communities.

6. Other forms of democratic practices include freedom, recall and initiative.

UNIT 6: CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONALISM

6.1 What is a constitution?

There are two ways to understand the concept constitution. First, as a system of rules and second, as
a document containing the system of rules.

A constitution can also be defined as a body of rules prescribing the duties/responsibilities and
structures of any organization, group of persons, club, association, political party and citizens of
the State.

A constitution is a set of rules, written or unwritten, governing states and other organization. The
rules may be customary or conventional.

6.2 Characteristics of a Constitution

1. Certainty

A good constitution should be clear and well-known like all other laws. For this purpose, it should
be written.

2. Supremacy

Constitution is the supreme law of the land. This arises due to the fact that it applies to all matters
and issues of life within a given country. It applies to all people regardless of tribe, sex, race,
status, wealth, or religion.
 3. Flexibility

By its nature, a constitution should be flexible and acceptable at all times. It should be able to take
into account social, political and economic developments. It should change with times and be in
position to accommodate pressure.

4. Timeless

This characteristic implies that a constitution should last for eternity (unless amended) not just a
specific period of time.

6.3 Types of Constitutions.

1. Written (Codified) Vs Unwritten (Uncodified) Constitution

A Constitution is said to be written when all the fundamental rules relating to the structure of
government are laid down usually in a single document brought in force in a particular period in
time.

On the other hand, a constitution is said to be unwritten when there is no document which gives
basic rules. Such a constitution draws from common law (law based on customs and precedent),
decided cases etc. eg. Israel, United Kingdom.

2. Rigid Vs Flexible Constitutions

A good constitution should be able to accommodate changes. A system of amendments

by which it can be changed should be adopted.

The distinction between the rigid and flexible constitution relates to the ease with which it can be
amended.

In this regard, a constitution may be regarded as flexible if it can be easily amended. This means
that the amendment procedure is simple i.e. small percentage of parliament is required to pass the
amendment (No special machinery is required to effect the changes/amendment). Flexible
constitutions only require a simple majority to change any constitutional provisions.

On the other hand, it can be regarded as rigid if it can only be amended with difficulty. Rigid
constitutions require a percentage of about 2/3 of the MPs present for any constitutional
amendment to occur. This makes it difficult for changes to be voted for. In addition, the formalities
needed may also be in form of rigidity eg. Special red tape.

It is important to note that the more articles a constitution has, the more rigid it is. E.g. Uganda has
a rigid constitution.

3. Monarchical Vs Republican Constitutions

A monarchical constitution is one in which a Head of State acquires his/her office through
hereditary process. In other words, the ascension to office is determined by a person’s descent. It is
determined by blood relationship therefore only a particular group of people can be leaders.

These types of leaders are not determined by elections.

Monarchical constitutions can further be divided into two (2). These include; absolute or
constitutional monarch.

Absolute Monarch is one whose powers are unlimited. He/She has powers to appoint and
disappoint. He designates by decree. Such monarchs do not usually fit the modern democratic
political set up because they tend to degenerate into dictatorship. He/she holds symbolic Executive
powers of the State eg Saudi Arabia, Napal, Swaziland etc.

A Constitutional Monarch on the other hand is one whose powers are limited by the constitution.
He/she is the symbolic or Titular Head of State while Executive powers are held by another person
commonly referred to as Prime Minister eg Uganda at independence; UK etc

A Republican constitutions is one in which any person is free to be a Head Of State irrespective of
the social background. Leadership is acquired by democratic means usually through a system of
elections. All people are given equal opportunity to ascend into power.

4. Democratic Vs Authoritarian Constitution

In a democratic constitution, the main power is in the hands of delegates or representatives of the
community in general e.g. in Uganda, Article 1 of the 1995 Constitution provides that “All power
belongs to the people ”

Such a constitution usually puts in place ideas of equality of people and equal opportunity of all
people to ascent to political office. There may however be restrictions that political office be held
by people of particular knowledge or qualifications.
A dictatorial/authoritarian constitution is one where power belongs to an individual or a small
group of people who declare and enforce their will not the will of the masses. In this case, people
are not allowed to participate in the affairs of the State. One man assumes all the powers and rules
without restrictions by the constitution or otherwise. Such a leader makes, enforces, and arbitrates
on laws and usually abuses human rights e.g. Uganda during Idi Amin between 1972-79.

5. Unitary Vs Federal Constitution

A unitary constitution is one where power or sovereignty is concentrated in one or more organs of
the state usually the Legislature (Parliament).

Federal Constitution is one where local states have some level of autonomy, identity, and
independence from the central government. In this case therefore, the federal constitution
demarcates rights, duties and obligations between the local government and the central government
e.g. USA, Australia.

6. Parliamentary Vs Presidential Constitution

In a Parliamentary Constitution, the Executive is constituted from and thus accountable to

Parliament.

A constitution is regarded as Presidential if the President is elected separately from

Parliament.

6.4 Typical Content of a National Written Constitution

A constitution should provide a framework which has to be filled out with detailed rules and
procedures. It is concerned with the principle institutions and their main functions including the
rights and duties which are for that period regarded as important.

It may contain more or less according to the circumstances of the moment and the special problems
faced by the State during its drafting. There can not be said any essentials of a constitutional
document however, with particular reference to the 1995 Uganda Constitution, the following
provisions are provided for. They include;

1. The Republic of Uganda

This section outlines the official language, national symbols as well as Uganda’s national interests.
2. Citizenship

This provides for the different types of citizenship including the duties of a citizen and conditions
through which an individual may loose his/her citizenship.
 3. Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms

This section outlines the fundamental human rights and freedoms, how they are guaranteed and
enforced by relevant authorities.

4. Representation of the People

This provides for the right of the people to choose their own leaders to represent them as well as the
political system of their choice.

5. The Supreme Legislative Body

This provides for the establishment, composition as well as the powers and functions of Parliament.

6. The Executive
This part provides for the Head of State, his/her appointment and powers as well as cabinet
ministers.

7. Supreme Judicial Body

This provides for administration of justice through the justice system in Uganda as well as the
appointment, tenure and functions of the judicial officers.

8. Major Departments of Government

These includes among others, the Central government, Defense, Police, Education, Health,
Prisons and Finance.

9. Constitutional Amendment

Every constitution should provide for its amendment. It should specify conditions for and who
has the powers to amend it.

6.5 The Importance of Constitutions in a Democratic Society

1. A Constitution dictates the way in which power is divided between different parts of the State
and the relationship between the State and the individual.

2. They establish duties, powers and functions of the various Institutions of government. The
objective is to remove overlaps and to ensure that each Institution/organ of government
specializes in a particular function.
3. They define the relationship between the state and the individual. They specify the rights of the
individual and the responsibility of the State towards the individual.

4. They ensure political stability providing a mechanism through which conflicts can be resolved
as well as specifying the mode of political succession.
5. Help in building legitimacy. Regimes which are constituted through the existing constitutional
procedure are regarded as democratic while those that are constituted outside existing
procedures may be regarded illegitimate even can be challenged by law.

6. They have a symbolic role. They are a symbol of Statehood that is in order to be recognized as
an Independent State, you must have a Constitution as one of the symbols of Independence.

7. It is a reflection of the value people attach to orderly human relations e.g. individual freedoms
under the law, existence of institutions like Parliament, Political Parties etc.

8. It expresses a high level of consensus about the organs and procedures by which political
decisions are taken.

6.7 What is Constitutionalism?

Any organized society/community needs a body of persons to carry out various functions, duties
and affairs of that society. Such duties much be sufficiently defined.

Further still, there must be assurance that those entrusted with power can be regulated or worse
still removed should they attempt to misuse such power.

To achieve this objective, there must be agreed upon principles, rules and regulations determining
the structure and powers of government.

This therefore refers to the rule of law, it is based on the assumption that political power corrupts
and absolute power corrupts absolutely. For this reason in order to prevent people in power
misusing it, or in order to ensure that the liberty of individuals isn’t threatened by the state, there
may be clear rules of procedures which should guide political practice.

UNIT 7: THE POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

7.1 Introduction
 The study of political values within the framework of ideology has the significance in the field
of Political Science. This is due to the fact that in every political system policies are formulated
and decisions made within value frameworks.

Ideology refers to a developed social philosophy or world review. It was coined in 1796 by the
French philosopher Destutt- De-tracy (1754- 1836). He used it to refer to a new science of ideas
that set out to uncover the origin of conscious thought and ideas. The same concept was
redefined by Karl Max in the 19th century. For Karl Max, ideology amounted to ideas of ruling
class, ideas that therefore uphold the class system and perpetrated exploitation.
According to K. Marx therefore the ideas of the ruling class perpetrated the exploitation of the
class system.
In its conservative use, the term ideology is seen as an abstract system of thought i.e. a set of
ideas that distort political reality because they claim to explain what‟s incomprehensible.
The modern social science meaning therefore treats ideology as an action oriented belief system,
an interrelated set of ideas that guides and inspires political action.

7.2 LIBERALISM
This was a production of the breakdown of the feudal system in Europe and the growth in its
place market/capitalist society. It developed in the early 19th century. In its earliest form, it
attacked absolutism and feudal privileges instead it advocated for constitutional and
representative government.
By the early 19th century a distinctive form of liberal economic creed had developed that
praised the virtues of laisez fair capitalism.
Elements of liberalism
(i) Individualism
This is the belief in the supreme importance of the human individual as opposed to a collective
body/group of people. Individuals are seen as of equal moral worth and they possess separate and
unique identities.

The liberal goal therefore is to construct a society within which individuals can develop to become
what they want to be. This has contributed to the view that liberalism is morally neutral in the sense
that it lays down a set of rules which allows citizens to make their own moral decisions.

(ii) Freedom
Individual freedom/ liberty is the core value of liberalism. This arises naturally in the belief in the
individual and desire that each person can act as he/she chooses.
Liberalist however advocated for freedom within the law as they recognized that one person‟s
liberty would be a threat to the liberty of others.
Liberalists therefore endorsed the ideal that individuals should enjoy maximum possible freedom
consistent with the freedom of others.
(iii) Reason
Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure that can be uncovered through the exercise of
human reason and by critical inquiry. Individuals therefore have the ability to make wise judgments
on their own behalf. The belief in reason encourages liberalists to believe in the capacity of human
beings to resolve their differences in their debate and argument rather than bloodshed and war.
(iv) Equality
Individualism implies a belief in fundamental equality that is individuals are born equal in terms of
moral worth. This is reflected in the liberal commitment to equal rights and entitlements in the form
of legal equality and political equality that is equality before the law and one person one vote.
However as individuals do not possess the same levels of talent or willingness to work, liberals do
not endorse social equality. Instead, liberals favour equality of opportunity or playing field that
gives all individuals an equal chance to realize their unequal potentials.
(v) Toleration
Liberals believe that toleration which is the willingness of some people to allow others to speak,
think and act in ways which they disapprove is both a means of social enrichment and a guarantee
of individual freedom.
(vi) Consent
In the liberal view, authority and social relationship should always be based on consent or willing
agreement. Government must be based on the consent of the governed. This doctrine encourages the
liberals to favour representation and democracy. In this sense, authority arises from below and
always grounded in legitimacy.

(vii) Constitutionalism
Although the government as a vital guarantee of order and stability in society, they are also
constantly aware of the dangers that government may become a tyranny against the individual.
Liberals therefore believe in limited government which can be attained through the fragmentation of
government power and by creation of checks and balances among the various government
institutions and through the establishment of a codified constitution embodying a bill of rights
which diffuses the relationship between government and individual.

7.3 CONSERVATISM
This emerged in the late 18th century and the early 19th Century. It rose against the grouping base
of economic and political change. It stood in defense of the traditional social order and the rights
and privileges that they enjoyed. Conservative ideas were divided on 2 extremes.
(i) Autocratic and reactionary.
This was opposed to the idea of reform. This is found in the works of political writers for example
Joseph De maisecre ( 1753 – 1821).
(ii) Moderate form of conservatism This is
found in the works of Edmund Barhe.
This form of conservatism embraced “change in “order to conserve”. It was a more flexible and
successful form of conservatism
Elements /characteristics of conservatism
a) Tradition
The need to conserve is closely linked to the virtues of tradition that is respect to
the established customs and institutions that tradition then becomes the custodian of accumulated
wisdom of the part as well as practices that have stood the test of time and space. The cherished
tradition is preserved for the benefit of the current and future generation. It‟s also seen to promote
peace and stability as it gives its behaviours a sense of social, cultural and historical belonging.
Pragmatism
This refers to the belief that action should be shaped by practical circumstance and goals that is
things that are workable.
b) Human imperfection
Conservatives view human nature as pessimistic. Human beings are limited, dependents and
security seeking creatures. They are morally corrupt, tainted by selfishness, greed and thirst for
power. The roots of crime and disorder therefore reside within the human individual rather than
society. To maintain order therefore needs to be a strong state enforcement of strict laws and stiff
penalties.
c) Organisms
Here, society is viewed as an organic whole. Society is therefore structured by natural necessity
with its various parts for example family, local community and nation contributing to the well-being
of society as a whole. The whole therefore is important than the collection of its parts.
 d) Hierarchy
Grades within society in form of social position and status are natural and inevitable in any organic
society. This reflects the different roles and responsibilities for example parents and education,
teachers and students employers and employees etc.
In this view, hierarchy and inequality do not give rise to conflict because society is bound together
by mutual obligation and reciprocal duties.

e) Authority
Her authority to some extent is exercised from above, providing leadership to those who lack
knowledge experience and education.

f) Property
Property ownership is considered important by conservatives because it gives people a measure of
security and independence from government and it encourages them to respect law and property of
others.
Property is the embodiment of a person’s personality because in them they see themselves. Property
ownership however, involves duties as well as rights. In this view we are merely the custodians of
property that was either inherited or to be passed on to the future generations.

7.4 SOCIALISM
The term “socialist” is derived from the latin word “ sociare” which means to combine and share.
Socialism is the broadest of political ideologies empassing a range of theories and traditions.
Socialism as a common ideological heritage is claimed by all groups of people for example
communist revolutionaries, African Nationalist, western social democrats.
Socialism arose as a reaction against the social and economic condition in Europe generated by the
growth of industrial capitalism.
The birth of socialism was closely linked to a new but growing class of individual workers who
suffered poverty and degradation and the common feature of industrialization.
The character of early socialism was influenced by harsh and often inhumane conditions in which
the industrial workers lived and worked.
The Laisez faire policy of the early 19th century gave factory owners a free hand when setting wage
levels and factory conditions. Wages were very low, child and female labour were very common.
The working day often lasted for twelve hours and the threat of unemployment was ever present.
In addition the new working class was disoriented, being largely composed of 1st generation urban
dwellers and unfamiliar with conditions of industrial life and work.
As a result, early socialists often sought a radical or even a revolutionary alternative to capitalism.
In the late 19th century the character of socialism was transformed by a gradual improvement in the
working class living conditions.
The growth of trade unions working class, political parties and social clubs served integrate greater
economic. Security and to integrate the working class into industrial social society.
In the advance industrial societies of when Europe became increasing difficult to see the working
class as a revolutionary force.
Social political parties progressively adopted legal and constitutional tactics encouraged by the
gradual extension of role to the working class men.
By the 1st world war, the socialist world was clearly divided between those socialist parties that had
sought power through ballot box and had preached reform and those usually that proclaimed a
continuing need for a revolution.
Elements of socialism
i. Community

Socialism possesses a unified vision of human beings as social creatures capable of overcoming
social and economic problems by drawing upon the power of the community rather than individual
effort. The collectivist vision stresses the capacity of human beings working for collective action,
their willingness and ability to pursue goals by working together as opposed to driving for personal
self-interest.
Human beings as a result are comrades, brothers or sisters tied to one another by bonds of common
humanity.
African and Asian socialists often stressed that their traditional pre-industrial societies already
emphasized the importance of social life and value of community. Consequently socialism has
sought to preserve traditional social values in the face of the challenge of western individualism.
 ii. Cooperation

If human beings are social animals, socialists believe that the natural relationship among them is
one of cooperation rather than competition. Liberals and conservatives regard competition among
humans as natural and healthy. Natural because humans are thought to be self interested and healthy
in as far as it encourages to work hard and develop whatever abilities and skills they may possess.
Individuals should be rewarded for their hard work. Socialists on the other hand believe that
competition and its conflicts are individual against another encouraging each of them to deny/ignore
their social nature rather than embrace it. Competitions fosters only a limited range of social
attributes and instead promotes selfishness and aggression. Individuals who work together rather
than against each other will develop bonds of sympathy, caring and affection.
Socialists believe that humans can be motivated by moral incentives but not merely material
incentives. The socialist commitment to cooperation stimulated the growth of cooperative enterprise
designed to replace competition brought by capitalism.
iii. Equality

A commitment to equality is seen as a defining feature of socialist ideology. Equality being the
political value that distinguishes socialism from its rivals that is liberalism and conservatism.
Conservatives believes society to be hierarchic and therefore reject idea of social equality.
Liberals are however committed to equality but on grounds that all individuals are of moral worth
and therefore entitled to equal rights. They are however born with rights. They are however born
with different talent and skills and are entitled to be rewarded accordingly.
Those who work harder and posses abilities deserve to be wealthy than those who are not.
Liberals therefore favour equality of opportunity but see no reason why this should to social
and economic inequality.
In construct socialists are more reluctant to explain the inequality of innate differences of ability
among individuals.
Socialists believe that just as capitalism has fostered competitive selfish behaviour, human
inequality largely reflect they don’t hold the believe that all people are born identical possessing the
same capacities and units.
An equalitarian society would be one in which all students gain the same mark in their exams.
Socialists however believe that the most significant form of inequality is as a result of unequal
treatment of society rather than unequal endowment by nature. Once individual differences are
understood to be socially produced social inequality is seen as possible and desirable. Social
inequality is not only unjust being based very largely on status that is education, birth etc.
Equality on the other hand enables human to work together cooperatively and harmoniously.
iv. Need

The egalitarian tendencies are firmly limited to theories about the proper distributions of material
benefits.
Liberals argue that such rewards should be distributed according to ability. Conservatives are
reluctant to apply moral principles to the questions of distribution of material preferring to accept
that whether or not. Such matters are determined by birth right or luck.
Socialists on the other hand are more likely to argue that material benefits should be distributed
according to need and idea sometimes regarded as the socialist theory of justice.
Needs differ both from wants and preferences. A need is a necessity which demands satisfaction.
For this reason, socialist regard needs as basic to human beings and their satisfaction is a foundation
for human existence which wants are a matter of personal judgment shaped by social cultural
factors, needs, objective and universal belonging to all people regardless of gender, nationality,
religion, race etc.

v. Common ownership

Socialists have often traced the origin of competition and inequality to institution of private property
by which wealth rather than personal belonging.
This attitude to property sets socialism apart from liberalism and conservatism which regard
property for a number of reasons;
 Property is unjust to the socialist because wealth is produced by collective effort of human
labour and should therefore be owned by community not private individuals.

 Socialists believe that property breeds acquisitiveness. Private property encourages people to
be materialistic to believe that human fulfillness can be gained through any means and those
who have little or no wealth dream of acquired it.

 Property is divisive. It fosters conflict in society

Carl Marx envisaged the abolition of private property hence the creation of a classless communist
society in place of capitalism. He clearly believed that property should be owned collectively and
used for the benefit of humanity. He is however criticized for not mentioning how this should take
place.
 UNIT 8: DEMOCRACY

8.1 Introduction
This can be tressed back to ancient Greece. Its derived from two words; Demo meaning people, and
Kratos meaning rule. From the Greek perspective therefore, democracy is the rule by the people.
Nevertheless, since the Greek period the word Democracy has been changing both in meaning and
content.
According to Crick (1993) among the various meanings attached to the concept Democracy are the
following;

1. It’s a system of rule by the poor and the disadvantaged people.

2. It’s a form of government in which people rule themselves directly and continuously
without the need for representatives.

3. It’s a society based on equal opportunity of individual merit rather than hierarchy and privilege
that is in a democratic system, every individual is free to occupy any position in society
irrespective of his/her social background.

4. A system of social welfare and redistribution aimed at narrowing social inequality.

5. It’s a system of decision making based on the principle of majority rule.

6. It’s a system of rule that secures the rights and interests of minority by placing checks upon the
powers of the majority.

7. It’s a means of filling public offices through a competitive struggle for the popular vote.

8. A system of government that serves the interest of the people regardless of their participation
in political life.

8.2 Procedural minimal conditions for a Democratic State.

According to Robert Dahl for any modern political system to be regarded democratic it must
have the following elements;

1. Decision making process in government should be under the control of elected people.
2. These should be periodic elections which are free and fair where coercion is
comparatively uncommon.
 3. All adults must have the right to vote Irrespective of their social background.
4. All adult citizens should have the right to contest for any elective position in
government.
5. Citizens must have the right to seek out for alternative sources of information besides
that provided by the state.
6. Citizens should have the right to express themselves without fearing political persecution.
7. Citizens must have the right to form relatively Independent Association and organizations
including political parties and Interest groups.
8.3 How Democracies Differ
1. Consensus:
All citizens may not agree on the substantive goals of political action or on the role of the state
(although if they did, it would certainly make governing democracies much easier).
2. Participation:
All citizens may not take an active and equal part in politics, although it must be legally possible
for them to do so.
3. Access:
Rulers may not weigh equally the preferences of all who come before them, although citizenship
implies that individuals and groups should have an equal opportunity to express their preferences if
they choose to do so.
4. Responsiveness:
Rulers may not always follow the course of action preferred by the citizenry. But when they deviate
from such a policy, say on grounds of “reason of state” or “overriding national inter.s, ” they must
ultimately be held accountable for their actions through regular and fair processes.
5. Majority rule:
Positions may not be allocated or rules may not be decided solely on the basis of assembling the
most votes, although deviations from this principle usually must be explicitly defended and
previously approved.

6. Parliamentary sovereignty:
The legislature may not be the only body that can make rules or even the one with final authority
in deciding which laws are binding, although where executive, judicial, or other public bodies
make that ultimate choice, they too must be accountable for their actions.
7. Party government:
 Rulers may not be nominated, promoted, and disciplined in their activities by well- organized and
programmatically coherent political parties, although where they are not, it may prove more
difficult to form an effective government.
8. Pluralism:
The political process may not be based on a multiplicity of overlapping, voluntaristic, and
autonomous private groups. However, where there are monopolies of representation, hierarchies
of association, and obligatory memberships, it is likely that the interests involved will be more
closely linked to the state and the separation between the public and private spheres of action will
be much less distinct.
9. Federalism:
The territorial division of authority may not involve multiple levels and local autonomies, least of
all ones enshrined in a constitutional document, although some dispersal of power across
territorial and/or functional units is characteristic of all democracies.
10. Presidentialism
The chief executive officer may not be a single person and he or she may not be directly m elected
by the citizenry as a whole, although some in concentration of authority is present in all
democracies, even if it is exercised collectively and only held indirectly accountable to the
electorate.

11. Checks and Balances:

It is not necessary that the different branches of government be systematically pitted against one
another, although governments by assembly, by executive concentrations, by judicial command, or
even by dictatorial fiat (as in time of war) must be ultimately accountable to the citizenry is a
whole.

UNIT 9: GOOD GOVERNANCE

9.1 Introduction
The concept good governance has been around in both political and academic discourse for a long
time. The term has now become the main stay of development theory and practice. The term good
governance roots its origins to the World Bank (1989) in their book (report) Sub-Saharan Africa
from Crisis to Sustainable Growth.

Like many concept in the social and political sciences, the concept Good Governance does not have
a universally accepted definition but there is a general agreement on the gist.
According to the World Bank (1989),Good Governance should guarantee human rights, check
corruption, and promote democratization and accountability.

Hyden (1992) argues that good governance is the conscious management of regime structures
aimed at enhancing the legitimacy of the public realm.

According to Nsibambi (2001), the Ugandan context views good governance as a system of
managing the society is such away that resources are responsibly used in a democratic and
participatory manner for the maximum realization of human potential and people’s aspirations.

In addition, it means a process that allows for the establishment of a workable system of managing
public affairs under laws agreed upon by the community where rulers are periodically elected
through universal adult suffrage and both the governor and the governed play their roles in a
perceived social contact.

9.2 Key Features of Good Governance

From the above definitions, the following are the features of good governance;

Participation

This means taking part in. It has different dimensions namely;

a. Participation in decision making

b. Participation in implementation of decisions
c. Participation in evaluation of projects
d. Participation in sharing of the benefits that accrue from the decisions The key
questions of contentions however are;
a. Who participates
b. What is the frequency of participation
c. What is the quality of participation?

Rule of law

The practability of good governance emanates from the fact that everything is done
within the framework of the legal framework.

This means that the legal framework should be fair and be enforced by an impartial and
independent judiciary as well as an incorrupt police.
Accountability

Whereas this has often attributed to finance it should be noted that politicians and administrators
should account for the delivery of a minimum set of public goods and services.

Transparency

Any political system should ensure that existing rules and procedures are followed and that
openness in any transactions is adhered to.

Responsiveness

The state owes the citizens a minimum set of public goods and services. The state should therefore
be responsive to the needs of people. They should be served within a reasonable time frame.

Equity and Inclusiveness

Different stake holders in society or any organization should not feel excluded. Attempts should be
made to try as much as possible to serve everybody without discrimination.

Efficiency and Effectiveness

Governments/public organizations should make best use of resources at the lowest cost possible.

Consensus building

It is argued that society is dynamic, good governance therefore requires that there is mediation of
different interests in society to reach a broader consensus.

UNIT 10: ELECTIONS AND VOTING BEHAVIOUR 10.1

Introduction
An election is an act of choosing someone as a representative. Without election, representative
democracy would make no sense.

10.2 Importance of Elections in a Democratic Society

Elections are important for any democratic system for the following reasons ;

1. Building legitimacy.

Leaders who acquire power through free and fair elections are more acceptable than those who do
not. These excludes traditional leaders.

2. Educating voters.
The process of campaigns provides the voters with a lot of information regarding candidates,
policies and the current government record. It is this information that voters base to choose their
leaders.

3. Recruitment of politicians.

In a democratic society elections are the principle source of political recruitment. Besides, the
process of campaign also allows leaders to develop common organization skills.

4. Influencing policy

Elections prevent government from preserving radical and unpopular policies. They force
governments to pursue policies which conform with the interest of the majority.

10.3 Theories/Models of Elections (Voting Behavior)

Why do people vote the way they do?

Psychological, economic, political and ideological factors have been said to explain why people
vote the way they do. Four theories/models have been developed to explain how these factors affect
the voting behaviors.
1. Party identification model.

This refers to the psychological attachment which people have towards certain political parties or
individuals. The model places a lot of emphasis on early political socialization. The family is seen
as a principle means through which political loyalty is supported and forged. This political loyalty
is passed from generation to another.

2. Sociological model

These are certain structural factors which influence voting behaviors. These include : Ethnicity,
Religion, Gender, social class etc . According to this theory, an individual voter is a victim of these
structures and may not be able to overcome their influences.

3. Rational Choice Model

According to the model, individuals are rational actors. They will vote for a person/political party
which is likely to maximize their personal interest. The assumption here is that people know what
they want ant that the person or party they vote for will meet their interests.

4. Dominant Ideology Model

Here, the dominant social groups manipulate institution with the help of mass media to project their
ideas of themselves as the correct ones. Groups that are less dominant may not have the capacity to
challenge this dominant ideology. As a result the voter is meant to believe that the ideology of the
dominant social group is the right one.

UNIT 11: POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS IN UGANDA 11.1

Introduction
According to Dearlove and Saunders (2000), a political party is a voluntary organization that
aggregates interests and competes in elections in order to win governmental power so that it can
hence make public policies and direct the larger State machinery.

The above definition does not include interest or pressure groups, which basically seek to influence
government policies, programmes or decisions, a political party aspires to take over political power.

11.2 Background to Political Parties

According to Duverger (1995) in tracing the origin of parties observes that in France from 1815-
1830 or in England before 1832 no committees were needed to bring together the Electors. "They
were both sufficiently involved socially and sufficiently few in numbers to be able to make a direct
choice between candidates without these being presented by a Party. The election took place among
gentlemen, amongst people of the same world who were acquainted with one another or almost and
there were no parties. (Duvenger 1959:212).

11.3 Political Parties in Uganda since Independence (1962)

Political parties in Uganda, like many African Countries developed after World War II, when
people in Asia and Africa became more determined to become independent and organized
themselves to achieve independence. The first political party was formed in 1952 - UNC (Uganda
National Congress). This party by independence would have developed into a national political
movement dominating the politics of Uganda like in other former colonial countries, say
Tanganyika's TANU, but had fundamental weaknesses like lack of strong, united and inspiring
leadership with a clear vision for stable and prosperous Uganda (Ibingira, 1971)
It should be noted that the right to form and belong to a political party in Uganda is guaranteed by
the 1995 Constitution. Article 72 (1) provides that, “Subject to the provisions of this Constitution,
the right to form political parties and any other political organization is guaranteed.

11.4 Role Played by Political Parties in Uganda’s Quest for Democracy

The proponents of party politics argue that political parties play a number of functions. These
include among other;
 Social Integration
Political parties perform a function of social integration by enabling citizens to participate
effectively in the political processes of their country.
 Political Recruitment
Political Parties provide an avenue through which young people are recruited in to

 Help in building legitimacy.

Regimes which are constituted through the existing constitutional procedure are regarded as
democratic while those that are constituted outside existing procedures may be regarded
illegitimate even can be challenged by law.

 Scrutinize Government Policies

They scrutinize government policies and call government to „order”

11.5 Weaknesses of Political Parties in Uganda

It should be noted that the opposition in Uganda faces several challenges in a sense that it is
young, fragile and weak.
(To be further discussed in class)

11.6 Challenges of Political Parties in Uganda (To be discussed in class)

11.7 Solutions to the Challenges of Political Parties in Uganda (To be discussed in class)

11.8 Political Party Systems in Uganda

According to Article 69 of the 1995 Constitution, the people of Uganda shall have a right to choose
and adopt a political system of their choice through a free and fair election or referenda.
Uganda transited from the Movement Political System to a multiparty political system in July
2005 through a national referendum.

11.9 Key Principles of the Multiparty Political System in Uganda

Article 71 asserts that a political party in a multiparty systems is required to conform to the
following principles;
 Portray a national character
 Should not portray a sectarian tendency
 Internal organization should be democratic
 Leaders of the party should be regularly elected
 Provide accountability for the sources and use of funds
 Membership is voluntary

SELECTED READINGS
Andrew Heywood (2012). Politics, Palgrave Macmillan, New York

Andrew Heywood (2004). Political Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, New York

Birch, A. H. (1998), The British system of government, Routledge, London and New York.

Dearlove, J. and P. Saunders (2000), Introduction to British politics, Polity Press & Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.

Diamond, L. and R. Gunther (2001) Political parties and democracy, The Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore and London.

Huntington Samuel P. (2001). The third Wave: Democratization in the late

Twentieth Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

James W. Dawziger (2001). Understanding the Political World. A comparative Introduction to

Political Science. The height Press Inc.

Johari J. (2001). Principles of Modem Political Science. 2nd Edition : Sterling Low Price.

Johari, J.C. (1998). Comparative Politics. New Dehli, Sterling.

Okwudiba Nnoli (1996). Introduction to Politics. London, Longman

Palmer & Perkins (2007). International Relations: World Community in Transition, AITBS
Publishers, New Delhi.