SPACE TECHNOLOGY

• Newton's first law of motion- Law of inertia.

• Second law- F= m*a
• Third law- Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Vector and Scalar:

Vector has both direction and magnitude, whereas, Scalar has only magnitude.
Vector= Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force.
Scalar= Distance.

Gravity:
• Orbit can be circular or elliptical.
• Centripetal force.
• Centrifugal force.

Kepler's Law of Planetary motion:

• There are three laws.
• Every planet is revolving around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun being at
one of the foci of an ellipse.
• Planets sweep the equal area in equal time (the aerial velocity of the planet is
constant). It is the consequence of the conservation of angular momentum.
• The time period of revolution is proportional to the cube root of the semi-major
axis.

TYPES OF ORBITS
• An orbit is a curved path of a celestial object or an artificial satellite around
another celestial object due to the force of gravity.
• Classification:
• Criteria 1 i.e. Based on height, there are three types of orbit-
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO)= 150 to 2000 km
 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)= 2000 km. to 35700 km.
 Geosynchronous and High earth orbit (GEO or HEO)=More than or equal to
35, 786 km.
 Karman line (>100 km.) defines the boundary of outer space.
 Low Earth Orbit= Generally from 400 to 800 km.
 Benefits-
1-2 hours to complete the revolution.
The orbits are at lower earth orbit and thereby used for earth's observation.
 Limitations-
It can only capture a small part of the earth.
After a revolution, it won't come at the same point.
• Criteria 2 i.e. Based on Inclination-
• Equatorial orbit= Whose inclination is about 0 degrees.
• Polar orbit= Inclination is about 90 degrees. Useful for earth observation.
• Inclined orbit= Anything that is not 0 or 90.
 • Criteria 3 i.e. Based on Shape-
 Circular (Geostationary orbit).
 Elliptical.
• Criteria 4 i.e. Based on Earth's motion-
 Rotation= Geostationary and Geosynchronous orbit.
 Revolution= Polar Sun-synchronous orbit (PSSO)

GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT:
• For satellites in GEO, the earth's rotation is synchronized with the satellite's orbital
motion.
• Satellites complete one orbit around the earth in one sidereal day i.e. 23 hours 56
minutes, 4 seconds, at an altitude of 35, 786 km.
• Geostationary orbit is a special case of Geosynchronous orbit, which is circular
and lies above the earth's equator. It always stays over the same point of the
earth's equator.
• Communication, Surveillance, and sometimes earth observation satellites are
launched in such orbits.

GEOTRANSFER ORBIT
• It is a temporary orbit to attain the desired geosynchronous or geostationary orbit.
• A spacecraft is first launched into a highly elliptic orbit with Apogee around 36000
km.
• When the spacecraft reaches the apogee, we provide a boost to its motor and
inject into another orbit.

SUN-SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT
• In Sun-synchronous orbit, the satellite's orientation is fixed relative to the sun.
• Thus, whenever satellites observe a given ground location, the sun is always in
the same location in the sky i.e. it will always cross a point on earth at the same
local solar time.
• This ensures that satellites can take images of the earth's surface in the same
lighting and shadow which is a very useful characteristic for earth observation
satellites.
• Such satellites will provide images across several years which can be compared
easily.
• They are examples of Low earth orbits (500-80 km.) at an inclination of 96-98
degrees. Hence, it is also a Polar orbit.

How Sun-synchronous orbits are achieved?

• Earth is not a perfect sphere because of that, the orbit of the satellite itself rotates.
• In general, this is not desirable, however, in PSSO, we use it for our own benefit
i.e. the satellite's orbit's rotation is canceled out by the daily change in the position
of the sun caused by earth's revolution from a point on earth.
• The daily change comes out to be 360 degrees divided by 365 days i.e. 1 degree
per day.
TYPES OF SATELLITES
• Communication Satellite:
• Such satellites relay and amplify radio telecommunication signals via a
Transponder.
• It creates a channel of communication between a source transmitter and a
receiver at different locations on the earth.
• They are generally kept in Geosynchronous or Geostationary orbit.
• Latest communication satellites of ISRO= CMSOI1, GSAT 30, and GSAT 31.
• Applications-
• Radio.
• Television.
• Tele-education, EDUSAT.
• TV broadcast, Video conferencing.
• Tele-medicine,
• Connecting remote rural colleges and hospitals through the Indian Satellites to
major Speciality hospitals in cities.
• Village Resource Centre= This is a program of ISRO where SATCOM is used
for tele-education, tele-medicine, Panchayat planning, vocational training,
weather information, etc.

• Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT):

• These are small satellite earth stations that transmit and receive data via
satellite.
• For example, they are used in connecting ATMs throughout the country, in the
Stock market, military communication (especially in hinterland regions).
• They are also used in satellite navigation (GAGAN).
• COSPAS-SARSAT= It is a satellite aided search and rescue international
program where emergency beacons are activated by aircraft, ships, and
people in distress.

• Earth Observation Satellites:

• They are also called as Remote Sensing Satellites.
• Remote sensing techniques= Synthetic Aperture Radar, LiDAR, Hyperspectral
Imaging, Spectroscopy.
• The mechanism of RADAR was explained.
• In SAR, radio waves are used.
• In LiDAR, light is used.
• Hyperspectral Imaging is a much sophisticated imaging technique.
• Spectroscopy in general is used to analyze the samples.
• They can be applied in various areas such as-
• In agriculture and soil monitoring.
• Renewable energy potential.
• Forest and environment
• Geology and Geomorphology.
• Resource monitoring.
• Weather and Climate.
• Ocean science.
• Disaster management.
• Governance= Watershed development, Clean Ganga mission, Land reforms,
Housing scheme, etc.
• They are generally kept in Low Earth Orbit, PSSO, and sometimes also in
Geosynchronous orbits.
 • India Data Relay Satellite System-1 (IDRSS 1):
• Satellites in orbit cannot pass along their information to the ground stations on
Earth if the satellite does not have a clear view of the ground station.
• To reduce the dependence on the ground stations
• Therefore, DRS serves as a way to pass along the satellite's information.
• 2 IDRSS satellites in geostationary orbit.
• Track, send, and receive signals from satellites even in low-earth orbits (LEO)
• Helpful in future missions – Gaganyaan, expedition to the moon, Venus, Mars,
etc.
• Only US, China, Japan, and Europe have the DRS system.

• GISAT 1:
• Earth Observation satellite in Geo-Stationary orbit.
• 2275 kg, 7 years, GSLV Mk II.
• For providing near real-time imaging and real-time monitoring.
• Multi-spectral (Visible and Near-InfraRed, and Short Wave-InfraRed), multi-
resolution imaging instruments.
• Will provide imaging of large areas of earth and atmosphere very frequently.

• NISAR Mission:
• It is an earth observation satellite, a collaboration of NASA and ISRO which
will use synthetic Aperture Radar.
• To study hazards like Tsunamis, Cyclones, etc., and environmental
monitoring.

• Navigational Satellites:
• Such satellites provide geo-spatial positioning.
• It allows a small electronic receiver to determine a precise location (latitude,
longitude, and altitude).
• Such satellites also provide timing services.
• Examples of Navigation system= GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), BeiDou
(China), Galilio (Europe), NAVIC (India).
• They are generally kept in Medium Eaarth orbit but sometimes also in
Geosynchronous orbits.
• Navigational satellites generally provide two types of services- Standard
services (for civilian use), Restricted services (for users who have proper
authentication such as military personals, intelligence officials, etc.).
• Applications of navigational Satellite-
• Terrestrial, aerial, and marine navigation.
• Disaster management.
• Vehicle tracking and fleet management.
• Integration with mobile phones.
• Precise timing.

NAVIGATION OF INDIAN CONSTELLATION (NAVIC)

• It is an independent regional navigation satellite system developed by ISRO.
• It will provide navigational data in Indian and 1500 kms. beyond India's border.
• It consists of seven IRNSS satellites (3 in Geostationary and 4 in
Geosynchronous).
 • Comparison between NAVIC and GPS:
•
NAVIC GPS
Regional. Global
7 Satellites 32 Satellites
GEO MEO
Low cost High cost
• Gravity is a challenge in spacecraft launches. However, in Gravity Slingshot,
the gravity of a planet or an astronomical object is used to alter the path or
increase the speed of the spacecraft, so that we can save our fuel, thus
reducing expenses.

GAGAN
• It is a collaboration between the Airport Authority of India and ISRO.
• To provide satellite-based navigation for civil aviation applications.
• To provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace.
• The main components of the GAGAN architecture are-
• Space segment= Three operational GEO satellites.
• Ground segment= On the ground, the GPS data is received and processed in
the 15 Indian Reference Stations (INRES). Indian Master Control Centre
processes the data from the INRESs to compute the differential corrections
and estimate of its level of integrity.
• User segement= GAGAN enabled receiver.

GEMINI
• Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and
Information (GEMINI) device.
• A soap box-sized device fitted to fishing boats.
• Servers in INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services),
an autonomous body under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• Satellite-based advisory service for deep-sea fishermen= Disaster warnings,
potential fishing zones.

LAUNCH VEHICLES
• They are used to launch satellites in different orbits.
• They have the following major components-
• Control and Command Center & Payload.
• The engine can be of two types= Air-breathing (examples- Ramjet, and
Scramjet) and Non-air breathing (examples- PSLV, GSLV, etc).
• Fuel/ Propellent= It can be solid (example= HTPB) or liquid.
• Mechanism:
• Satellites are at the top of the rocket and gets separated in space lastly.
• Boosters are also attached to the rockets which burn along the first stage of
the rocket.
• As exhaust (from the burning of fuel) comes down, it will propel the rocket in
the upward direction (Newton's Third Law of Motion).
• Gradually its velocity will be so high, that it will cross the earth's atmospheric
barrier.
• Rocket is propelled in different stages.
 • Every stage has a different type of engine.
• The first stage tries to ensure that rocket crosses the earth's atmosphere. After
the exhaustion of the fuel, the first stage gets separated from the rocket.
• After this, the instructions are provided from the Command Centre to begin the
operations of the second stage, thereby the engine will be switched ON and
the fule will start burning.
• Reasons for using multiple stages- The velocity that the rocket can attain will
depend on how much will be the final mass of the rocket and what was initial
mass. 2) We want to utilize the benefits of fuel/propellant as both, liquid and
solid fuel have their set of benefits and challenges.
• Solid fuel is easy to store and transport, provides higher thrust, however, its
burning is not uniform and it's difficult to control its flow. Hence, it is used in
the first stage.
• Liquid fuel's flow can be easily controlled and by controlling the flow, we can
control the speed and direction of the rocket which is very important in the
upper stages. However, its storage and transportation are very costly as it is
highly flammable.

POLAR SATELLITE LAUN VEHICLE:

• It is used for Lower Earth Orbit and Polar Orbits i.e. remote sensing satellites.
• It is a four-stage launch vehicle.
• The first stage is generally the largest one as it has to carry the maximum fuel-
Solid fuel.
• In the second stage, there is liquid fuel.
• The third stage has solid fuel to give the boost.
• The final stage has liquid fuel to control the velocity, direction, orientation.
• It is a very reliable launch vehicle.

GSLV:
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle.
• Two variables= GSLV Mark 1 and Mark 2.
• GSLV Mark 2 is still active, which is used generally for launching satellites in
Geosynchronous orbit.

GSLV Mark 3-
• Most powerful launch vehicle developed by ISRO till now. It is also used for
launching Communication Satellites.
• It is a three-stage engine (both GSLV Mark 2 and 3).
• The first stage is solid.
• The second stage is liquid.
• The third stage is cryogenic. In this stage, we use hydrogen (as a fuel) and
oxygen (as an oxidizer) together.
• Cryogenic means very low temperature.

• Small Satellite Launch Vehicle:

• Cost-effective launcher, the launch of demand.
• Four stages= 3 Solid propulsion stages and a Liquid Velocity Trimming
module as a terminal stage.
• It is still not used.
 Orbit Satellite Launch Vehicle
LEO Remote Sensing PSLV (generally)
N/A (as we don't use this
MEO N/A
orbit)
GSLV (for
Telecommunication,
GEO Telecommunication),
Navigation
PSLV (for Navigation)

• Newspace India LTD.:

• The commercial arm of ISRO NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), Bengaluru.
• Manufacturing and production Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) and Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
• Budget 2019
• Antrix: the commercial arm of ISRO, Mini Ratna.

Launch Vehicles:
• Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
• India has two operational launchers: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
• The launch vehicles contain the following:
• Payload box.
• Control & command system.
• Engines: The Engines can be of two types:
• Air-breathing engines: In such engines, Oxigen is taken from the
atmosphere. Examples: Scramjet, and Ramjet.
• Non-breathing propulsion tech: We need to carry both fuel &
oxidizers. Examples: PSLVs, and GSLVs.
• Fuels: These are solid and liquid.
• Examples of solid fuels: HTPB.
• The merits of solid fuels: It can be easily stored & transported. It is simple,
safe & less explosive. It also provides more thrusts.
• Demerit of solid fuels: The most important demerit is once the solid fuel is
ignited the resulting thrust can not be regulated or turned off.
• Merits of liquid fuel: The fuel flow to the engine can be controlled.
• Examples of the liquid propellant are a. UDMH plus N2O4, b. MMH plus a mix
of nitrogen oxide.
• Demerit of liquid fuel: It is very difficult to store & transport liquid fuel.
• Use of fuels: In the first stage, we use solid fuel for thrust and for the later &
last stage we use liquid fuel.
• Space shuttle uses a combination of different engines and fuels to utilize the
merits of solid & liquid fuel.

Launch Vehicles of ISRO:

• Old satellites' launch vehicles (Now they are not in use)
were: SLV and ASLVs.
• At present, we have launch vehicles like PSLV (generally for low earth
orbit), GSLV MkII & GSLV MkIII (for communication purposes), and SSLVs
(the most recent one).
 • Future satellites' engines & launch vehicles: Scramjet (a variant of a ramjet
airbreathing jet engine) and RLV (Reusable Launch Vehicles).

PSLV:
• Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle.
• PSLV is the third generation launch vehicle of India.
• It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
• After its first successful launch in 1994, PSLV emerged as the reliable and
versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India with 39 consecutively successful
missions by June 2017.
• It is one of the world's most reliable launch vehicles.
• It has only twice failed to date.
• It has a four-stage engine that alternates between solid and liquid fuel (S-L-S-
L).
• It is capable of placing multiple payloads into orbit.
• Capacity:
• The first stage carries the largest amount of fuels.
• The capacity of PSLV: 1750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits
of 600 km altitude and 1425 kg to GTO.

GSLV MkII:
• It was developed to launch the geosynchronous communication satellite into
GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit).
• It has three stages: solid, liquid & cryogenic.
• At a cryogenic stage, we store liquid oxygen and water at a very low
temperature.
• Capacity: At 5000 Kg to LEO and 2500 Kg to GTO.

GSLV MkIII:
• It is the most powerful launch vehicle designed by ISRO with a capacity
being 8000 kg payload to 600 Km in LEO and 4000 kg payload to GTO.
• It also has three stages: Solid, Liquid and Cryogenic.
• A cryogenic rocket engine uses liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are stored
at very low temperatures.

Small Satellites Launch Vehicles (SSLVs):

• The most recent development was done by ISRO for small satellite launching.
• ISRO started working on developing a new launch vehicle of mini rockets,
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV), to meet the needs of the emerging
global small satellite launch service market.
• It is a cost-effective launcher or launch on demand.
• It can carry a payload of 500 kg in the LEO and 300 kg in a sun-synchronous
orbit.
• Apart from the capability to launch up to 500kg of satellite mass, the SSLV will
have the option of multiple satellite mounting options for nano, micro and small
satellites.
• It has four stages.
• The first three stages are solid and the final/fourth stage is the liquid velocity
trimming module.
Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV):
• The great achievement was carried out by the SPACE X of the USA in this
technology.
• To date, ISRO has not launched any satellite using RLV technology.
• It is a system capable of launching of payload into space more than once.
• The cost of access to space is a major deterrent in space exploration and RLV
tries for the mission of low-cost access space mission.

Space sciences:
• Past missions: Chandrayan 1 & 2, Astrosat, Mars Orbiter Mission (MOMs),
etc.
• Present missions: Gaganyaan, Aditya L1, Chandrayaan 3, etc.
• Future missions: XPoSat, MOM 2, Shukrayaan, Space station, etc.

Chandrayaan Missions:
• Chandrayaan-1 Mission:
• Chandrayaan-1, India's first mission to Moon, was launched successfully
using the PSLV XL rocket on October 22, 2008.
• Scientific goals included the study of the chemical, mineralogical and
photogeologic mapping of the Moon.
• The spacecraft carried 11 scientific instruments.
• Chandrayaan-1's data helped determine the presence of water ice on the
moon.

Chandrayaan-2 mission:
• Chandrayaan-2 mission is a highly complex mission that brought together an
Orbiter, Lander and Rover with the goal of exploring the south pole of the
Moon.
• It aims at studying not just one area of the Moon but all the areas combining
the exosphere, the surface as well as the sub-surface of the moon in a single
mission.
• The Lunar South pole is especially interesting because the lunar surface area
that remains in shadow is much larger than that at the North Pole.
• There could be a possibility of the presence of water in permanently shadowed
areas around it.
• In addition, the South Pole region has craters that are cold traps and contain a
fossil record of the early Solar System.
• The GSLV Mk-III, India's most powerful launcher to date, has been used to
launch it.
• The Orbiter will observe the lunar surface and relay communication between
Earth and Chandrayaan 2's Lander called Vikram.
• The lander, Vikram, was designed to execute India's first soft landing on the
lunar surface.
• The rover was a 6-wheeled, AI-powered vehicle named Pragyan.
• The lander and rover malfunctioned in the final moments and crash-landed,
getting destroyed in the process.
• But that did not mean the entire mission had been wasted (Chandrayaan 2 is
not a complete failure).
• The Orbiter part of the mission has been functioning normally, and in more
than two years since that setback, the various instruments onboard have
gathered a wealth of new information that has added to our knowledge about
the Moon and its environment.
• The Orbiter is carrying eight instruments.
• Through different methods, these instruments are meant to carry out a few
broad tasks a study in more detail the elemental composition of the lunar
surface and environment, assess the presence of different minerals and do a
more detailed mapping of the lunar terrain.
• Chandrayaan-3 mission:
• India is likely to launch its third lunar mission Chandrayaan-3 in 2022.
• Chandrayaan-3 was planned to demonstrate India’s capability of soft landing
on a celestial body, with the rover then communicating with Earth via the
existing orbiter from Chandrayaan-2.
• The orbiter has an estimated lifespan of seven years.
• The third mission was announced months after the Vikram
lander aboard Chandrayaan-2 crash-landed on the lunar surface just 2.1 km
from its destination in September 2019.
• Therefore, unlike the previous mission, which carried an orbiter, lander and
rover, Chandrayaan-3 will only carry a lander and rover along with a
propulsion module that will carry the fuel for various manoeuvres needed to
navigate the landing module after its launch.
Aditya L1 Mission (at 6.57 PM)
• It is India's first dedicated scientific mission to study the sun in a halo orbit
around the Lagrangian point L1.
• It will carry 7 payloads with the following objectives:
• To observe the sun's photosphere, chromosphere and corona in different
frequency bands.
• To study the particle emanating from the sun and reaching the halo orbit.
• To measure the variation in the magnetic field's strength in the halo orbit.
• To study the origin of solar storms & their path through interplanetary space.
• Corona is an aura of plasma that surrounds the sun and other stars. It extends
millions of kilometres into space & the most easily seen during the solar
eclipse.
• Corona has a temperature of more than a million degrees Kelvin which is
much higher than the solar disc temperature of around 6000K.
• How the corona gets heated to such high temperatures is still an unanswered
question in solar physics.
• Most (95 %) of the universe is made of plasma.
• The seven payloads/instruments will study the solar corona, solar emissions,
solar winds and flares, Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), as well as capture
images of the Sun.
• Langrangian point (L1 point) and Halo orbit:
• The three-body problem that is how three bodies will behave because of their
gravitational interactions is a complicated problem.
• However, Lagrange considered a special case where the mass one of the
body is very very small compared to the other two bodies.
• He showed that for such a special case there exist 5 special points in the
space where the gravitational pull of the two larger bodies will provide the
required centripetal force for a third smaller body to complete an orbit.
• These special points are called Lagrange points and such orbits are called
halo orbits.
• Halo orbits are three-dimensional orbits.
• For the earth-sun system, the L1 point lies between the earth and sun approx
1.5 million km away from the earth.
• It has been the major advantage of continuously viewing the sun without any
interference.
• The L2 point is ideal for astronomy (James Telescope may work regarding it
in future).

A brief overview of the previous class and addressing student queries Gemini
device etc
• Gaganyaan Mission ISRO planning to send three crew members for at least
7 days in Lower earth orbit (300-400km).
• GSLV Mk-III will be used for this mission.
• So far only three Agencies have done it such as Russia, the USA, and China.
• India going to be the fourth country.
• The budget allocated 10000 crore rupees.
Challenges in Gaganyaan Mission, Which makes manned missions different from
unmanned Missions.
• Moving to a manned program will require a new range of technology and
precision.
• Spacecraft Needs to withstand very high temperatures.
• The mission requires mastering highly complicated and dangerous re-entry
and recovery abilities. Even a Small error could end in disaster.
• India lacks training facilities for astronauts and it has no prior experience in
manned missions.
• Manned Mission requires huge investment and there is always a debate on
the need for such costly missions vs spending social sectors.
• During launch itself – Any technical error during the early 10 seconds, can
lead to an accident.
• While spacecraft enter into space- the weight of spacecraft going to be
increased by the manned mission, cosmic radiation, and microgravity going to
pose a challenge.

Why GaganyaanMission ? (benefits of Mission)

• It provides the potential for an enormous range of experiments in stressed
conditions where gravity is so less and there is no protection from cosmic
radiation.
• It will lead to advancement in medical technologies and basic understanding
functioning of human bodies.
• Many of the present technologies were the result of space research example
robotic surgery and advanced Astro culture which aims to remove microbes
from fruits and vegetables, water purification and Sewage recycling,
• It will strengthen ISROs position as a major space agency and pave the way
for space tourism. Space tourism- e.g., the blue origin of Jeff Bezos.
• It will inspire future generations to pursue science and technology, especially
astronomy.
• A manned Space Mission is a much larger employment generator than an
unmanned mission.

Space Debris
• Space debris is junk that is circling the earth.
• Kessler syndrome- It is a scenario in which collusion in LEO where each
collision generated more debris that increase the likelihood of further
collusions.
• Because of Space debris, future space endeavors will be more difficult and
more expensive

Steps taken for solving the issue of space debris-

• Space agencies can keep track of larger debris. So that spacecraft with crew
members can dodge it. Ex. Project NETRA of USA - to track large debris.
• Space agencies are also following guidelines to reduce the creation of space
debris, for example, Placing the upper stages of the launch vehicles in lower
orbits.
• There are dedicated missions to remove existing debris for
example REMOVES DEBRIS mission led by University Surrey based in the
UK. ROBOTIC satellite NEO by China etc.
• Opinion mobilization- Rising demand on Ban of Anti-satellite Missions.
• ISRO doesn’t have a dedicated mission for space debris mission.
Private sector participation in space
• Despite being one of the global leaders in space exploration Indian space
industry has a 2% share in the global space economy in this context
government under AtmanirbharNirbhar Abhiyan announced the role for the
private sector in India’s space program including satellite launches and space-
based services.
• Private sector participation can benefit space programs in the following
way-
• It will make private players and ISRO more competitive and that would lead to
more innovation and more R&D.
• New startups, New ideas, expansion of our industrial base, technological
advancement will occur with private sector participation.
• ISRO has the manpower and budgetary constraints the private sector will help
in sharing the risk of high cost.
• Will free up ISRO to concentrate on R&D, planetary exploration, strategic use
of space. While freeing itself from ancillary and routine work which could be
done by private industries.
• Regulatory body INSPCAE (India national space promotion and
authorization center) has been established under the department of space to
provide level a level playing field for private companies and a predictable
regulatory environment.
• 100 % FDI has been allowed in the establishment and operation of satellite
subject to government approval.

ISROs future projects

• Shukrayaan- is a proposed orbiter to Venus by the Indian Space Research
Organisation to study the surface and atmosphere of Venus.
• MOM 2.0.
• XPOSAT (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite)-Going to study X-ray sources of X-rays
that the earth is receiving. Will be launched by 2022 and by using SSLV.
• Astro sat- launched in late 2015- India’s first dedicated astronomical
observatory. Mission has been very successful.

Sunspots
• Low temperature compared to surrounding areas but high magnetic field.
• Sunspots are not permanent - they gradually increase in size and gradually
they vanish.
• One cycle takes 11 years to complete such as solar maximum and solar
minimum
• Sunspots are directly correlated with Coronal mass ejection larger the
sunspots higher will be CME.
• Also, refer to the handout for the details of Sunspot.

.
Nuclear Fusion
• It’s the process where two or more lighter nuclei combine together to form a
heavy nucleus and, in the process, huge amount of energy is released.
• Its responsible for energy production in stars.
• Even though fusion occurs among stars naturally we have not been able to
produce fusion-based energy on a sustainable manner for civilian uses.
• A lot of experiments are being conducted with most famous experiment is
International thermo experimental reactor (ITER).
• India is member of this experiment.
• Such experiments use TOKAMAK device. Which is designed to harness
energy of fusion.
• The device used magnetic fields to contain and control hot plasma, which
enables the fusion between deuterium and tritium nuclei.
• The ITER Tokamak aims to produce 500 Mw of fusion power.
• Both Fission and fusion are sources of clean energy. However, fusion has
more inherent benefits associated with it such as
• Energy released is much greater.
• Fusion reactors do not produce long lived radioactive waste.
• Burnt fuel in Fusion reactor is helium which is an inert gas.
• Raw material for fusion is deuterium which is available easily in nature and
Tritium which can easily be produced in labs.
• There is no risk of meltdown in the Tokamak fusion device.
• There is no enriched material fusion reactor that could be exploited to make
nuclear weapons.
• Fusion is difficult to attain because to fuse nuclei in nuclei dimension (10^-
15) the amount of energy required is very high to overcome the
electromagnetic repulsion.
• This energy comes from very high temp in the rage of million-degree
centigrade which is very difficult to attain.
• However, if we sustain the fusion for some time then amount of energy will be
enough for the fusion reaction to continue.

Application of Nuclear technology

Nuclear technology in agriculture.

• In plant breeding more than 1800 crops have been developed in India through
mutation induced by nuclear radiation.
• This is used to develop specific traits such as tolerance to drought and salinity.
• Nuclear radiation is also used in pest management to control their population.
• In method called sterile insect’s techniques, insects are exposed to gamma
radiation which make them sterile. These insects are released back and even
though they are sexually competitive they can’t reproduce.
• Radio isotopes can be used to determine effectiveness of fertilizers.
• E-radiation to preserve food. Exposing perishable food items to high energy
radiation kills microbial organism thus enhancing the shelf life.
Nuclear technology in medicine.
• External beam therapy for eliminating or controlling cancerous growth.
• Cobalt 60 used in radiation therapy to prevent cancer.
• BRACHY therapy- an advanced cancer treatment where radioactive seeds are
placed inside body which gives high radiation dose to tumour while reducing
radiation exposure in the surrounding healthy tissue.
• Nuclear medicine- some radioisotopes are used as tracers that are injected
into the blood stream. These tracers emit gamma rays which are detected by
special cameras and a computer to create images of inside of body.
• Radiation sterilization- ability of gamma radiation to kill microorganism is used
in radiation sterilization of various products such as disposable syringes,
cotton dressings and drugs and related products.

Nuclear technology Application in Industry.

• In material exploration, finding leaks, water desalination, carbon dating radio
isotopes and nuclear technologies are used.

Miscellaneous aspects of related with nuclear energy or technology.

• Time in which radioactive substance reduces its life by half. it’s called as Half-
life.
• Its application is carbon dating e.g., carbon 14.
• Half-life of c14 is 5730 years.
• Radio isotope are most used things after Fusion and fission.
• The entire range (electromagnetic spectrum) is given by radio waves,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultra-violet radiation, X-rays,
gamma rays and cosmic rays in the increasing order of frequency and
decreasing order of wavelength
• Plutonium 238. used for deep space experiments. As solar energy can’t be
harnessed in deep space mission. Half-life of Plutonium 238 is 87.7 years.

• Give an account of the growth and development of nuclear technology in

India and what are the advantages of a fast breeder reactor. (250
words/12.5 Mark) (2016 mains CSE)
Nanotechnology
• Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at the nanoscale
(1nm to 100nm). Where unique phenomena enable the novel application.
• Matter exhibits unique chemical, physical and biological properties at
nanoscale differing in ways from the properties of bulk materials, single atoms,
and molecules.
• The properties may include magnetic properties, different conductivity, more
chemically reactive, better reflectors of light or color.
• Nanomaterial exhibits these properties because of the following reasons.
• At nanoscale quantum effect dominate. At such a scale, surface behavior
plays a larger role as nanomaterials have very high surface areas.
• The motion of electrons is confined in nanomaterial either in one, two, or all
three dimensions.
• Much of the biology occurs at the nanoscale such as the diameter of
hemoglobin is about 5 nanometers, a strand of DNA is 2nm in diameter.
• There are two approaches to synthesizing the nanomaterial.
• A top-down approach where bulk material is converted into nanomaterial by
successive slicing.
• A bottom-up approach where nanomaterials are built atom by atom, molecule
by molecule.
• Nanotechnology based on its application can be categorized into four
generations.
• First-generation (passive nanomaterials).
• These materials provide unique properties without altering the properties of
the surrounding eg nano-coating.
• Second generation (Active nanomaterial)
• These nanomaterials can induce changes in their surroundings thus they have
huge applications targeted drug delivery.
• Third generation (system of nanosystem)
• Complex systems such as guided assembling, nanorobotics etc
• Fourth generation (Molecular nanosystem)
• This is the potential of nanomaterial yet to be realized where nanostructure
can be used to control the growth of artificial organs.

Applications of Nanotechnology
• Disease diagnostics.
• Tissue engineering.
• Environmental remediation such as water treatment, addressing oil spillage.
• Energy sector.
• Challenges
• On Human health and environment.

Nano mission
• Launched in 11th
• Why nano technology is considered a key technology for 21st
• Salient features of the Nano mission.

Discussion on Objective questions (5:12 pm)

• Plutonium 238 is radioisotope. It releases the alpha particles. It offers both
heat and electrical energy. It’s used to power deep-space missions.
Application of Nanotechnology
• Carbon nanotube.
• These are cylindrical molecules that consist of a rolled-up sheet of Graphene.
• Graphene is a two-dimensional allotrope of carbon that is known for its
electrical and thermal properties as well as high tensile strength.
• Carbon nanotubes not only retain the properties of graphene but also high
own unique properties, for example
• They are very lightweight.
• Their thermal conductivity is better than Diamond.
• Their tensile strength is 400 times that of steel while density is one-sixth.
• They are highly chemically stable.
• They have a hollow interior that can be filled with nanomaterial separating and
shielding them from the surrounding environment. This property is very useful
for targeted drug delivery.
• All these properties make carbon nanotubes ideal candidates for electronic
devices, hydrogen storage cells, lithium-ion batteries, etc
• Quantum dots.
• It Is a nanometre-sized semiconductor known for its unique optical and
chemical properties.
• They emit light of a specific wavelength of energy is applied to them.
• These wavelengths of light can be fine-tuned by changing the shape, size, or
material composition.
• Because of the unique properties, they are being used in the display of TV as
well as smartphones, in solar cells, and their medical application is also been
explored.

IT and Computers
• Information and communication technology (ICT)
• It represents a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to
transmit, store, share information.
• This includes computers, the internet, live broadcasting, recorded
broadcasting, and telephony, etc.
• For modern communication radio waves are used these are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum which can vary from 30 Hz to 300 GHz.
• Radio waves are generated artificially by transmitters and received by radio
receivers using antennas.
• To prevent interference between users’ transmission of radio waves is strictly
regulated by National laws and coordinated by ITU.

Modulation
• Electromagnetic waves are used for communication. However, waves
themselves do not contain any information we need to encode the information.
This encoding of an input wave on a carrier wave is called modulation.
• There are three main approaches.
• Pulse modulation, by simply switching on and off morse codes can be sent to
thousands of kilometers
• Analog modulation, these are time-varying signals. There are three
methods analog modulation,
• Frequency modulation, here frequency of Modulated wave changes while
amplitude remains same.
• FM signals are largely immune to background noise.
 • However, they use higher frequency (88 to 112 MHz) hence signal cant travel
very far.
• Using higher frequency, we can send more data with more speed but the wave
is susceptible to scattering, absorption.
• Amplitude modulation- amplitude of modulated wave varies because that
such signals have background noises.
• They use low frequency (In KHz) hence signal can travel more distance
• Phase modulation
• In phase modulation, the massive signal is encoded as variations in the phase
of carrier waves.
• Digital Modulation
• Digital modulation consists of discrete values.
• Analog signals suffer from many losses such as distortion, interference,
security breaches.
• To overcome these problems signals are digitized using different techniques
• Digital signals allow communication to be clearer and more accurate without
losses.

5G.
• The next generation of mobile technology will provide higher speed, low
latency, and more connection density. As per the International
Telecommunication Union(ITU), it will differ from 4G on the following
parameters.
Technology 4G 5G
Latency 10 ms <1 ms
Maximum speed or peak data
1gbps 20gbps
rate
Available spectrum 3GHz 30GHz
Connection density 100,000/sq km 1mn/sq km.

• 5G is not a single technology but an amalgamation of various techniques

such as
• Millimeter waves.
• 5G will mainly work in three bands low, mid, and high. The high band will use
a frequency as high as 40 GHz. With such high frequency, we can get more
data and more speed. However higher frequency leads to signal degradation
at shorter distances.
• Small cell stations.
• Instead of large mobile towers, more closely packed small cell stations will be
installed to overcome signal degradation.
• Massive MIMO.
• One small station can receive and emit lakhs of a signal without interference
• Beam Forming.
• Instead of sending signals in all directions, the signal will be directional to the
user from the closest cell.
• Edge computing.
• To reduce latency.
Significance of 5G
• 5 G is meant to seamlessly improve the internet of Things (IoT) infra, for
example, wearable devices, smartphones, sensors 5G will be very important.
• In industrial automation such as robotics for precision manufacturing and
efficient supply chain, smart production lines.
• For remote surgeries to become more efficient.
• Virtual meetings.
• Augmented reality (AR) and Virtual reality (VR).

Challenges
• In India, spectrum prices are one of the highest in the world
• Telecom companies are in huge debt.
• Optical fiber penetration is very low in India.
• We are dependent on imports for electronics and equipment.
• There is also a lack of uniform policy across states which has delayed the
optical fiber cables and telecom towers.
• There are some general challenges associated with 5G
• A perceived security threat from Huawei led 5G which is a Chinese company.
However, as of now, India has declined Huawei 5G trials.
• There is a public backlash against 5G In some parts of the world such as fear
associated with the impact of 5G on human health as well as on birds.
• Recently US government halted 5G trials because it was interfering with airline
communications.

Supercomputing
• National mission on supercomputing launched in 2015. First Supercomputer
under this missis in Param Shivay.
• Supercomputers are the physical embodiment of high-performance computing
which allows organizations to solve complicated problems that would be
impossible with regular computers.
• An ordinary computer does things in distinct series of operations called serial
processing.
• The speed of the ordinary computer is measured in Million instructions per
second (MIPS)
• A supercomputer splits a problem into pieces and works on many pieces
simultaneously.
• This is called parallel processing.
• The speed of supercomputers is measured in floating line operations per
second (FLOPS)

Application of supercomputing
• Weather prediction and climate modeling.
• Computational biology such as genome sequencing, analyzing protein
samples, etc
• Disaster management simulation such as movement of cyclones, seismic
analysis.
• Big data analytics.
• Atomic energy simulation, in many scientific experiments such as Large
Hydron collider at CERN.
• Blackhole imaging.
Supercomputing In India
• The First supercomputer was PARAM 8000 unveiled in 1991 by the C-
DAC center for the development of advanced computing.
• Pratyush and Mihir are two of the fasted supercomputers of India, with
applications in weather and climate modeling.
• In 2015 Government announced a national supercomputing mission with the
following salient features.
• Supercomputing facilities across 70 national research and academic
institutions.
• Connecting these facilities over a national Knowledge network (NKN).
• To make India one of the world leaders in supercomputing.
• To enhance India’s capability in solving grand challenges of national and
global relevance.
• To develop the state of the supercomputing facilities and enable our scientists
to carry out cutting-edge research.
• To attend global competitiveness and ensure self-reliance in supercomputing
technologies.
• Mission is being implemented by C-DAC and IISc Bangalore.
• It's funded by the Department of S&T and the Ministry of Electronics and
IT.
• PARAM SHIVAY, PARAM SHAKTI, and PARAM BRHAMA are the
supercomputers developed under the first phase of the Mission.
• Challenges
• They are not environment friendly they consume a huge amount of power that
included their cooling system.
• India is dependent on imports for hardware components.
• Skilled workforce often goes outside the country.

Edge Computing
• It enables the data to be analyzed and processed at the edge of the network.
That is data is stored and processed locally.
• It differs from cloud computing because cloud computing means storing and
processing data over the internet using data centers.
• Edge computing is on the other hand manages a massive amount of data
generated by IoT devised by storing and processing data locally.

Quantum Technologies.
• Government of India in 2020 announced a national mission on quantum
technologies and applications with a total budget outlay of 8000 crore
rupees for five years,
• This Mission will be implemented by the Department of science and
technologies.
• Quantum technology is based on the principle of quantum mechanics which
describes nature at the scale of atoms and elementary particles.
• Major four domains of quantum technologies.
• Quantum computing.
• Quantum communication.
• Quantum simulation.
• Quantum metrology (the science of measurement)
Quantum computing
• In a classical computer, information is stored in binary digits (bits) which are
zero and one.
• Quantum computer instead takes advantage of Quantum mechanical
properties to process information using quantum bits (Qubits)
• A Qubit can be both 0 and 1 at the same time with different probabilities. This
behavior is called superposition.
• Also, Qubits can be correlated in a way that the state of one qubit depends on
another. This property is called entanglement.
• Using these two principles quantum computers behave in a way that allows
them to solve difficult problems which can’t be done even by powerful
supercomputers.
• In fact, recently researchers demonstrated quantum supremacy which means
that a quantum computer can perform a calculation much faster than the
fastest supercomputer on the earth.
• This was established by Google's quantum computer named Sycamore.
Quantum supremacy means solving one problem faster than the fastest
supercomputer on earth.

Challenges
• Qubits are highly sensitive to external interference. The entire information
stored in Qubits can be lost even with small interference. Therefore, quantum
computers are kept at very low temperatures in isolated conditions.
• As the number of Qubits increases, their manipulation becomes more difficult.
• Quantum computers require an ecosystem of supporting software, hardware,
and algorithms that have their scientific and engineering challenges.
• Current cyber security measures need to be relooked as quantum computing
holds the potential to decode and crack world encrypted data. It can decrypt
the encrypted data.

Quantum communication
• We can achieve the most secure form of communication known, impossible for
interception without detection, using quantum cryptography. For example,
quantum key distribution.
• In traditional cryptography security is usually based on the fact that an
eavesdropper is unable to solve certain mathematical problems this is called
public key distribution.
• Quantum key distribution (QKD) works by transmitting entangled photons
with the random quantum state which is measured by the receiver.
• If an eavesdropper tries to hack into this communication channel, it will change
the photon state. This change will be detected and a new communication
channel will be established.
• Recently, both DRDO and ISRO successfully demonstrated QKD.
• Quantum simulation
• Accurate prediction of assemblies of atoms and molecules using quantum
simulation will be the key to designing new chemicals and new materials.
• Quantum metrology (the science of measurement)
• Quantum sensors provide the most accurate measurements which will
drastically increase the performance of many devices.
Internet
• ICANN-Internet corporation for assigned names and numbers.
• Its major stakeholder in Internet governance.
• It follows the Multistakeholder approach.
• It’s an American Non-profit organization.
• However, it’s not Immune from USA Laws.
• Internet Neutrality.
• Net Neutrality is a principle under which internet service providers treat all
lawful data equally.

Dark Web
• The dark web is part of the internet that can’t be accessed through traditional
search engines such as Bing, Google, etc
• Also, the dark web is not accessible by normal browsers such as safari or
chrome.
• Content on it is heavily encrypted and requires a specific browser such as
TOR (The onion ring) to access its pages.
• TOR browser was developed by the US Naval research lab to protect their
intelligence communication.
• As darknet provides end-to-end encryption.
• Because of such encryption and a high degree of anonymity, it’s used for any
illegal activities such as selling banned drugs, money laundering, etc.
• The use of cryptocurrency for deals done on the darknet has made the task of
intelligence agencies more difficult to catch them and establish their guilt in
court.

Space-based internet
• Satellite-based internet means accessing internet signals from internet
service providers (ISPs) to users using satellites placed in space.
• Traditionally satellite-based internet was not very popular because
communication satellites are generally kept in Geo-synchronous orbit at such
as high-altitude latency increases.
• However, in recent times because of smaller and cheaper satellites because
of more private investment, this idea is gaining a lot of traction. For example,
the Starlink program of SpaceX has planned to launch thousands of satellites
in Lower Earth orbit.
• As of now, there are 2000 satellites under the Starlink program. Such type of
program will ensure cheap internet options for rural, hilly areas and
islands.
• However, there are many issues associated with such programs such as
• It increases the possibility of an accident in space hence the accumulation of
space debris in LEO.
• It’s still costly compared to a wireless cellular network.
• It can affect astronomical observation because the constellation of such
satellite and their brightness can hamper light signals coming from distant
objects.
Blockchain technology and Cryptocurrencies
• Blockchains are open distributed digital ledgers that chronologically record
transactions between two parties.
• Every single transaction is linked to the chain using cryptographic principles.
• The blocks are connected having unique codes called hashes which form a
chain of blocks.
• It is not owned by one individual. Its managed and stored across several
computer systems.
• There are inherent benefits of Blockchain technology such as
• It is durable and robust.
• It is transparent and incorruptible.
• The network operates on a peer-to-peer basis.
• When the transaction is initiated in a blockchain a record of that transaction is
sent to all nodes (devices connected to Blockchain). When the majority of
nodes validate the transaction, a new block is added.
• Once a block is added it cannot be manipulated because of cryptographic
hashing, proof of work, and fact that the entire blockchain is decentralized.
• It has been the backbone of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies However it
can be used in many areas
• Smart contracts (Digital contract using Blockchain technology).
• Trading platform.
• Supply chain management.
• Cyber security.
• Sensitive clinical data
• Governance such as Land record management.

Cryptocurrency
• Its a type of digital currency with the use of cryptography
• Such as Bitcoins.
• It uses Blockchain technology.

WEB 1.0
• It was the first generation of the World Wide Web.
• It is also referred to as Read-Only Web.
• It only allowed the users to search for the information put by businesses and
read it.

WEB 2.0
• It started a kind of two-way communication between users of the internet and
the companies or individuals who put their content on the internet.
• It is a variety of websites and applications that allow anyone to create and
share online information.

WEB 3.0
• This phase is characterized by computers interpreting information just like
humans to generate personalized content for the users.
• It laid the base for behavioral advertising.
• It also led to concerns over the user's control over data.
METAVERSE
• It is a digital reality that combines aspects of social media, online gaming,
augmented reality, virtual reality, and even crypto-currencies to enable total
virtual interaction between users.
• Augmented reality combines the real and virtual worlds, like for example-
Pokemon Go. The user remains in the real world while experiencing and
interacting with virtual world components.
• Virtual reality deals entirely with the virtual world and is experienced by special
VR headsets.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
• It is the ability of a computer to perform sentient tasks which are associated
with intelligent beings.
• It involves tasks like reasoning, generalizing, learning from past experiences,
etc.
• Some common examples are- Google search suggestions,auto-correct, and
predictions while typing, etc.

CAPTCHA:
• It stands for Completely Automated Public Turing Test to tell Computers and
Humans Apart.
• They are used to differentiate human users from pre-programmed bots.
• Those challenges are given which are difficult for computers, but easy for
humans.

DATA PROTECTION REGIME

• It simply refers to the legislative, executive, or technological setup which
ensures transparent storage and handling of data, along with maintaining the
privacy of the individuals and entities involved.
• The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) of the European Union is
said to be the most robust and comprehensive setup in this regard.

DATA LOCALISATION
• It refers to storing data on any device or server that is physically present within
the borders of the country where the data is generated.
• RBI in a 2018 circular had stated that all system providers shall ensure that
the entire data relating to payment systems operated by them are stored only
in India.
• Non-compliance with this order was the reason behind Mastercard getting
banned from issuing new cards.

JUSTICE BN SRIKRISHNA COMMITTEE ON DATA PROTECTION

• Consent of the individual was made pivotal to the collection, storage, and
processing of personal data.
• It proposed a framework so that the data fiduciary gets liable to any
derelictions in the data policy.
• It also proposed setting up a Data Protection Authority, as an independent
regulatory body to oversee the enforcement of the Data Protection Bill.
PERSONAL DATA PROTECTION BILL 2019
• It will be applicable to governments, Indian and foreign companies dealing with
data of Indians.
• Data has been divided mainly into two categories- Personal data-which
identifies an individual (email id, phone number, etc.), and sensitive personal
data (biometric, banking, religion, caste, political beliefs sexual orientation.
• The bill puts an obligation on data fiduciary, and also sets out the "right of
data" principle,
• Bill allows the processing of data by fiduciaries only if consent s provided to
the individual.
• However, in certain circumstances, consent will not be required such as (a) if
required by the state for providing benefits to the individual. (b) for legal
proceedings(c) to respond to a medical emergency. These exemptions were
not as per the BN Srikrishna Committee report.
• Social media platforms have an extra responsibility to ensure that their actions
do not impact electoral democracy or public order.
• The bill envisages setting up a statutory data protection authority to ensure
compliance with the bill.
• The bill gives exemption to the central government and its agencies from the
provisions of the act in the interest of the security of the state, public order,
sovereignty and integrity of India, and friendly relations with foreign states.
This was not recommended by the Srikrishna committee.
• For organizations not complying with the provisions of the bill, there are penal
provisions-(Rs 15 crore, or 4 % of their annual turnover, whichever is higher).
• The bill also mentions the Right to be forgotten: Users can de-link, limit, delete
or correct the disclosure of their personal information held by data fiduciaries.
• Now the bill is with a Joint Parliamentary Committee.

Robotics
• It is the science and technology of robots including their design, manufacture
and application. It is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science
that include mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics and
others.
• Robots can be deployed in various areas such as
• In agriculture, robots make it possible to do farming in harsh terrain areas.
• They can make sowing, ploughing, harvesting and threshing faster and
accurate.
• Robots can replace human labour in hazardous work such as manual
scavenging, mining, nuclear and chemical waste management, bomb disposal
squads among many other works.
• Robots can also replace monotonous jobs such as jobs in an assembly line in
manufacturing.
• Application of robots in space is done for unmanned missions where it's not
possible to send humans due to technological constraints.
• In logistics, robots are used for warehouse management, delivery of goods via
drones etc.
• In disaster management robots are used for delivering food packets.
• In the health sector, robots are being used for remote surgeries. Robots have
also been used for COVID-19 management
Job vs Automation issue
• India is in a race against demography as well as against intelligent machines.
In other words, it will have to figure out how to create jobs for millions who join
the labour force every year at a time when robots are becoming adept at a
range of human tasks.
• There are arguments for as well as against automation
• Arguments against automation
• Rise in Unemployment or jobless growth.
• More energy consumption.
• Inequality will worsen
• Small firms will not be able to invest as it's expensive to invest in robotics.
• Lack of regulation.
• Lack of accountability in case of error.
• Arguments for Automation
• Efficiency and thus the output will increase.
• Industrial disasters will decrease.
• Fear of disruptive technologies is not new for example Luddite movement in
the 20th century demanded the destruction of machines.
• There was a lot of opposition to the computerization of banks however it not
only improved our banking experience but also created more jobs.
• Human desires are virtually unlimited thus the amount of work done in an
economy is also unlimited.
• Conclusion
• Effect of machines on labour depends on the nature of change. It is wrong to
blindly bet on anyone result. Government should focus on skill development
programs and social security nets for workers who are going to lose jobs
because of automation.

Artificial intelligence(AI) vs Robots vs machine

• Machine is a device that repeatedly makes predesigned motions to help
produce the desired result or outcome.
• Robots are programmable machines that are usually able to carry out a series
of actions autonomously or semiautonomous way.
• Robots can be programmed to do many tasks based on many instructions.
• Both robots and machines interact with the physical world.
• Artificial intelligence involves developing computer programmes to complete
tasks that would otherwise require human intelligence.
• However, AI does not need to have a physical presence. It can very well be a
computer program.
• However, some robots with AI software can be considered artificially intelligent
robots.
Defence technology
• Missiles.
• Ships and submarines.
• Aircrafts.
• Modern development.
• Missiles
• Indigenous defence technology means Defence technology developed in India
for Indian requirements.
• DRDO is the primary agency in India for the development of defence
technology.
• Indigenization of defence.
• It broadly means creating an ecosystem where indigenous development of
defence equipment can thrive.
• India has been one of the largest importers of defence equipment in the world.
• There are various reasons behind suboptimal defence indigenization such as-
• Inadequate defence planning.
• There is a lack of national security doctrine and commitment of funds beyond
a year.
• The decision-making process for defence procurement suffers from
complexities and bureaucratic red tape.
• India allocates only 4% of the defence budget to R&D.
• A major portion of the budget goes for pension goes towards salary, pension
and other operating expenses.
• Defence sector has been dominated by PSUs which are associated with
production and time delays with no accountability.
• Foreign companies are not willing to invest in India because of the complex
regulatory regime.
• Private players can produce a narrow range of products also armed forces
have low confidence in locally and privately manufactured products.
• Defence deals because of opaqueness have remained in controversies with
allegations of corruption.

Missiles
• Ballistic missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul etc
• Cruise Missiles such as Brahmos and Nirbhay missiles.
• Integrated Guided-missile Development Program (IGMDP) started in 1982-83
and ended in 2008.
• S-400 missile defence system of Russia.

Submarines Diesel operated Submarines.

• It’s fuelled by Diesel. It makes a lot of noise, need to come onto the surface of
the water to get oxygen etc
• Nuclear powered submarines.
• Such as INS Arihant. Uses Nuclear fission to power it. It uses U-235.
• Project-75 aka Scorpion class from French company DCNS.
• It is also a diesel-powered submarine but it's an advanced version hence
creating less noise and hence is difficult to detect by radar and sonar as it
uses a snorkelling mechanism and does not come on the surface of the water.
• It can stay underwater for a long duration of time.
• MoU signed between DCNS and MAZGAO dock limited to develop six
submarines such as INK Kalavari etc
Intellectual property rights (IPR)
• These are rights given to persons over the creation of their minds. They
usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a
certain period.
• Types of IPR.
• Patent-Is granted for an invention that is a new product or process that meets
conditions of novelty, Nonobvious and industrial use.
• Novelty means inventive step that is it involves technical advancement as
compared to existing knowledge.
• Nonobvious means invention is not obvious to common people.
• Industrial use means that invention is capable of being made or being used in
industry.
• In India, its governed by the patent act 1970 amended in 2005 to make TRIPS
compliant.
• Patents are awarded for 20 years.

• Copyright.
• It is given to the creation of literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work and
producers of cinematographic films and sound recordings.
• This right allows its creator the rights of reproduction, communication to the
public, adaptation, and translation of work.
• In India, its governed by the Copyright act 1957.
• It’s given generally for 60 years.
• For books 50 years after the death of the author.

• Trademark.
• It means a mark capable of being represented graphically distinguishing the
goods and services of one company from another.
• It can be a sign, word, letter, number, drawings, a combination of color, shape
of good, signature. etc
• They are generally given for 10 marks,

• Industrial design.
• An industrial design consists of a shape, configuration, combination of
patterns, and colors containing the aetheric value.
• They are generally given for 10 years,
• It is governed by designs act 2000.

• Geographic Indication Tags.

• It is a sign used on agricultural, natural, or manufactured goods originating in a
particular region of a country.
• It denotes a specific quality, Characteristics, or reputation attributable to that
region.
• Given for 10 years and can be renewed.
• Governed by Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and protection)
act 1999.

• Tarde secret
• These are confidential business information that provides an enterprise a
competitive edge. They are protected without registration and hence for
unlimited time.
• In India, there is no dedicated law to protect trade secrets
 .
• Semiconductors and integrated layouts.
• Semiconductor layout design means a layout of transistors and other circuitry
elements and includes lead wires connecting such elements and expressed in
semiconductor integrated circuits.
• The protection is granted for 10 years.
• it’s governed by the Semiconductor and integrated layout design act 2000.

• Plants protection variety and farmers rights (PPV&FR).

• It refers to the protection granted to plant varieties.
• These rights are given to farmers and plant breeders to encourage the
development of new varieties of plants.
• Such varieties are protected for 15 years.
• It’s governed by the PPV&FR act 2001
.
International agreements and bodies
• Trade-related aspects of intellectual property (TRIPS).
• It is an international agreement administered by WTO that sets down minimum
standards for IP regulation for its member nations.
• It covers broadly five areas.
• General provisions and basic principles for a Multilateral trading system
applicable to international intellectual property.
• Minimum standards for the protection of IPR.
• Procedures to be followed by WTO members to enforce these rights.
• To settle disputes on intellectual property.
• Arrangements for the implementation of the TRIPS provision.
• World intellectual property organization (WIPO).
• It is a specialized agency of the UN that promotes intellectual activity and
facilitates the transfer of technology to developing countries for their social and
economic development.
• In collaboration with Cornell University and INSEAD WIPO publishes
the global innovation Index every year.
• In 2020 India was ranked 46th among 131 countries.
• Marrakesh treaty.
• It facilitates access to published work for the visually impaired by providing an
exception to domestic copyright law.
• India was the first country to ratify this treaty.
• Berne Convention.
• It’s an international agreement of 1886 governing copyrights.
• It protects literary and artistic works.

IPR Issues in India

• US And western nations are a big critique of India’s IPR regime they accuse
India of doing minimum to protect laws on a global level.
• For example, India remains on the priority watch list of the United States trade
representative report called ‘special 301 reports’
• Indian IPR regime criticized on various grounds such as
• Outdated trade secrets framework.
• Source of fake goods.
• Excessive delays in obtaining trademarks and lack of protection of them.
• India maintains high custom duties on IP-intensive products such as medical
devices, ICT products, Solar energy equipment, and capital goods.
 • It continues to apply restrictive patentability criteria to reject pharmaceutical
patents.
• There are two issues,
• Section 3(d) of the patent act prevents evergreening of patents and required
efficacy improvement for re-patenting.
• For example, in 2013 re-patenting of GLIVEC a cancer drug by Novartis was
canceled in India
• Section 84 of the patent act provides for compulsory licensing.
• This empowers the government for a patent waiver so that it can allow the
manufacture of patented products without the prior permission of patent
holders in the large public interest.
• For example, in 2012 Indian company Natcopharma was allowed to
manufacture a cancer drug Nexavar and sell it at a very low price.

Patent Pool
• It is defined as an agreement made between 2 and more patent holders for
licensing their patent to one another for purpose of sharing their IPRs.
• They are usually made for complex technologies which necessitate
complementary patents.

Traditional Knowledge
• Knowledge system which has existed for centuries is considered to be a
traditional knowledge of the region.
• Indian system of medicine is very rich. Knowledge of Ayurveda, Siddha, Sowa
Rigpa, Unani.
• However, this knowledge exists in local languages such as Sanskrit,
Hindi, Arabic, Urdu, Tamil, etc
• In the past India has fought legal battles in the USA and the UK to prevent
patenting of turmeric (anti-inflammatory properties) and neem (anti-fungal
properties) respectively.
• Even though India won these cases such legal battles are costly and time
taking.
• Government started a traditional knowledge digital library to prevent
misappropriation of countries' traditional knowledge.
• As part of this initiative, TK has been translated into five international
languages like English, Japanese, French, German and Spanish, and access
of TKDL given to foreign patent offices based on confidentiality agreements.
• This initiative has been a great success as India has avoided many legal
battles because of it.

Defence system
• Destroyer Ships.
• INS Vishakhapatnam.
• It is equipped with features of Stealth technology.
• It uses various techniques such as radio Jammers, material absorbing the
radio wave, Geometry (incident radio waves will be reflected in random
directions)
• It means not being detected by radar technology.
• Aircraft carrier.
• INS Vikramaditya.
• It functions in the following manner,
• CATOBAR Mechanism - catapulted assisted take-off but arrested recovery
 • STOBAR mechanism short take-off but arrested recovery
• EMALS Mechanism- Electromagnetic aircraft Launch system
• Fighter planes.
• Rafale and Miraj are French fighter planes.
• RINS and MINS system.
• Ring-based gyro navigational system use for ICBM Agni missile.
• It helps in proper navigation of missiles such as path, orientation, etc
• Weaponization of space
• Use of Space-based infra for space-based targets such as satellites or targets
on the ground.
• Accelerating the missile to supersonic speed in a space that has the least
disturbance.
• Note- for detail of the Weaponization of space refer to the handout
shared in this class( Class_15)

Contributions of Indians in S&T

• CV Raman.
• He was a Nobel laureate who got a Nobel prize for a phenomenon known after
him. That is the Raman effect.
• In the Raman Effect the frequency of scattered photons increases or
decreases after interaction with a molecular system.
• Thus, it is an example of the inelastic (change in energy and frequency)
scattering of photons.
• During the lifetime of Raman, Raman spectroscopy did not become popular for
material analysis.
• However, with the discovery of laser light, Raman spectroscopy has
become the most famous spectroscopic technique for many industries.
• This is because of the following reasons,
• Raman spectroscopy can be done on a very small sample.
• It is non-destructive in nature in that’s is material is not compromised in any
way no matter the number of times it has undergone spectroscopy.
• It is sensitive to even very small changes in material composition.
• It can be performed on almost all types of materials.
• Applications
• Used in pharma industries, chemical industries, electronics industries, plastic
industry, glass industry, etc

Dr Satyendra Nath Bose Contribution

• Bose was a theatrical physicist known for their contribution to Bose-Einstein
statistics.
• Before him, statistical physics was developed based on rules of classical
physics that did not predict the behaviour of matter.
• Bose calculated the distribution of photons assuming them to be identical. In
Quantum mechanics particles are considered identical.
• Bose sent his paper to Einstein to realize the significance of this calculation
and generalized it for a group of particles that will follow the same distribution.
• Such statistical distribution is known as Bose-Einstein statistics and particles
which follow these statistics are called Bosons
• Einstein further predicted that at very low temperatures most of the bosons
occupy the same quantum state and in such a scenario, the matter will exist in
entirely a new state, this state is called Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) which
is also known as 5th state of matter.
Standard model (a collaboration of many-particle physicists)
• It is the most successful theory of particle physics which describes the
fundamental building blocks of the universe (that is fundamental particles) and
the fundamental interaction among them.
• It also predicts the existence of other particles and many of those particles are
already being detected.
• The fundamental particles are six leptons (electron, muons, and tow, electron
neutrino, neon neutrino, and tow neutrinos) and six quarks. (Up, down, charm,
strange, top and bottom.
• It provides the mediating particles for three fundamental forces. it also
provided describe
• Photon is responsible for electromagnetic.
• gluon is responsible for strong interaction
• W and z are responsible for weak interaction.
• All these particles are known as BOSONS. They follow Bose-Einstein
statistics.
• The Higgs boson and Higgs field are responsible for the mass of fundamental
particles.

Subramaniam Chandrashekhar.
• Subramanian is a theoretical physicist who hypothesized the later stages of a
star.
• Before him, the prevailing theory was that a star in later stages becomes a
white dwarf star and fades away.
• Dr Chandrasekhar calculated that this is not the case. In fact, a heavier star
than the sun (1.44ms) will not become a stable white dwarf. It undergoes
further collapse leading to supernova explosions.
• Further star can become a neutron star or a black hole depending upon the
initial mass.
• He was awarded a noble prize in physics for this discovery.

Dark Matter and Dark energy

• It is a hypothetical form of matter which still not been observed however
scientists are sure of its existence because of its gravitational influence on
galaxies.
• Such type of matter does not interact with normal light however it has mass.
• Dark energy
• We know that universe is expanding however because of attractive
gravitational forces this expansion should slow down.
• However different measurement has shown that not only the universe is
expanding rate of expansion in itself is increasing.
• To account for this accelerated expansion the term dark energy is used.
• For the entire matter and energy of the universe, 68 % is constituted by dark
energy, 27 % by dark matter and 5 % is visible matter.