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Computer Application In Business

STUDY PAPERS

AS PER
SCIENCE COLLEGE AUTONOMOUS, HINJILICUT
SYLLABUS
(2021)
PRESENTED BY:PRITAM KUMAR JENA
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CONTENTS
S.L NO. CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1 UNIT-I 3-59

Computer Networking, Word

Processing And Latex

2 UNIT-II 60-81

Business Data Analysis

3 UNIT-III 82-93

Presentation And Business

Records

4 UNIT-IV 94-113

Website Designing
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UNIT-1
Computer Networking
A computer network is a system that connects numerous independent computers in order to
share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different
devices allows users to communicate more easily.
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together.
A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and
software are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware,
personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a
computer network. Hostnames and network addresses are used to identify them.

Criteria of good network:

 Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response. The performance of the network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of medium & hardware
 Reliability: In the addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from failure, and the network’s robustness in catastrophe.
 Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data loss.

Goal Of Networking:
 Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource and load
sharing.
 Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other
peripherals.
 Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
 Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
 Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)
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 Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail, video
conferencing, and online shopping)
 Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
 Social Networking

Types of Networks
Division based on the communication medium
 Wired Network: As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical medium made up of
cables. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all options. A wired network
employs wires to link devices to the Internet or another network, such as laptops or
desktop PCs.
 Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up of
electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors will be
present on all wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV remotes, satellite
disc receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all examples of wireless devices. For
data or voice communication, a wireless network uses radio frequency waves rather
than wires.
Division based on area covered
Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of around 10 kilometers.
For example, a college network or an office network. Depending upon the needs of the
organization, a LAN can be a single office, building, or Campus. We can have two PCs and one
printer in-home office or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and video
devices. Each host in LAN has an identifier, an address that defines hists in LAN. A packet sent
by the host to another host carries both the source host’s and the destination host’s address.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that covers an entire city. For
example: consider the cable television network.
Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN refers to a network that connects countries or continents.
For example, the Internet allows users to access a distributed system called www from
anywhere around the globe.WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers,
or modems. A LAN is normally privately owned by an organization that uses it. We see two
distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and Switched WANs
Point To Point: Connects two connecting devices through transmission media.
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Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

Based on types of communication
Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data networking that
establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known as a point-to-
point connection.
Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share links. In the multipoint
environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spartailly or temporally. If several
devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection.
Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which numerous parties can
hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent illustration of the “Broadcast Network” in
everyday life. The radio station is a sender of data/signal in this scenario, and data is only
intended to travel in one direction. Away from the radio transmission tower, to be precise.
Based on the type of architecture
P2P Networks: Computers with similar capabilities and configurations are referred to as peers.
“Peer to Peer” is the abbreviation for “peer to peer.” The “peers” in a peer-to-peer network
are computer systems that are connected to each other over the Internet. Without the use of
a central server, files can be shared directly between systems on the network.
Client-Server Networks: Each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server
in a client-server architecture (client/server). The client asks for services from the server,
which the server provides. Servers are high-performance computers or processes that manage
disc drives (file servers), printers (print servers), or network traffic (network servers)
Hybrid Networks: The hybrid model refers to a network that uses a combination of client-
server and peer-to-peer architecture. Eg: Torrent.
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Need of networking
In today’s technology-oriented world, sharing has become an integral part of businesses and
other activities. This sharing can be achieved by networking. A computer network is linking
two or more computers in order to share files or resources.
Here, we will see why we need computer networks in more detail below −
 To share computer files
Networks enable users to share files with others. For example, in a company, one file is to be
shared by multiple branches. When we locate this file on the network system, all the branches
can use this file.
 To share computer equipment
Laser printers and large hard-disk drives can be expensive. Networks enable users to share
such equipment by networking microcomputers or workstations together.
 To enable unlike computer equipment to communicate
A company with computers of multiple uses using several operating systems, including MS-
DOS, UNIX, WINDOWS 95, and Apple DOS, cannot share files from one computer to another
unless arranged using a Networking operating system including Network 4.1 or Windows NT
4.0.
 To improve communication speed and accuracy
Sending messages through networks is virtually instantaneous, and there is also less chance of
a message being lost.
 To reduce the cost of data transfer
The cost of transfers of files using computers associated with networks is less expensive than
other traditional means like telegrams.
 Verify Data Transfer
Fluctuations of costs in foreign exchange and shares can be broadcasted promptly using the
channel of computer communications. The transmission can be increased and checked at any
occurrence of time.
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 High Reliability
All files can be recreated on a few machines, and therefore if one of them is unavailable
(because of hardware failure), the different copies can be used.
Network Topology
1. Bus Topology: Every computer and network device is connected to a single cable in a bus
topology network. Linear Bus topology is defined as having exactly two terminals.
Advantages
 Installation is simple.
 Compared to mesh, star, and tree topologies, the bus utilizes less cabling.
Disadvantages
 Difficulty in reconfiguring and isolating faults.
 A bus cable malfunction or break interrupts all communication.

2. Ring Topology: The topology is named ring topology because one computer is connected to
another, with the final one being connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction. Each ring incorporates a repeater.
Advantages
 Data transmission is relatively straightforward because packets only move in one direction.
 There is no requirement for a central controller to manage communication between nodes.
 Easy installation & Reconfiguration
 Simplified Faulty connections
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Disadvantages
 In a Unidirectional Ring, a data packet must traverse through all nodes.
 All computers must be turned on in order for them to connect with one another.

3. Star Topology: Each device in a star topology has a dedicated point-to-point link to a central
controller, which is commonly referred to as the HUB. There is no direct connection between
the devices. Traffic between the devices is not allowed in this topology. As an exchange, the
controller is used.
Advantages
 When attaching or disconnecting devices, there are no network interruptions.
 It’s simple to set up and configure.
 Identifying and isolating faults is simple.
 Less Expensive than mesh
 Easy to install & configure
Disadvantages
 Nodes attached to the hub, switch, or concentrator is failed if they fail.
 Because of the expense of the hubs, it is more expensive than linear bus topologies.
 More cable required compared to bus or ring
 Too much dependency on Hub
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4. Mesh Topology: Every device in a mesh topology has dedicated point-to-point connectivity
to every other device. The term “dedicated” refers to the fact that the link exclusively
transports data between the two devices it links. To connect n devices, a fully connected mesh
network contains n *(n-1)/2 physical channels.
Advantages
 Data can be sent from multiple devices at the same time. This topology can handle a lot
of traffic.
 Even if one of the connections fails, a backup is always available. As a result, data transit
is unaffected.
 Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages
 Point to Point links make fault transmission & fault isolation easy
Disadvantages
 The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports that are necessary.
 The sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space can accommodate.
 It is difficult to install and reconfigure.
Example: connection of telephone regional office in which each regional office needs to be
connected to every other regional office.

5. Tree Topology: The topology of a tree is similar to that of a star. Nodes in a tree, like those
in a star, are connected to a central hub that manages network traffic. It has a root node,
which is connected to all other nodes, producing a hierarchy. Hierarchical topology is another
name for it. The number of Star networks is connected via Bus in Tree Topology.
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Advantages
 Network expansion is both possible and simple.
 We partition the entire network into pieces (star networks) that are easier to manage
and maintain.
 Other segments are unaffected if one segment is damaged.
Disadvantages
 Tree topology relies largely on the main bus cable because of its basic structure, and if it
fails, the entire network is handicapped.
 Maintenance becomes more challenging when more nodes and segments are added.

Networking Devices
Basic hardware interconnecting network nodes, such as Network Interface Cards (NICs),
Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers, are used in all networks. In addition, a mechanism for
connecting these building parts is necessary, which is usually galvanic cable and optical cable
are less popular (“optical fiber”)The following are the network devices :
NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network adapter or NIC
(network interface card), is computer hardware that enables computers to communicate via a
network. It offers physical access to networking media and, in many cases, MAC addresses
serve as a low-level addressing scheme. Each network interface card has a distinct identifier.
This is stored on a chip that is attached to the card.
Repeater: A repeater is an electrical device that receives a signal, cleans it of unwanted noise,
regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level or to the opposite side of an
obstruction, allowing the signal to travel greater distances without degradation. In the
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majority of twisted pair Ethernet networks, Repeaters are necessary for cable lengths longer
than 100 meters in some systems. Repeaters are based on physics.
Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic Ethernet devices to
give the illusion as a formation of a single network segment. The device can be visualized as a
multiport repeater. A network hub is a relatively simple broadcast device. Any packet entering
any port is regenerated and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs do not control any of
the traffic that passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result of every packet being
sent out through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth flow of communication.
Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not on the one that received the
transmission. Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are reachable through
specific ports rather than copying messages to all ports as hubs do. Once a port and an
address are associated, the bridge will only transport traffic for that address to that port.
Switches: A switch differs from a hub in that it only forwards frames to the ports that are
participating in the communication, rather than all of the ports that are connected. The
collision domain is broken by a switch, yet the switch depicts itself as a broadcast domain.
Frame forwarding decisions are made by switches based on MAC addresses.
Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables to find the
optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a computer networking
device that links two or more computer networks and selectively exchanges data packets
between them. A router can use address information in each data packet to determine if the
source and destination are on the same network or if the data packet has to be transported
between networks. When numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of
interconnected networks, the routers share target system addresses so that each router can
develop a table displaying the preferred pathways between any two systems on the
associated networks.
Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices such as protocol
translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators.
It also necessitates the development of administrative procedures that are acceptable to both
networks. By completing the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol translation/mapping
gateway joins networks that use distinct network protocol technologies.
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Internet
The internet is a larger network that allows computer networks controlled by enterprises,
governments, colleges, and other organizations all over the world to communicate with one
another. As a result, there are a tangle of cables, computers, data centers, routers, servers,
repeaters, satellites, and wi-fi towers that allow digital data to go around the world.
The Internet is a vast network of networks that functions as a networking infrastructure. It
links millions of computers throughout the world, creating a network in which any computer
can talk with any other computer as long as they are both linked to the Internet.
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate and share
information using a standardized Internet Protocol Suite.
Origin Of Internet: The internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working
model called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple computers to
work on a single network that was their biggest achievement at that time. ARPANET use
packet switching to communicate multiple computer systems under a single network. In
October 1969, using ARPANET first message was transferred from one computer to another.
After that technology continues to grow.
The advantages and disadvantages of the internet:
Advantages of internet are,
 Source of entertainment – Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies, dramas,
and TV series are quickly becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
 Source of information – There is no better place to conduct research than the internet.
We can learn about the latest trends, communicate with experts without having to
physically visit them, and seek professional advice over the internet.
 E – Commerce – With the advancement of internet technology, large online E-
commerce enterprises such as Amazon, Ali Baba, myntra etc. have emerged.
 Working from home, collaborating with others, and having access to a global workforce
are all advantages.
 Keeps Updated – Because there are hundreds of thousands of newsgroups and services
that keep you updated with every tick of the clock, the Internet is a source of the most
recent news.
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Disadvantages of internet are,

 Time Wastage – Most people believe that spending too much time on the internet is
unhealthy for young people and leads to obesity.
 Money Laundering – Aside from reputable sites, there are some Social Media
Advertising sites that try to steal your personal information, credit card information,
and even your pin code. You can easily become a victim of money scam if they get this
information.
 Exposure to private data – It is now quite easy to decipher someone’s chat or email
communication thanks to the hacking community. As we all know, data is transmitted in
packets, which hackers can simply detect and reconstruct.
 Harassment & threatening – Bullies exist online, just as they do in real life, and they can
lower your self-esteem by harassing and threatening you. Some of these individuals
may be persons who are aware of some of your personal details and dislike you, and
may use this information to harass you.
The ways to connect to the internet:
We can connect to the internet in the following ways:
 Dial-Up – In order to access the Internet, in this type of connection, users must connect
their phone line to a computer . This link prevents the user from using tier home phone
service to make or receive calls.
 Broadband – Broadband is a high-speed internet connection that is frequently utilized
nowadays and is provided by cable or phone companies.
 Wireless connections – Internet access is accomplished by radio waves, thus it is
possible to connect to the Internet from any location. Wi-Fi and mobile service
providers are examples of wireless connections.
Uses of the Internet
Some of the important usages of the internet are:
I. Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life easier,
e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, Myntra are providing very spectacular services
with just one click and this is a great use of the Internet.
II. Cashless transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to their
customers to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment apps like
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Paytm, Google pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital
payment industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too because of the
INTERNET.
III. Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational material
to everyone through any server across the web. Those who are unable to attend
physical classes can choose any course from the internet and can have the point-to-
point knowledge of it just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are teaching online on
digital platforms and providing quality education to students with the help of the
Internet.
IV. Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect
people all over the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk, share
videos, images with our loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can create
groups for discussion or for meetings.
V. Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous
entertainment options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games,
listening to music, etc. You can also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc.,
easily from the internet.

IP address
IP address stands for internet protocol address. Every PC/Local machine is having an IP address and
that IP address is provided by the Internet Service Providers (ISP’s). These are some sets of rules
which govern the flow of data whenever a device is connected to the Internet. It differentiates
computers, websites, and routers. Just like human identification cards like Aadhaar cards, Pan cards,
or any other unique identification documents. Every laptop and desktop has its own unique IP
address for identification. It’s an important part of internet technology. An IP address is displayed as a
set of four-digit like 192.154.3.29. Here each number on the set ranges from 0 to 255. Hence, the
total IP address range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
You can check the IP address of your Laptop or desktop by clicking on the windows start menu ->then
right click and go to network ->in that go to status and then Properties their you can see the IP
address. There are four different types of IP addresses are available:
I. Static IP address
II. Dynamic IP address
III. Private IP address
IV. Public IP address
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1.Static IP addresses
In contrast to dynamic IP addresses, static addresses remain consistent. Once the network
assigns an IP address, it remains the same. Most individuals and businesses do not need a
static IP address, but for businesses that plan to host their own server, it is crucial to have one.
This is because a static IP address ensures that websites and email addresses tied to it will
have a consistent IP address — vital if you want other devices to be able to find them
consistently on the web.
This leads to the next point – which is the two types of website IP addresses.
There are two types of website IP addresses
For website owners who don’t host their own server, and instead rely on a web hosting
package – which is the case for most websites – there are two types of website IP addresses.
These are shared and dedicated.
Shared IP addresses
Websites that rely on shared hosting plans from web hosting providers will typically be one of
many websites hosted on the same server. This tends to be the case for individual websites or
SME websites, where traffic volumes are manageable, and the sites themselves are limited in
terms of the number of pages, etc. Websites hosted in this way will have shared IP addresses.
Dedicated IP addresses
Some web hosting plans have the option to purchase a dedicated IP address (or addresses).
This can make obtaining an SSL certificate easier and allows you to run your own File Transfer
Protocol (FTP) server. This makes it easier to share and transfer files with multiple people
within an organization and allow anonymous FTP sharing options. A dedicated IP address also
allows you to access your website using the IP address alone rather than the domain name —
useful if you want to build and test it before registering your domain.
2.Dynamic IP addresses
Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and regularly. ISPs buy a large pool of IP addresses and assign
them automatically to their customers. Periodically, they re-assign them and put the older IP addresses back
into the pool to be used for other customers. The rationale for this approach is to generate cost savings for
the ISP. Automating the regular movement of IP addresses means they don’t have to carry out specific actions
to re-establish a customer's IP address if they move home, for example. There are security benefits, too,
because a changing IP address makes it harder for criminals to hack into your network interface.
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3.Private IP addresses
Every device that connects to your internet network has a private IP address. This includes
computers, smartphones, and tablets but also any Bluetooth-enabled devices like speakers,
printers, or smart TVs. With the growing internet of things, the number of private IP addresses
you have at home is probably growing. Your router needs a way to identify these items
separately, and many items need a way to recognize each other. Therefore, your router
generates private IP addresses that are unique identifiers for each device that differentiate
them on the network.
4.Public IP addresses
A public IP address is the primary address associated with your whole network. While each
connected device has its own IP address, they are also included within the main IP address for
your network. As described above, your public IP address is provided to your router by your
ISP. Typically, ISPs have a large pool of IP addresses that they distribute to their customers.
Your public IP address is the address that all the devices outside your internet network will use
to recognize your network.
Public IP addresses come in two forms – dynamic and static.
How do IP addresses work
If you want to understand why a particular device is not connecting in the way you would
expect or you want to troubleshoot why your network may not be working, it helps
understand how IP addresses work.
Internet Protocol works the same way as any other language, by communicating using set
guidelines to pass information. All devices find, send, and exchange information with other
connected devices using this protocol. By speaking the same language, any computer in any
location can talk to one another.
The use of IP addresses typically happens behind the scenes. The process works like this:
 Your device indirectly connects to the internet by connecting at first to a network
connected to the internet, which then grants your device access to the internet.
 When you are at home, that network will probably be your Internet Service Provider
(ISP). At work, it will be your company network.
 Your IP address is assigned to your device by your ISP.
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 Your internet activity goes through the ISP, and they route it back to you, using your IP
address. Since they are giving you access to the internet, it is their role to assign an IP
address to your device.
 However, your IP address can change. For example, turning your modem or router on or
off can change it. Or you can contact your ISP, and they can change it for you.
 When you are out and about – for example, traveling – and you take your device with
you, your home IP address does not come with you. This is because you will be using
another network (Wi-Fi at a hotel, airport, or coffee shop, etc.) to access the internet
and will be using a different (and temporary) IP address, assigned to you by the ISP of
the hotel, airport or coffee shop.

World Wide Web(WWW)

The worldwide web is a collection of all the web pages, web documents that you can see on
the Internet by searching their URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) on the Internet. For
example, www.geeksforgeeks.org is a URL of the GFG website and all the content of this site
like web pages and all the web documents are stored on the worldwide web. Or in other
words, the world wide web is an information retrieval service of the web. It provides users a
huge array of documents that are connected to each other by means of hypertext or
hypermedia links. Here, hyperlinks are known as electronic connections that link the related
data so that users can easily access the related information and hypertext allows the user to
pick a word or phrase from text, and using this keyword or word or phrase can access other
documents that contain additional information related to that word or keyword or phrase.
World wide web is a project which is created by Timothy Berner’s Lee in 1989, for researchers
to work together effectively at CERN. It is an organization, named World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), which was developed for further development in the web.
History of the World Wide Web
British physicist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. Along with colleagues at
Geneva-based CERN-- the European Organization for Nuclear Research -- Berners-Lee had
been working on the concept since 1989. Their goal was to combine available technologies
and data networks to create a user-friendly system for global communication and information
sharing. At the time, they began work on the first WWW server, which they called httpd. They
also dubbed the first client WWW.
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Originally, WWW was a what you see is what you get (WYSIWYG) hypertext browser/editor
that ran in the NextStep environment. In 1990, Berners-Lee demonstrated the first web server
and browser at CERN to explain his idea of a World Wide Web. The web then entered the
public eye in 1991 when Berners-Lee, who also developed hypertext, announced his creation
on the alt.hypertext newsgroup; at the same time, he created the world's first web page with
the address http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html.
Difference between Worldwide Web and Internet
The difference between the world wide web and the internet are:
 All the web pages and web documents are stored there on the World wide web and to
find all that stuff you will have a specific URL for each website. Whereas the internet is a
global network of computers that is accessed by the World wide web.
 World wide web is a service whereas the internet is an infrastructure.
 World wide web is a subset of the internet whereas the internet is the superset of the
world wide web.
 World wide web is software-oriented whereas the internet is hardware-oriented.
 World wide web uses HTTP whereas the internet uses IP addresses.
 The Internet can be considered as a Library whereas all the kinds of stuff like books
from different topics present over there can be considered as World wide web.

E-mail
e-mail, in full electronic mail, messages transmitted and received by digital computers through
a network. An e-mail system allows computer users on a network to send text, graphics,
sounds, and animated images to other users.
On most networks, data can be simultaneously sent to a universe of users or to a select group
or individual. Network users typically have an electronic mailbox that receives, stores, and
manages their correspondence. Recipients can elect to view, print, save, edit, answer,
forward, or otherwise react to communications. Many e-mail systems have advanced features
that alert users to incoming messages or permit them to employ special privacy features.
Large corporations and institutions use e-mail systems as an important communication link
between employees and other people allowed on their networks. E-mail is also available on
major public online and bulletin board systems, many of which maintain free or low-cost
global communication networks.
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How does email work?

Email messages are sent from software programs and web browsers, collectively referred to
as email ‘clients.’ Individual messages are routed through multiple servers before they reach
the recipient’s email server, similar to the way a traditional letter might travel through several
post offices before it reaches its recipient’s mailbox.
Once an email message has been sent, it follows several steps to its final destination:
I. The sender’s mail server, also called a Mail Transfer Agent (MTA), initiates a Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP) connection.
II. The SMTP checks the email envelope data — the text that tells the server where to send
a message — for the recipient’s email address, then uses the Domain Name System
(DNS) to translate the domain name into an IP address.
III. The SMTP looks for a mail exchange (MX) server associated with the recipient’s domain
name. If one exists, the email is forwarded to the recipient’s mail server.
IV. The email is stored on the recipient’s mail server and may be accessed via the Post
Office Protocol (POP)* or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP). These two
protocols function slightly differently: POP downloads the email to the recipient’s
device and deletes it from the mail server, while IMAP stores the email within the email
client, allowing the recipient to access it from any connected device.
The parts of an email
An individual email is made up of three primary components: the SMTP envelope, the header,
and the body.
SMTP envelope
The SMTP “envelope” is the data communicated between servers during the email delivery
process. It consists of the sender’s email address and the recipient’s email address. This
envelope data tells the mail server where to send the message, just as a mail carrier
references the address on an envelope in order to deliver a letter to the correct location.
During the email delivery process, this envelope is discarded and replaced every time the
email is transferred to a different server.
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Header
Like the SMTP envelope, the email header provides critical information about the sender and
recipient. Most of the time, the header matches the information provided in the SMTP
envelope, but this may not always be the case. For instance, a scammer may disguise the
source of a message by using a legitimate email address in the header of an email. Because
the recipient only sees the header and body of an email — not the envelope data — they may
not know the message is malicious.
The header may also contain a number of optional fields that allow the recipient to reply to,
forward, categorize, archive, or delete the email. Other header fields include the following:
I. The ‘Date’ field contains the date the email is sent. This is a mandatory header field.
II. The ‘From’ field contains the email address of the sender. If the email address is
associated with a display name, that may be shown in this field as well. This is also a
mandatory header field.
III. The ‘To’ field contains the email address of the recipient. If the email address is
associated with a display name, that may be shown in this field as well.
IV. The ‘Subject’ field contains any contextual information about the message the sender
wants to include. It is displayed as a separate line above the body of an email.
V. The ‘Cc’ (carbon copy) field allows the sender to send a copy of the email to additional
recipients. The recipients marked in the ‘To’ field can see the email address(es) listed in
the ‘Cc’ field.
VI. The ‘Bcc’ (blind carbon copy) field allows the sender to send a copy of the email to
additional recipients. The recipients marked in the ‘To’ field cannot see the email
address(es) listed in the ‘Bcc’ field.
Body
The body of an email contains any information the sender wishes to send: text, images, links,
videos, and/or other file attachments, provided that they do not exceed the email client’s size
restrictions. Alternatively, an email can be sent without any information in the body field.
Depending on the options provided by the email client, the body of an email can be formatted
in plain text or HTML. Plain text emails do not contain any special formatting (like non-black
font colors) or multimedia (like images). They are compatible with all devices and email
clients. HTML emails do allow formatting and multimedia within the body field, though some
 21

HTML elements may get flagged as spam by email filtering systems or may not display
properly on incompatible devices or clients.
What is an email address?
An email address is a unique string of characters that identifies an email account, or ‘mailbox,’
where messages can be sent and received. Email addresses are formatted in three distinct
parts: a local-part, an “@” symbol, and a domain.
For example, in the email address [email protected], “employee” denotes the local-
part and “example.com” denotes the domain.
Imagine addressing a letter: the domain signifies the city where the recipient lives, while the
local-part specifies the street and house number at which the letter can be received.
Local-part
The local-part tells the server the final location of an email message. It may include a
combination of letters, numbers, and certain punctuation marks (like underscores). The
maximum number of characters for an email address (including both the local-part and
domain) is 320, though the recommended length is capped at 254 characters.
Domain
The domain may be a domain name, like example.com, or an IP address, like 192.0.2.0. In the
former case, the SMTP protocol uses DNS to translate a domain name into its IP address
before delivering the message to the next server.
Like the local-part, the domain also has to adhere to certain formatting requirements
established by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Approved domain names may
include a combination of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and hyphens. An email
address can also be formatted with an IP address in brackets instead of a domain name,
although this is rare. The character limit for a domain name is 63.

Intranet
Intranet is a kind of private network. For example, an intranet is used by different
organizations and only members/staff of that organization have access to this. It is a system in
which multiple PCs of an organization (or the PCs you want to connect) are connected to each
other through intranet. As this is a private network, so no one from the outside world can
access this network. So many organizations and companies have their own intranet network
 22

and only its members and staff have access to this network. This is also used to protect your
data and provide data security to a particular organization, as it is a private network and does
not leak data to the outside world.
Let us understand more about intranet with the help of a diagram, as shown below:

Here in this diagram, a company or an organization has created its own private network or
intranet for its work(intranet network is under the circle). The company or organization has
many employees(in this diagram, we have considered 3). So, for their access, they have PC 1,
PC 2, and PC 3(In the real world there are many employees as per the requirements of an
organization). Also, they have their own server for files or data to store, and to protect this
private network, there is a Firewall. This firewall protects and gives security to the intranet
server and its data from getting leaked to any unwanted user. So, a user who has access to the
intranet can only access this network. So, no one from the outside world can access this
network. Also, an intranet user can access the internet but a person using the internet cannot
access the intranet network.
Advantages of intranet:
I. In the intranet, the cost of conveying data utilizing the intranet is very low.
II. Using intranet employees can easily get data anytime and anywhere.
III. It is easy to learn and use.
IV. It can be utilized as a correspondence center point where employees can store data at
whatever point they need and download files in just a few seconds.
V. It connects employees with each other.
VI. The documents stored on the intranet are much more secure.
 23

Disadvantages of intranet:
I. The expense of actualizing intranets is normally high.
II. The staff of the company or organization require special training to know how to use
the system.
III. Data overloading.
IV. Although the intranet provides good security, but it still lacks in some places.
As we talk about the Intranet, it is too obvious to compare it with the Internet and for that, we
have to look on the similarities and differences of both. There are many similarities and
differences between the Internet and Intranet:
Similarities between the internet and intranet:
I. Intranet uses TCP/IP and FTP which are internet protocols.
II. Via web browser Intranet sites are accessible in the same as internet sites are
accessible. But internet sites are accessible to all and intranet hosted sites are available
only to its members or staff’s with access.
III. As there is yahoo messenger or Gtalk available on the internet, similarly there is own
instant messenger available in Intranet.
Differences between the internet and intranet:
I. Intranet is limited and available to few PCs(members who have access) whereas the
Internet is available to all PCs and everybody has access.
II. Intranet is restricted, whereas the Internet has wider access and it provides access to a
larger population with better access to its websites.
III. Intranet is safe and secure when it comes to data security and Intranet can be safely
privatized as per the user requirement whereas the internet is not as safe as Intranet.
 24

Applications
Intranet applications are same as that of Internet applications. Intranet applications are also
accessed through a web browser. The only difference is that, Intranet applications reside on
local server while Internet applications reside on remote server. Here, we've discussed some
of these applications:
 Document publication applications
Document publication applications allow publishing documents such as manuals, software
guide, employee profits etc without use of paper.
 Electronic resources applications
It offers electronic resources such as software applications, templates and tools, to be shared
across the network.
 Interactive Communication applications
Like on internet, we have e-mail and chat like applications for Intranet, hence offering an
interactive communication among employees.
 Support for Internet Applications
Intranet offers an environment to deploy and test applications before placing them on
Internet.

Extranet
Extranet refers to network within an organization, using internet to connect to the outsiders in
controlled manner. It helps to connect businesses with their customers and suppliers and
therefore allows working in a collaborative manner.
 25

Implementation
Extranet is implemented as a Virtual Private Networks (VPN) because it uses internet to
connect to corporate organization and there is always a threat to information security. VPN
offers a secure network in public infrastructure (Internet).

Key Points
 The packet is encapsulated at boundary of networks in IPSEC complaint routers.
 It uses an encryption key to encapsulate packets and IP addresses as well.
 The packet is decoded only by the IPSEC complaint routers or servers.
 The message is sent over VPN via VPN Tunnel and this process is known as tunneling.

Benefits
Extranet proves to be a successful model for all kind of businesses whether small or big. Here
are some of the advantages of extranet for employees, suppliers, business partners, and
customers:
 26

Issues
Apart for advantages there are also some issues associated with extranet. These issues are
discussed below:
 Hosting
Where the extranet pages will be held i.e. who will host the extranet pages. In this context
there are two choices:
 Host it on your own server.
 Host it with an Internet Service Provider (ISP) in the same way as web pages.
But hosting extranet pages on your own server requires high bandwidth internet connection
which is very costly.
 Security
Additional firewall security is required if you host extranet pages on your own server which
result in a complex security mechanism and increase work load.
 Accessing Issues
Information can not be accessed without internet connection. However, information can be
accessed in Intranet without internet connection.
 Decreased Interaction
It decreases the face to face interaction in the business which results in lack of communication
among customers, business partners and suppliers.

Browsing
Browsing in the context of the internet typically means using a web browser. This can be with a specific
purpose, such as using email or updating one's status on a social media site, or just using the web with no
purpose in particular, as in, "Oh, I'm just browsing."
One advantage of hypertext systems like the world wide web is that it lets users find information without
specifically looking at it, the way they might find a new book to read by looking at a library's bookshelves.
Browsing is typically contrasted with more methodical search strategies, such as using advanced options in a
search engine.The term "browsing" can also be applied to other hypertext systems, such as help systems or
the earlier Gopher protocol.
 27

Web Browser
This information might be pictures, audio, videos, or some other files that are shown on our
screens through a web page.
The web browser can be called a client program as it requests the web server for the
information demanded by the user. Some of the common browsers are Google,
MozillaFirefox, Safari, internet explorer, Netscape Navigator, etc.

How does a browser work?

The whole process of gathering information begins with the user when it enters the URL of the
desired website in the address bar. The browser is a part of the client-server model where it
plays the part of the client.

It sends requested information to the web server through HTTP- hypertext transfer protocol.
Once the request is received, the server gathers the related information it forwards it through
web pages.
When a URL is entered, supposedly art of testing.com the web browser first requests the DNS
(Domain name server) the IP address of the artoftesting.com. The DNS is a phonebook of the
internet and therefore, it stores the system names and their corresponding IP addresses.

Next, once the IP address is found the address is used to request the servers of ‘artOfTesting’
website for the content. This is then fulfilled and displayed on the client’s screen.
Element of a Web Browser
The web browser is made of 7 main components that work in sync to make the web browser
function-able. These are-
1. User Interface
The user interface is the first page that you see when you open the web browser. This page
has the address bar, forward/ backward button, menu, bookmarking option, and a few more
options.
 28

2. Browser Engine
The browser engine acts as an interface between the rendering engine and the UI of the
browser. Based on the input, it manipulated the rendering engine to provide output.
3. Rendering engine
The rendering engine is responsible for producing requested content to the browser and
displaying it on the screen. It parses the HTML documents and then converts them to readable
form. All the browsers we know have their own rendering engines.
 The safari uses WebKit.
 Chrome and Opera use Blink ( fork of WebKit).
 Internet explored use Trident.
 Firefox uses Gecko.
The WebKit is an open-source rendering engine and was made for Linux. It has been modified
the Apple to support mac and windows too.
4. Networking
The network layer is responsible for security and communication on the internet. It is also
used for HTTP requests and to cache the documents retrieved in order to reduce network
traffic.
5. UI Backend
It is for drawing basic boxes and windows/ widgets. This is for a generic interface and independent of any
specific platform. Behind all this, it uses an Operating system for UI methods.

6. JavaScript Interpreter
As we all know the JavaScript is responsible for all the websites/ webpages. All these pages are
written in JavaScript language. Therefore this interpreter translates these pages and these are
sent to the rendering engine to display the final results.
7. Data persistence
Data persistence or storage is for saving the data locally, like cookies. The browsers support
storage mechanisms like IndexedDB, WebSQL, File System, etc. to store databases locally on
your computer. This way user data is handled like cache, bookmarks, cookies, etc.
 29

Features of a Web Browser

Some of the features of the web browser include-
 Home button – Clicking the ‘Home’ button brings the user directly back to the home
page of the browser. We can set any webpage as the home page. Usually people prefer
to have search engines like – Google.com as their home page.
 Address bar – The address bar is where the URL of the desired website is entered. This
bar helps us to navigate to the desired website of our choice.
 Refresh button – The refresh button is to reload the page. In some cases, the page
locally stores and saves the information. This prevents users from seeing the updated
information. Therefore, the refresh button is helpful in such cases.
 Bookmarks – This option is to save a particular website for reference later in the future.
It is used to mark pages that might be important or prove to be useful in the future.
 Tabbed browsing – This feature helps to open new screens on the same browser for
multiple browsing at the same time.
Popular Web Browsers
Google Chrome
Google Chrome is the most popular and used web browser. There is a high chance you are
using it yourself right now. The reason behind its popularity is its speed. It is one of the fastest
browsers – opens and loads quickly, the search results are retrieved within seconds. Another
reason might be its simple and easy-to-use UI.
Mozilla Firefox
This one is another popular choice among users. Although people have always preferred this
one as an option due to its speed. It takes much more time than chrome or safari.
File sharing
File sharing is the public or private sharing of computer data or space in a network with
various levels of access privilege. While files can easily be shared outside a network (for
example, simply by handing or mailing someone your file on a diskette), the term file
sharingalmost always means sharing files in a network, even if in a small local area network.
File sharing allows a number of people to use the same file or file by some combination of
being able to read or view it, write to or modify it, copy it, or print it. Typically, a file sharing
system has one or more administrators. Users may all have the same or may have different
 30

levels of access privilege. File sharing can also mean having an allocated amount of personal
file storage in a common file system.
File sharing has been a feature of mainframe and multi-user computer systems for many
years. With the advent of the Internet, a file transfer system called the File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) has become widely-used. FTP can be used to access (read and possibly write to) files
shared among a particular set of users with a password to gain access to files shared from an
FTP server site. Many FTP sites offer public file sharing or at least the ability to view or copy
files by downloading them, using a public password (which happens to be "anonymous").
Most Web site developers use FTP to upload new or revised Web files to a Web server, and
indeed the World Wide Web itself can be thought of as large-scale file sharing in which
requested pages or files are constantly being downloaded or copied down to the Web user.
More usually, however, file sharing implies a system in which users write to as well as read
files or in which users are allotted some amount of space for personal files on a common
server, giving access to other users as they see fit. The latter kind of file sharing is common in
schools and universities. File sharing can be viewed as part of file systems and their
management.
Any multi-user operating system will provide some form of file sharing. Among the best
known network file systems is (not surprisingly) the Network File System (NFS). Originally
developed by Sun Microsystems for its UNIX-based systems, it lets you read and, assuming you
have permission, write to sharable files as though they were on your own personal computer.
Files can also be shared in file systems distributed over different points in a network. File
sharing is involved in groupware and a number of other types of applications.
Remote Desktop
In this era of remote working and the popularity of the bring-your-own-device (BYOD)
approach, remote desktop connections are increasingly common. A typical remote work
environment consists of several such remote desktop connections taking place at a given time.
This process is automated and managed via the help of a remote desktop manager.
A remote desktop manager is a specialized program that can handle multiple remote desktop
connections. Resources are hosted on a central server called the terminal server. A desktop
manager manages the allocation of these resources to clients when the clients request a
remote desktop connection.
 31

Features in a Remote Desktop Manager

 Support for various remote connection protocols and technologies. Your IT
staff is better off if they have a single pane of glass that can handle the protocols and
technologies they work with daily.
 Secure vault for storing passwords and other sensitive data. IT staff do not have to store
data anywhere else if they have access to a central vault to access this information
when needed.
 Secure session sharing. IT staff may need to collaborate with colleagues when tackling a
particularly troublesome issue. Such collaboration can be
facilitated with the secure sharing of connections and their settings.
 32

Word Processing: Introduction to MS-WORD

Microsoft word is a word processor software developed by Microsoft in 1983. It is the most
commonly used word processor software. It is used to create professional quality documents,
letters, reports, resumes, etc and also allows you to edit or modify your new or existing
document. The file saved in Ms Word has .docx extension. It is a component of the Microsoft
Office suite, but you can buy it separately and is available for both Windows and macOS. The
latest version of Ms Word is 2019.
Features of MS Word
Now let us discuss the features or components of the Ms Word. Using these features, you can
perform different types of operations on your documents, like you can create, delete, style,
modify, or view the content of your document.
1. File
It contains options related to the file, like New(used to create a new document), Open(used to
open an existing document), Save(used to save document), Save As(used to save documents),
History, Print, Share, Export, Info, etc.
2. Home
It is the default tab of Ms Word and it is generally divided into five groups, i.e., Clipboard,
Font, Paragraph, Style and Editing. It allows you to select the color, font, emphasis, bullets,
position of your text. It also contains options like cut, copy, and paste.
3. Insert
It is the second tab present on the menu bar or ribbon. It contains various items that you may
want to insert into a Microsoft word. It includes options like tables, word art, hyperlinks,
symbols, charts, signature line, date and time, shapes, header, footer, text boxes, links, boxes,
equations, etc.
4. Draw
It is the third tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. It is used for freehand drawing in Ms
Word.
 33

5. Design
It is the fourth tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. The design tab contains document
designs that you can select, such as documents with centered titles, offset headings, left-
justified text, page borders, watermarks, page color, etc.
6. Layout
It is the fifth tab present on the menu bar or ribbon. It holds all the options that allow you to
arrange your Microsoft Word document pages just the way you want them. It includes options
like set margins, display line numbers, set paragraph indentation, and lines apply themes,
control page orientation and size, line breaks, etc.
7. References
It is the sixth tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. The references tab lets you add
references to a document, then create a bibliography at the end of the text. The references
are generally stored in a master list, which is used to add references to further documents. It
includes options like, Table of Contents, Footnotes, Citations & Bibliography, Captions, Index,
Table of Authorities, smart look, etc.
8. Mailings
It is the seventh tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. It is a least used tab in the menu bar.
This tab is where you would create labels, print them on envelopes, do mail merge, etc
9. Review
It is the eighth tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. The review tab contains, commenting,
language, translation, spell check, word count tools. It is good for quickly locating and editing
comments.
10. View
It is the ninth tab present in the menu bar or ribbon. View tab allows you to switch between
single page or double page and also allows you to control the layout tools It includes print
layout, outline, web layout, task pane, toolbars, ruler, header and footer, footnotes, full-
screen view, zoom, etc.
 34

Open MS Word
The following step shows how to open MS words:
Step 1: Type Ms Word in the search bar.
Step 2: Select Ms Word application.
Step 3: Select a blank document and press create button.
Another Process

 Click the Start button or press the Windows key on your keyboard to display
the Start menu.
 In the list of applications, find Word and click it. The startup screen appears and Word
starts.

Quit MS Word

 To quit Word, click the x button in the upper-right corner of your screen.
 If you made any changes since you last saved the document, a message box appears
asking if you want to save changes. To save the changes, click Yes. To quit without
saving the changes, click No. If you clicked the xbutton by mistake, click Cancel.

Saving a Microsoft Word Document

1.Make sure your document is open. You can open MS Word by double-clicking the Word
icon or by double-clicking a Word document.
2.Find the "File" tab and click on it. "File" is located in the upper left-hand corner of
Microsoft Word's interface.
3.Click "Save" or "Save As". If you click "Save" on an unsaved document, you will be
redirected to the "Save As" menu.
 If the document has been previously saved, you won't have to select a save
destination (e.g., desktop) or a file name--the existing file will simply be updated.
4.Under "Save As", decide on your save location. Typical locations include "This PC" and
OneDrive, but you can also click "Browse" to select a specific location.
 If you select "This PC", you will have to pick a subfolder--your desktop, for example.
 35

5.Double-click your save location. This will take you to the file name screen.
6.In the "File Name" field, type in your preferred file name.
7.Click "Save" to save your file.
8.Verify that your file was saved before closing your document. If your file is in your chosen
save location, your file was successfully saved!
To create a new blank document:
 Click the Microsoft Office button.
 Select New. The New Document dialog box appears.
 Select Blank document under the Blank and recent section. It will be highlighted by
default.
 Click Create. A new blank document appears in the Word window.
You can access templates that are installed on your computer or on Office Online. Click the
Microsoft Office button and select New. You can create blank documents and access
templates from the dialog box that appears.

Formatting Text
To create and design effective documents, you need to know how to format text. In addition
to making your document more appealing, formatted text can draw the reader's attention to
specific parts of the document and help communicate your message.
To format font size:
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Left-click the drop-down arrow next to the font size box on the Home tab. The font size
drop-down menu appears.
 Move your cursor over the various font sizes. A live preview of the font size will appear
in the document.
 Left-click the font size you want to use. The font size will change in the document.
To format font style:
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Left-click the drop-down arrow next to the font style box on the Home tab. The font
style drop-down menu appears.
 36

 Move your cursor over the various font styles. A live preview of the font will appear in
the document.
 Left-click the font style you want to use. The font style will change in the document.
To format font colour:
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Left-click the drop-down arrow next to the font colour box on the Home tab. The font
colour menu appears.
 Move your cursor over the various font colours. A live preview of the colour will appear
in the document.
 Left-click the font colour you want to use. The font colour will change in the document.
Your colour choices aren't limited to the drop-down menu that appears. Select More
Colours at the bottom of the list to access the Colours dialog box. Choose the colour you want,
then click OK.
To use the Bold, Italic, and Underline commands:
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Click the Bold, Italic, or Underline command in the Font group on the Home tab.
To change the text case:
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Click the Change Case command in the Font group on the Home tab.
 Select one of the case options from the list.
To change text alignment:
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Select one of the four alignment options from the Paragraph group on the Home tab.
 Align Text Left: Aligns all of the selected text to the left margin
 Center: Aligns text an equal distance from the left and right margins
 Align Text Right: Aligns all of the selected text to the right margin
 Justify: Aligns text equally to the right and left margins; used in many books,
newsletters, and newspapers
 37

Spacing
An important part of creating effective documents lies in the document design. As part of
designing the document and making formatting decisions, you will need to know how
to modify the spacing.
To format line spacing:
 Select the text you want to format.
 Click the Line spacing command in the Paragraph group on the Home tab.
 Select a spacing option.
OR
 Select Line Spacing Options. The Paragraph dialog box appears.
 Use the Line spacing drop-down menu to select a spacing option.
 Modify the before and after points to adjust line spacing as needed.
 Click OK.
Paragraph spacing
Just as you can format spacing between lines in your document, you can choose spacing
options between each paragraph. Typically, extra spaces are added between paragraphs,
headings, or subheadings. Extra spacing between paragraphs adds emphasis and makes a
document easier to read.
To format paragraph spacing:
 Click the Line spacing command on the Home tab.
 Select Add Space Before Paragraph or Remove Space After Paragraphfrom the menu. If
you don't see the option you want, click Line Spacing Options to manually set the
spacing (see below).
OR
 Select Line Spacing Options. The Paragraph dialog box appears.
 Change the Before and After points in the Paragraph section.
 Click OK.
 38

Line spacing is measured in lines or points, which is referred to as leading. When you reduce
the leading, you automatically bring the lines of text closer together. Increasing the leading
will space the lines out, allowing for improved readability.

Modifying Page Layout

You may find that the default page layout settings in Word are not sufficient for the document
you want to create, in which case you will want to modify these settings. In addition, you may
want to change the page formatting depending on the document you're creating.
To change page orientation:
 Select the Page Layout tab.
 Click the Orientation command in the Page Setup group.
 Left-click either Portrait or Landscape to change the page orientation.
Landscape format means everything on the page is oriented horizontally, while portrait format
means everything is oriented vertically.
To change the paper size:
 Select the Page Layout tab.
 Left-click the Size command, and a drop-down menu will appear. The current paper size
is highlighted.
 Left-click a size option to select it. The page size of the document changes.
To format page margins:
 Select the Page Layout tab.
 Click the Margins command. A menu of options appears. Normal is selected by default.
 Left-click the predefined margin size you want.
OR
 Select Custom Margins from the menu. The Page Setup dialog box appears.
 Enter the desired margin size in the appropriate fields.
You can always access the Page Setup dialog box by clicking the small arrow in the bottom-
right corner of the Page Setup group. The dialog box should look familiar to people who have
used previous versions of Word.
To insert a break:
 39

 Place your insertion point where you want the break to appear.
 Select the Page Layout tab.
 Click the Breaks command. A menu appears.
 Left-click a break option to select it. The break will appear in the document.

Insert page numbers

 Select Insert > Page Number, and then choose the location and style you want.
 If you don't want a page number to appear on the first page, select Different First Page.
 If you want numbering to start with 1 on the second page, go to Page Number > Format
Page Numbers, and set Start at to 0.
 When you're done, select Close Header and Footer or press Esc.

Working with header and footer

You can make your document look professional and polished by utilizing the header and
footer sections. The header is a section of the document that appears in the top margin, while
the footer is a section of the document that appears in the bottom margin. Headers and
footers generally contain information such as page number, date, and document name.
To insert a header or footer:
 Select the Insert tab.
 Click either the Header or Footer command. A menu appears with a list of built-in
options you can use.
 Left-click one of the built-in options, and it will appear in the document.

OR
 Left-click Blank to select it.
 The Design tab with Header and Footer tools is active.
 Type information into the header or footer.
To insert the date or time into a header or footer:
 With the header or footer section active, click the Date & Time command.
 Select a date format in the dialog box that appears.
 Click OK. The date and time now appear in the document.
Create different headers or footers for odd and even pages
 Double-click the header or footer
 40

 Select Different Odd & Even Pages.

 On one of the odd pages, select the header or footer area you
want to change.
 Type the document title, and then press Tab twice.
 Select Page Number > Current Position and choose a style.
 Select an even page.
 Select Page Number > Current Position and choose a style.
 Press Tab twice and type the document title.
 Select Close Header and Footer or press Esc to exit.
Change or delete the header or footer from the first page
 Double-click the first page header or footer area.
 Check Different First Page to see if it's selected. If not:
 Select Different First Page.
 Content of the header or footer on the first page is removed.
 Add your new content into the header or footer.
 Select Close Header and Footer or press Esc to exit.
Change or delete a header or footer from another single page
 To delete or change headers and footers on individual pages within a document, start
by inserting a section break.
 Click or tap where you want to start a new page without the header or footer.
 Go to Layout > Breaks > Next Page to create a section break.
 Double-click the header or footer area to open the Header & Footer tab.
 Select Link to Previous to turn off the link between the sections.
 Select Header or Footer and do one of the following:
 Choose Remove Header or Remove Footer .
 Add or change the content in the header or footer.
(You’ll need to repeat steps 3-5 if you want to delete or change both the header and the
footer.)
 To return to the body of your document, select Close Header and Footer or press ESC.
Remove all headers and footers
 Go to Insert > Header or Footer, and then select Remove Header or Remove Footer.
 41

 If your document has more than one section, repeat this process for each section.

Working with Tables

A table is a grid of cells arranged in rows and columns. Tables can be customized and are
useful for various tasks such as presenting text information and numerical data.
To convert existing text to a table:
 Select the text you want to convert.
 Select the Insert tab.
 Click the Table command.
 Select Convert Text to Table from the menu. A dialog box appears.
 Choose one of the options in the Separate text at: section. This is how Word knows
what text to put in each column.
 Click OK. The text appears in a table.
To add a row above an existing row:
 Place the insertion point in a row below the location where you want to add a row.
 Right-click the mouse. A menu appears.
 Select Insert
To add a column:
 Place the insertion point in a column adjacent to the location where you want the new
column to appear.
 Right-click the mouse. A menu appears.
 Select Insert
To delete a row or column:
 Select the row or column.
 Right-click your mouse, and a menu appears.
 Select Delete Columns or Delete Rows.
To apply a table style:
 Select the table. A Table Tools Design tab now appears on the Ribbon.
 Select the Design tab to access all of the Table Styles and Options.
 42

 Click through the various styles in the Table Styles section.

 Left-click a style to select it. The table style will appear in the document.

To insert a blank table:

 Place your insertion point in the document where you want the table to appear.
 Select the Insert tab.
 Click the Table command.
 Drag your mouse over the diagram squares to select the number of columns and rows in
the table.
 Left-click your mouse, and the table appears in the document.
 Enter text into the table.
Modifying a table using the layout tab
When you select a table in Word 2007, Design and Layout tabs appear under Table Tools on
the Ribbon. Using commands on the Layout tab, you can make a variety of modifications to
the table, including:
 Adding and deleting columns
 Adding and deleting rows
 Changing the cell size
 Aligning cell text
 Changing text direction
 Merging and splitting cells

Using Indents and Tabs

A great way to draw attention to specific text is to indent it. There are several ways you can
indent text in Word; however, it’s important to use these tools appropriately and indent
correctly each time. This can save time and make the editing process go smoothly.
To indent using the Tab key:
 The most common way to indent is to use the Tab key. This method is best for indenting
one line of text rather than multiple lines.
 Place the insertion point to the left of the text you want to indent.
 Press the Tab key. This indents the line 1/2 inch by default.
 43

To use the Indent commands:

Using the Tab key to indent multiple lines can make formatting difficult if you add or remove
text later. Indenting multiple lines is best done using the Indent commands.
 Select the text you want to indent.
 Click the Increase Indent command to increase the indent. The default is 1/2 inch. You
can press the command multiple times.
 Click the Decrease Indent command to decrease the indent.
To modify the default indent settings:
 Select the Page Layout tab.
 Select the text you want to modify.
 Use the arrows or enter text in the fields to modify the Left and Right Indents.
Print a document in Word
 Select File > Print.
 To preview each page, select the forward and backward arrows at the bottom of the
page.
 Choose the number of copies, and any other options you want, and select
the Print button.

Spell Checker in MS Word

Microsoft Word has a special feature called spell check that allows you to check spelling and
grammatical mistakes that you made in the document. Basically spell check is a software tool
that identifies the misspelled words present in the document. It also allows you to search a
particular word in the document that you know you’ve misspelled in the whole document.
In Microsoft Word documents, Word’s spell check function is set to automatically check your
spelling while you type. Errors in your document will have color-coded underlines reflecting
your choices, like red for spelling errors, green for grammar errors, and blue for contextual
spelling errors.
 44

Steps to enable Spell Checker in MS Word

Step 1: On the navigation menu bar click on the File option.
Step 2: Next click on the option button
Step 3: A word option dialog box will appear on the screen.
Step 4: Now select the Proofing option from the left menu
Step 5: Check all boxes
Step 6: Next click on the OK button.
Finally, Spell Check is enabled in MS Word.
How to Manually Check Spellings
Step 1: On the navigation menu bar click on the Review option.
Step 2: Next click on the spellings & grammar option.
Step 3: If there is a spelling mistake in the document then it will appear in the red
underline text
Step 4: Select the correct spelling from the suggestion menu.
Step 5: Next click on the YES option.
Step 6: Click on the OK option.
Finally, all the spellings and grammars are manually checked.
Shortcut Method to Check Spellings
Step 1: Right-click on the red-underlined word.
A menu with correctly spelled options will appear in which you can select the correct word or
you can ignore it.
Step 2: Now choose the correct spelling from the menu
 45

Add a drawing to a document

These are the basic types of graphics that you can use to enhance your Word documents:
drawing objects, SmartArt, charts, pictures, and clip art. Drawings refer to a drawing object or
a group of drawing objects.
Drawing objects include shapes, diagrams, flowcharts, curves, lines, and WordArt. These
objects are part of your Word document. You can change and enhance these objects with
colors, patterns, borders, and other effects.
Steps
1. Click in your document where you want to create the drawing.
2. On the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group, click Shapes.
3. You can do any of the following on the Format tab, which appears after you insert a
drawing shape:
 Insert a shape. On the Format tab, in the Insert Shapes group, click a shape, and then
click somewhere in the document.
 Change a shape. Click the shape you want to change. On the Format tab, in the Insert
Shapes group, click Edit Shape, point to Change Shape, and then choose a different
shape.
 Add text to a shape. Click the shape you where you want text, and then type.
 Group selected shapes. Select several shapes at a time by pressing CTRL on your
keyboard and clicking each shape you want to include in the group. On the Format tab in
the Arrange group, click Group so that all of the shapes will be treated like a single
object.
 Draw in the document. On the Format tab, in the Insert Shapes group, expand the shapes
options by clicking the arrow. Under Lines click Freeform or Scribble.
 Adjust the size of the shapes. Select the shape or shapes you want to resize. On
the Format tab, in the Size group, click the arrows or type new dimensions in
the Height and Width boxes.
 Apply a style to a shape. In the Shape Styles group, rest your pointer over a style to see
what your shape will look like when you apply that style. Click the style to apply it. Or,
click Shape Fill or Shape Outline and select the options that you want.
 46

 Add flow charts with connectors. Before you create a flow chart, add a drawing canvas by
clicking the Insert tab, clicking Shapes in the Illustrations group, and then clicking New
Drawing Canvas. On the Format tab, in the Insert Shapes group, click a Flow chart shape.
Under Lines, choose a connector line such as the Curved Arrow Connector.
 Use shadow and three-dimensional (3-D) effects to add interest to the shapes in your
drawing. On the Format tab, in the Shape Styles group, click Shape Effects, and choose an
effect.
 Align the objects on the canvas. To align the objects, press and hold CTRL while you select
the objects that you want to align. On the Format tab, in the Arrange group, click Align to
choose from an assortment of alignment commands.
Delete all or part of a drawing
 Select the drawing object that you want to delete.
 Press DELETE.

Mail Merge
Mail merge lets you create a batch of documents that are personalized for each recipient. For
example, a form letter might be personalized to address each recipient by name. A data
source, like a list, spreadsheet, or database, is associated with the document. Placeholders--
called merge fields--tell Word where in the document to include information from the data
source.
Document types
Word provides tools for incorporating your data into the following kinds of documents.
 Letters that include a personalized greeting. Each letter prints on a separate sheet of
paper.
Email where each recipient's address is the only address on the To line. You'll be
sending the email directly from Word.
 Envelopes or Labels where names and addresses come from your data source.
 Directory that lists a batch of information for each item in your data source. Use it to
print out your contact list, or to list groups of information, like all of the students in each
class. This type of document is also called a catalog merge.
 47

Steps
1.Open Access Database.
2.Click 'Blank Desktop Database'.
3.Name your file and then click 'Create'.
4.Click 'Design View' in the bottom right-hand corner of the screen.
5.Name your table and click 'OK'.
6.In the second row, type 'Name'.
7.Click 'Datasheet View' next to 'Design View' and then click 'Yes' when prompted to save.
8.In the 'Name' column, type the names of the people you would like to write to, one in each
line.
9.Save your database and close.
10.Open Microsoft Word.
11.Click 'Blank Document'.
12.Click 'Mailings', 'Select Recipients' then 'Use an Existing List'.
13.Locate your access database and click 'Open'.
14.If your letter requires a return address, write it now.
15.Begin your letter as you choose, then click 'Insert Merge Field'.
16.Click 'Name' then click 'Insert'.
17.Click 'Close'.
18.Click 'Finish & Merge' and 'Print Documents'.
19.Press 'OK'.
20.Choose your printer. (If you don't want to print, but would just like to have the letters
ready, print to an xps file.) Click 'OK'.
21.Finish the rest of your letter, using Mail Merge for other variables.
 48

Introduction to LaTex:
LaTeX, which is pronounced «Lah-tech» or «Lay-tech» (to rhyme with «blech» or «Bertolt
Brecht»), is a document preparation system for high-quality typesetting. It is most often used
for medium-to-large technical or scientific documents but it can be used for almost any form
of publishing.
LaTeX is not a word processor! Instead, LaTeX encourages authors not to worry too much
about the appearance of their documents but to concentrate on getting the right content.

LaTeX Features
 Typesetting journal articles, technical reports, books, and slide presentations.
 Control over large documents containing sectioning, cross-references, tables and
figures.
 Typesetting of complex mathematical formulas.
 Advanced typesetting of mathematics with AMS-LaTeX.
 Automatic generation of bibliographies and indexes.
 Multi-lingual typesetting.
 Inclusion of artwork, and process or spot colour.
 Using PostScript or Metafont fonts.

Word vs. LaTeX

Writing longer scientific documents requires more from the text processing software than
common writing tasks. For us scientists its worth thinking about which piece of software will
give us the best results in the least amount of time. Speed usually comes with routine, in most
cases that would be Microsoft Word. But in some cases it might actually save us time and
produce better text documents if we use LaTeX, even if you still have to learn. The table below
may help you to make a decision which piece of software is most appropriate for your task at
hand.
 49

Comparison of Word and Latex

area LaTeX
MS Word

The strength of Word is in

Writing raw LaTeX is somewhat slower,
writing short, relatively simple
because you first write the contents only and
speed small docs documents, since you
then you generate an output file with layout in
immediately see how what you
a separate step. LyX is an exception here.
wrote looks like (WYSIWYG).

Word can become slow

when handling either very large
Here LaTeX is faster because you write
texts or texts with large graphics.
down only the contents and software wastes
The sporadic (automatic) saves
speed big docs graphics no time thinking about layout. The separate
and type setting processes might
type setting steps are only done at the end,
force writing breaks while you are
which saves you time.
waiting for the program to
complete its task.

Basic Word features are You will have to initially invest some
very easy to use and everybody hours to learn LaTeX without being able to
can produce a simple document immediately produce text. Depending on how
with reasonable layout. Using you write LaTeX, you may need to learn some
ease of use
advanced features like automatic simple commandos, like \cite{}, but you will
numbering, links, and citations only need a few. Ultimately, you will be faster
require a comparable learning typing than clicking through Word icons and
time to LaTeX. menus.

Word type setting quality

is ok for most purposes but its far LaTeX, on the other hand, provides you
from professional. Plus, you will with professional layout out of the box. If you
layout quality only be able to reach good want to get into the nitty gritty, you can adapt
quality if you know Word well, the default to your own taste but the standard
which is not the case for the is already very high without any customization.
average users. Details

Here the main

Since LaTeX is open source many
shortcoming is that Word does
generations of scientists have written the
not include a citation utility. You
extensions they needed. You will be able to
scientific features will need to purchase additional
find all commonly and most rarely used
software to fill the gap.
features. References are handled by BibTeX
Bibliography programs come with
and a database front end like BibDesk but
their own price, learning curve,
unlike in Word integration is seamless and the
and disadvantages. Esp.
 50

EndNote on the Mac is poor extensions are free.

despite being widespread.

This is obvious. You have

to pay for Word and Referencing
LaTeX is free of charge. So are most
software. Your lab may do this for
text editors, like TeXShop, and citation
you, but how do you know the
managers, like BibDesk. Therefore, you can
price + availability next one will and you won't end
rest assured that you will have access to the
up with an EndNote database
software and won't experience lock-in typical
and the next place only uses
for commercial software.
Reference Manager forcing you
to convert or pay up yourself.

MS Word developers
This is not the case with LaTeX. The
make almost no effort to facilitate
main output format is PDF, which is the same
exchange with foreign programs.
over all OSs. LaTeX editors exist for all types
You may not experience that,
of systems and are highly compatible. You will
because Word is so widespread.
compatibility also see that many programs allow import and
But even between flavors of
export. BibDesk can read EndNote, for
Word there are compatibility
example, but not the other way round. Still, the
problems, e.g. WinWord vs.
PDF is not editable and your collaborator
MacWord or latest version to
might not know LaTeX.
older version.

Options for Comipling a LaTeX Document

A LaTeX document, saved as a .tex file, must be compiled in order to turn it into a readable
document. A compiled .texfile will output either a .dvi, .ps (PostScript), or .pdfdocument. Most
TeX distributions' default output is .dvi, but .ps or .pdf documents are relatively easy to
produce as well.
There two general ways to compile a LaTeX document:
 Using a LaTeX editor/compiler
 Using the command line/terminal
Using a LaTeX Editor/Compiler
A LaTeX editor such as TeXmaker or TeXworks includes the functionality to compile a LaTeX
document with the push of a button. The specific editor being used should include
information on how this is done, so it is best to refer directly to the website of the chosen
editor for information on its operation.
 51

Using the Command Line/Terminal

The commands listed below should work equally well in a Windows, Unix/Linux, or Mac
environment.
In the command line or terminal, first navigate to the location where your .tex file is saved.
The following commands can then be used:
 latex [filename].tex will compile [filename].tex and output the file [filename].dvi
 pdflatex [filename].tex will compile [filename].texand output the file [filename].pdf
You can also use the command line/terminal to convert between different file types. For
example:
 dvips -o [filename].ps [filename].dvi will convert [filename].dvi into a PostScript file
named [filename].ps
 dvipdfm [filename].dvi will convert [filename].dviinto a PDF file named [filename].pdf
LaTeX Commands
A LaTeX command begins with the command name, which consists of a \ followed by either (a) a string of letters
or (b) a single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets [] are optional while arguments contained in
braces {} are required.

 \<space> (force ordinary space)

 \@ (following period ends sentence)
 \\ (new line)
 \, (thin space)
 \; (thick space, math mode)
 \: (medium space, math mode)
 \! (negative thin space, math mode)
 \- (hyphenation; tabbing
 \= (set tab, see tabbing)
 \> (tab, see tabbing)
 \< (back tab, see tabbing)
 \+ (see tabbing)
 \' (accent or tabbing)
 \` (accent or tabbing)
 \| (double vertical lines, math mode)
 \( and \) (define math environment)
 \[ and \] (define displaymath environment)
 \addcontentsline
 \addtocontents
 52

 \addtocounter
 \address
 \addtolength
 \addvspace
 \alph
 \appendix
 \arabic
 \author
 \backslash
 \baselineskip
 \baselinestretch
 \bf
 \bibitem
 \bigskip
 \boldmath
 \cal
 \caption
 \cdots
 \centering
 \circle
 \cite
 \cleardoublepage
 \clearpage
 \cline
 \closing
 \dashbox
 \date
 \ddots
 \dotfill
 \em
 \ensuremath (LaTeX2e)
 \fbox
 \flushbottom
 \fnsymbol
 \footnote
 \footnotemark
 \footnotesize
 \footnotetext
 \frac
 \frame
 \framebox
 \frenchspacing
 \hfill
 53

 \hline
 \hrulefill
 \hspace
 \huge
 \Huge (capital "H")
 \hyphenation
 \include
 \includeonly
 \indent
 \input
 \it
 \item
 \kill
 \label
 \large
 \Large (capital "L")
 \LARGE (all caps)
 \ldots
 \left
 \lefteqn
 \line
 \linebreak
 \linethickness
 \linewidth
 \location
 \makebox
 \maketitle
 \markboth \markright
 \mathcal
 \mathop
 \mbox
 \medskip
 \multicolumn
 \multiput
 \newcommand
 \newcounter
 \newenvironment
 \newfont
 \newlength
 \newline
 \newpage
 \newsavebox
 \newtheorem
 54

 \nocite
 \noindent
 \nolinebreak
 \normalsize (default)
 \nopagebreak
 \not
 \onecolumn
 \opening
 \oval
 \overbrace
 \overline
 \pagebreak
 \pagenumbering
 \pageref
 \pagestyle
 \par
 \parbox
 \parindent
 \parskip
 \protect
 \providecommand (LaTeX2e)
 \put
 \raggedbottom
 \raggedleft
 \raggedright
 \raisebox
 \ref
 \renewcommand
 \right
 \rm
 \roman
 \rule
 \savebox
 \sbox
 \sc
 \scriptsize
 \setcounter
 \setlength
 \settowidth
 \sf
 \shortstack
 \signature
 \sl
 55

 \small
 \smallskip
 \sqrt
 \stackrel
 \tableofcontents
 \telephone
 \textwidth
 \textheight
 \thanks
 \thispagestyle
 \tiny
 \title
 \today
 \tt
 \twocolumn
 \typeout
 \typein
 \underbrace
 \underline
 \unitlength
 \usebox
 \usecounter
 \value
 \vdots
 \vector
 \verb
 \vfill
 \vline
 \vphantom
 \vspace

LaTeX Environments
LaTeX environments are created by

\begin{environment} ... \end{environment}

Declarations can be effected by an environment of the same name.

 abstract
 array
 center
 description
 displaymath
 enumerate
 56

 eqnarray
 equation
 figure
 flushleft
 flushright
 itemize
 list
 math
 minipage
 picture
 quotation
 quote
 tabbing
 table
 tabular
 thebibliography
 theorem
 titlepage
 trivlist
 verbatim
 verse

Generate a table of contents in LaTeX

Generating a table of contents can be done with a few simple commands. LaTeX will use the
section headings to create the table of contents and there are commands to create a list of
figures and a list of tables as well. I will give a small example code to create a table of
contents first:
1. \documentclass{article}
2. \begin{document}
3. \tableofcontents
4. \newpage
5. \section{Section}
6. Dummy text
7. \subsection{Subsection}
8. Dummy text
9. \end{document}
 57

After compiling the .tex file two times, you will get the following table of contents:

Depth
Sometimes it makes sense to only show a subset of the headings for all sections or for a
particular section. For this reason you can set a the tocdepth by using the command
\setcounter{tocdepth}{X}, where X is the desired depth. A value of 0 means that your table of
contents will show nothing at all and 5 means, that even subparagraphs will be shown. The
value has to be set in the preamble of your document and automatically applies to the whole
document:
1. % ...
2. \setcounter{tocdepth}{1} % Show sections
3. %\setcounter{tocdepth}{2} % + subsections
4. %\setcounter{tocdepth}{3} % + subsubsections
5. %\setcounter{tocdepth}{4} % + paragraphs
6. %\setcounter{tocdepth}{5} % + subparagraphs
7. \begin{document}
8. %...
9. \tableofcontents
10.%...
11.\end{document}
Using the example from above, the setting tocdepth = 1 will lead to the following output:
 58

You can easily increase the verbosity of your table of contents, by setting tocdepth to
something higher like 3, which would lead to the following output:

Inserting Images
Images are essential elements in most of the scientific documents. LATEX provides several
options to handle images and make them look exactly what you need.
Below is an example on how to import a picture.
\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{graphicx}
\graphicspath{ {./images/} }

\begin{document}
The universe is immense and it seems to be homogeneous,
in a large scale, everywhere we look at.

\includegraphics{universe}

There's a picture of a galaxy above

\end{document}
 59

Latex can not manage images by itself, so we need to use the graphicx package. To use it, we
include the following line in the preamble: \usepackage{graphicx}.
The command \graphicspath{ {./images/} } tells LATEX that the images are kept in a folder
named imagesunder the directory of the main document.
The \includegraphics{universe} command is the one that actually included the image in the
document. Here universe is the name of the file containing the image without the extension,
then universe.PNG becomes universe. The file name of the image should not contain white
spaces nor multiple dots.
 60

UNIT-2
Business Data Analysis
Business data analysis includes the activities to help managers make strategic
decisions, achieve major goals and solve complex problems, by collecting, analyzing
and reporting the most useful information relevant to managers’ needs. Information
could be about the causes of the current situation, the most likely trends to
occur, and what should be done as a result.
Activities can include identifying and verifying potential strategies and solutions,
and testing the feasibility of the most favoured solutions. Analysis is based,
as much as possible, on relevant, accurate and reliable information, often involving
interactive and automated statistical analysis — or data analysis.

Introduction to Excel Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is a computer application that is designed to add, display, analyze, organize, and manipulate
data arranged in rows and columns. It is the most popular application for accounting, analytics, data
presentation, etc. Or in other words, spreadsheets are scalable grid-based files that are used to organize data
and perform calculations. People all across the world use spreadsheets to create tables for personal and
business usage. You can also use the tool’s features and formulas to help you make sense of your data. You
could, for example, track data in a spreadsheet and see sums, differences, multiplication, division, and fill
dates automatically, among other things. Microsoft Excel, Google sheets, Apache open office, LibreOffice, etc
are some spreadsheet software. Among all these software, Microsoft Excel is the most commonly used
spreadsheet tool and it is available for Windows, macOS, Android, etc.
A collection of spreadsheets is known as a workbook. Every Excel file is called a workbook. Every time when
you start a new project in Excel, you’ll need to create a new workbook. There are several methods for getting
started with an Excel workbook. To create a new worksheet or access an existing one, you can either start
from scratch or utilize a pre-designed template.
A single Excel worksheet is a tabular spreadsheet that consists of a matrix of rectangular cells grouped in rows
and columns. It has a total of 1,048,576 rows and 16,384 columns, resulting in 17,179,869,184 cells on a single
page of a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet where you may write, modify, and manage your data.
In the same way as a file or a book is made up of one or more worksheets that contain various types of related
data, an Excel workbook is made up of one or more worksheets. You can also create and save an endless
number of worksheets. The major purpose is to collect all relevant data in one place, but in many categories
(worksheet).
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Features of spreadsheet
As we know that there are so many spreadsheet applications available in the market. So these
applications provide the following basic features:
1. Rows and columns: Rows and columns are two distinct features in a spreadsheet that come
together to make a cell, a range, or a table. In general, columns are the vertical portion of an
excel worksheet, and there can be 256 of them in a worksheet, whereas rows are the
horizontal portion, and there can be 1048576 of them.
2. Formulas: In spreadsheets, formulas process data automatically. It takes data from the
specified area of the spreadsheet as input then processes that data, and then displays the
output into the new area of the spreadsheet according to where the formula is written. In
Excel, we can use formulas simply by typing “=Formula Name(Arguments)” to use predefined
Excel formulas. When you write the first few characters of any formula, Excel displays a drop-
down menu of formulas that match that character sequence.
3. Function: In spreadsheets, the function uses a specified formula on the input and generates
output. Or in other words, functions are created to perform complicated math problems in
spreadsheets without using actual formulas. For example, you want to find the total of the
numeric data present in the column then use the SUM function instead of adding all the
values present in the column.
4. Text Manipulation: The spreadsheet provides various types of commands to manipulate
the data present in it.
5. Pivot Tables: It is the most commonly used feature of the spreadsheet. Using this table
users can organize, group, total, or sort data using the toolbar. Or in other words, pivot tables
are used to summarize lots of data. It converts tons of data into a few rows and columns.

Use of Spreadsheets
The use of Spreadsheets is endless. It is generally used with anything that contains numbers.
Some of the common use of spreadsheets are:
 Finance: Spreadsheets are used for financial data like it is used for checking account
information, taxes, transaction, billing, budgets, etc.
 Forms: Spreadsheet is used to create form templates to manage performance review,
timesheets, surveys, etc.
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 School and colleges: Spreadsheets are most commonly used in schools and colleges to
manage student’s data like their attendance, grades, etc.
 Lists: Spreadsheets are also used to create lists like grocery lists, to-do lists, contact
detail, etc.
 Hotels: Spreadsheets are also used in hotels to manage the data of their customers like
their personal information, room numbers, check-in date, check-out date, etc.

Components/Applicants of Spreadsheets
The basic components of spreadsheets are:
1. TitleBar: The title bar displays the name of the spreadsheet and application.
2. Quick Access Toolbar: If you use an Excel command frequently, you can add it to the Quick
Access Toolbar. By default, the Quick Access Toolbar contains four commands: AutoSave,
Save, Undo and Redo.
3. NameBox: It displays the address of the current or active cell.
4. Formula Bar: It is used to display the data entered by us in the active cell. Also, this bar is
used to apply formulas to the data of the spreadsheet.
5. Column Headings: Every excel spreadsheet contains 256 columns and each column present
in the spreadsheet is named by letters or a combination of letters.
6. Row Headings: Every excel spreadsheet contains 65,536 rows and each row present in the
spreadsheet is named by a number.
7. Cell: In a spreadsheet, everything like a numeric value, functions, expressions, etc., is
recorded in the cell. Or we can say that an intersection of rows and columns is known as a cell.
Every cell has its own name or address according to its column and rows and when the cursor
is present on the first cell then that cell is known as an active cell.
8. Cell referring: A cell reference, also known as a cell address, is a way for describing a cell on
a worksheet that combines a column letter and a row number. We can refer to any cell on the
worksheet using cell references (in excel formulae). As shown in the above image the cell in
column A and row 1 is referred to as A1. Such notations can be used in any formula or to
duplicate the value of one cell to another (by using = A1).
9. Navigation buttons: A spreadsheet contains first, previous, next, and last navigation
buttons. These buttons are used to move from one worksheet to another workbook.
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10. Sheet tabs: As we know that a workbook is a collection of worksheets. So this tab contains
all the worksheets present in the workbook, by default it contains three worksheets but you
can add more according to your requirement.
11. Ribbon: Microsoft Excel ribbon is the row of tabs and icons at the top of the Excel window
that allows you to quickly find, understand and use commands for completing a certain task. It
looks like a kind of complex toolbar, which it actually is.
The ribbon first appeared in Excel 2007 replacing the traditional toolbars and pull-down
menus found in previous versions. In Excel 2010, Microsoft added the ability to personalize
the ribbon.
Ribbon tabs
The standard Excel ribbon contains the following tabs, from left to right:
 File – allows you to jump into the backstage view that contains the essential file-related
commands and Excel options. This tab was introduced in Excel 2010 as the replacement
for the Office button in Excel 2007 and the File menu in earlier versions.
 Home – contains the most frequently used commands such as copying and pasting,
sorting and filtering, formatting, etc.
 Insert – is used for adding different objects in a worksheet such as images, charts,
PivotTables, hyperlinks, special symbols, equations, headers and footers.
 Draw – depending on the device type you're using, it lets you draw with a digital pen,
mouse, or finger. This tab is available in Excel 2013 and later, but like the Developer
tab it is not visible by default.
 Page Layout – provides tools to manage the worksheet appearance, both onscreen and
printed. These tools control theme settings, gridlines, page margins, object aligning, and
print area.
 Formulas – contains tools for inserting functions, defining names and controlling the
calculation options.
 Data – holds the commands for managing the worksheet data as well as connecting to
external data.
 Review – allows you to check spelling, track changes, add comments and notes, protect
worksheets and workbooks.
 View – provides commands for switching between worksheet views, freezing panes,
viewing and arranging multiple windows.
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 Help – only appears in Excel 2019 and Office 365. This tab provides quick access to the
Help Task Pane and allows you to contact Microsoft support, send feedback, suggest a
feature, and get quick access to training videos.
 Developer – provides access to advanced features such as VBA macros, ActiveX and
Form controls and XML commands. This tab is hidden by default and you have to enable
it first.
 Add-ins – appears only when you open an older workbook or load an add-in that
customizes the toolbars or menu.
12. Office button: A button available in Microsoft Office 2007 and introduced with the
new Ribbon feature. The Office button is found in the top-left corner of Excel, Word, and
other Office 2007 program windows and looks like the picture.
When the Office button is clicked, many of the same options you'd see in the file menu, such
as New, Open, Save, Print, etc., can be found. Listed below are the commonly used options
found in the Office button menu and their function.
Office button menu functions
 New - Create a new, blank file in the Office program (e.g., Word document, Excel
spreadsheet, PowerPoint slide deck, etc.).
 Open - Open an existing file on the computer.
 Save - Save changes to the currently open file.
 Save As - Save a new file with a desired file name and to a desired location on the
computer's hard drive.
 Print - Print a hard copy of the currently open document on a printer.
 Close - Close the current open file.
 Share - Share the currently open document to other users through the use of OneDrive,
by sending through e-mail, posting to a blog. (Named as "Save & Send" in Office 2010.)
 Options - Change configuration settings for the Office program, including display
settings, spelling and grammar check settings, language settings, and
the Ribbon configuration.
13. Status Bar: The status bar in Excel can be quite useful. By default, the status bar at the
bottom of the window displays the average, count and sum of selected cells.
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Create a new Spreadsheet or Workbook

To create a new spreadsheet follow the following steps:
Step 1: Click on the top-left, Microsoft office button and a drop-down menu appear.
Step 2: Now select New from the menu.
Step 3: After selecting the New option a New Workbook dialogue box will appear and then in
Create tab, click on the blank Document.
A new blank worksheet is created and is shown on your screen.

Saving The Workbook

In Excel we can save a workbook using the following steps:
Step 1: Click on the top-left, Microsoft office button and we get a drop-down menu:
Step 2: Now Save or Save As are the options to save the workbook, so choose one.
 Save As: To name the spreadsheet and then save it to a specific location. Select Save As
if you wish to save the file for the first time, or if you want to save it with a new name.
 Save: To save your work, select Save/ click ctrl + S if the file has already been named.

Inserting text in Spreadsheet

Excel consists of many rows and columns, each rectangular box in a row or column is referred
to as a Cell. So, the combination of a column letter and a row number can be used to find a
cell address on a worksheet or spreadsheet. We can refer to any cell in the worksheet using
these addresses (in excel formulas). The name box on the top left(below the Home tab)
displays the cell’s address whenever you click the cell.
To insert the data into the cell follow the following steps:
Step 1: Go to a cell and click on it
Step 2: By typing something on the keyboard, you can insert your data (In that selected cell).
Edit/ Delete Cell Contents in the Spreadsheet
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To delete cell content follow the following steps:

Step 1: To alter or delete the text in a cell, first select it.
Step 2: Press the Backspace key on your keyboard to delete and correct text. Alternatively, hit
the Delete key to delete the whole contents of a cell. You can also edit and delete text using
the formula bar. Simply select the cell and move the pointer to the formula bar.

Manipulation of worksheet data

Filtering
Filtering is a process of sorting data by a certain criteria. It's an effective way to identify
subsets of data from the larger dataset.
In the following example, we have a dataset with monthly sales data from 2012-2015. Filtering
is useful if you want to see the total sales for the year only, or if you want to know how many
months had positive growth.
First, identify which column contains the filter criteria that will be used to filter your data. In
this case, I have created a new column called "Sales Growth." Next, highlight your "Sales
Growth" column and select "Filter" from the Data menu on the toolbar. This will open a
dialogue box where you can input your filtering criteria. In this example, I am using ">0%" as
my filter criterion to calculate total sales for years with positive revenue growth > 0%.
Sorting
Sorting is another technique of data analysis and is used to rearrange the order of your data.
It's an easy way of exploring and understanding your data.
For example, let's say you had a list of 5 different numbers:
1, 10, 2, 3, 4
If we wanted to sort this list in ascending order (from lowest to highest), we would click on the
column heading for this list and then select "Sort Ascending". This will arrange the list like this:
1, 2, 3, 4, 10.
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By sorting the numbers in ascending order we can see that they are increasing in size. If we
wanted to change the sort order to descending (highest to lowest) we would click on Column
A and select "Sort Descending" like so:
4, 3, 2, 10, 1.
Again by sorting in descending order from highest number to lowest number we can see that
they're decreasing in size.
Grouping
Grouping is an excellent way to analyze your data. Grouping is when you organize data into
smaller sets. You can use this technique to make it easier to analyze the relationships in your
data like quantifying averages, totals, and percentages.
Grouping makes it easy for you to identify patterns in your data. For example, if you wanted to
know how many people are in each age group (20-25, 26-30 etc.), then you can group that
information by age group and then count the number of people in each one.
The best thing about grouping is that it helps you quickly identify relationships in your data set
because it shows you which items are grouped together. This means that if there's a trend
between two different groups of data, then grouping will be able to show you this
connection.
Pivoting
Pivoting data involves taking a table and turning it on its side to show a different perspective.
For example, let's say you have a list of monthly income brackets and want to see the monthly
income distribution for each bracket. You can do this by pivoting your table from column to
column.
In our example, we would start with one column containing all of the monthly income
brackets. In the next column, we would add a pivot table that contains the percentages for
each income bracket.
Pivoting is very helpful in filtering out irrelevant data so you can focus on the important
information. If you have a huge dataset, extracting relevant information can be time-
consuming without using pivots.
If you're looking for a way to simplify data analysis in Excel, pivoting is an effective tool!
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Transposing
Data can be transposed by using the TRANSPOSE function in Excel. It is a very efficient way to
take any data, for example:
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
and turn it into this:
1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
This is helpful when you want to switch rows and columns or swap columns or rows with each
other.
Changing Data Types
One thing that might be useful to know is how changing data types can affect your data
analysis.
Two different types of data are text and number. Text data is any kind of information that isn't
numerical. For example, a person's name or the title of a book. Numberic data will always be
numerically based and may only have numbers in them, such as 3.1, 4.9, and so on.
If you want to change the type of your data from one type to another, you will need to use the
function Data→Data Type→Text or Number.
 Changing Data Types
Once you select this command, the "Select Data Type" window will appear. There are three
general categories of data: Text Data
only; Numeric Data only; and Mixed Data (text and numeric).
You can further refine your selection by selecting one or more options from each of these
categories: Text; Numeric; Date & Time; Logical; and Object Linking & Embedding.
Adding Columns and Rows
Adding columns or rows to your data is a great way to make your work more efficient. For
instance, if you were working with a table of data on different subjects and wanted to look at
their answers in relation to each other, it would be more convenient for you (and the people
you're sharing the data with) if you had both answers in one column.
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Naming Columns and Rows

To name columns and rows in Excel, first select the cells that need naming. Then go to Data >
Data Tools > Name Columns and Rows and type the name of the first cell into the first
dialogue box. Continue typing or clicking until all of your cells are named.
Naming Columns or Rows
Every column and row in a spreadsheet has a default name, but these names can be changed.
This is helpful when you're summarizing data and want to apply the same column or row title
consistently.
To rename a column, right-click on any cell in that column and select "column name." Type in
the new name and press enter. To rename a row, right-click on any cell in that row and select
"Row Labels." Type in the new name and press enter.
Inserting Columns or Rows
One of the simplest data manipulation techniques in Excel is inserting columns or rows.
This technique lets you analyze your data with more clarity and precision by adding more
columns or rows to your spreadsheet. It can be used to show different aspects of your data,
such as different years, regions, products etc.
Two examples where this technique can be used are:
1) You want to compare different years for a specific region.
2) You want to look at how a product performs across different regions.

Conclusion
Data manipulation can be a time-consuming and complicated task. But the right technique can
help you save a lot of time and avoid making mistakes.
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Excel Charts – Types

Excel provides you different types of charts that suit your purpose. Based on the type of data, you can create a
chart. You can also change the chart type later.
Excel offers the following major chart types −
 Column Chart
 Line Chart
 Pie Chart
 Doughnut Chart
 Bar Chart
 Area Chart
 XY (Scatter) Chart
 Bubble Chart
 Stock Chart
 Surface Chart
 Radar Chart
 Combo Chart
Each of these chart types have sub-types.
Column Chart
A Column Chart typically displays the categories along the horizontal (category) axis and values along the
vertical (value) axis. To create a column chart, arrange the data in columns or rows on the worksheet.
A column chart has the following sub-types −

 Clustered Column.
 Stacked Column.
 100% Stacked Column.
 3-D Clustered Column.
 3-D Stacked Column.
 3-D 100% Stacked Column.
 3-D Column.
Line Chart
Line charts can show continuous data over time on an evenly scaled Axis. Therefore, they are ideal for
showing trends in data at equal intervals, such as months, quarters or years.
In a Line chart −

 Category data is distributed evenly along the horizontal axis.

 Value data is distributed evenly along the vertical axis.
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To create a Line chart, arrange the data in columns or rows on the worksheet.
A Line chart has the following sub-types −

 Line
 Stacked Line
 100% Stacked Line
 Line with Markers
 Stacked Line with Markers
 100% Stacked Line with Markers
 3-D Line
Pie Chart
Pie charts show the size of items in one data series, proportional to the sum of the items. The data points in a
pie chart are shown as a percentage of the whole pie. To create a Pie Chart, arrange the data in one column or
row on the worksheet.
A Pie Chart has the following sub-types −

 Pie
 3-D Pie
 Pie of Pie
 Bar of Pie
Doughnut Chart
A Doughnut chart shows the relationship of parts to a whole. It is similar to a Pie Chart with the only
difference that a Doughnut Chart can contain more than one data series, whereas, a Pie Chart can contain
only one data series.
A Doughnut Chart contains rings and each ring representing one data series. To create a Doughnut Chart,
arrange the data in columns or rows on a worksheet.
Bar Chart
Bar Charts illustrate comparisons among individual items. In a Bar Chart, the categories are organized along
the vertical axis and the values are organized along the horizontal axis. To create a Bar Chart, arrange the data
in columns or rows on the Worksheet.
A Bar Chart has the following sub-types −

 Clustered Bar
 Stacked Bar
 100% Stacked Bar
 3-D Clustered Bar
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 3-D Stacked Bar

 3-D 100% Stacked Bar
Area Chart
Area Charts can be used to plot the change over time and draw attention to the total value across a trend. By
showing the sum of the plotted values, an area chart also shows the relationship of parts to a whole. To create
an Area Chart, arrange the data in columns or rows on the worksheet.
An Area Chart has the following sub-types −

 Area
 Stacked Area
 100% Stacked Area
 3-D Area
 3-D Stacked Area
 3-D 100% Stacked Area
XY (Scatter) Chart
XY (Scatter) charts are typically used for showing and comparing numeric values, like scientific, statistical, and
engineering data.
A Scatter chart has two Value Axes −

 Horizontal (x) Value Axis

 Vertical (y) Value Axis
It combines x and y values into single data points and displays them in irregular intervals, or clusters. To create
a Scatter chart, arrange the data in columns and rows on the worksheet.
Place the x values in one row or column, and then enter the corresponding y values in the adjacent rows or
columns.
Consider using a Scatter chart when −

 You want to change the scale of the horizontal axis.

 You want to make that axis a logarithmic scale.
 Values for horizontal axis are not evenly spaced.
 There are many data points on the horizontal axis.
 You want to adjust the independent axis scales of a scatter chart to reveal more information about
data that includes pairs or grouped sets of values.
 You want to show similarities between large sets of data instead of differences between data points.
 You want to compare many data points regardless of the time.
o The more data that you include in a scatter chart, the better the comparisons you can make.
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A Scatter chart has the following sub-types −

 Scatter
 Scatter with Smooth Lines and Markers
 Scatter with Smooth Lines
 Scatter with Straight Lines and Markers
 Scatter with Straight Lines
Bubble Chart
A Bubble chart is like a Scatter chart with an additional third column to specify the size of the bubbles it shows
to represent the data points in the data series.
A Bubble chart has the following sub-types −

 Bubble
 Bubble with 3-D effect
Stock Chart
As the name implies, Stock charts can show fluctuations in stock prices. However, a Stock chart can also be
used to show fluctuations in other data, such as daily rainfall or annual temperatures.
To create a Stock chart, arrange the data in columns or rows in a specific order on the worksheet. For
example, to create a simple high-low-close Stock chart, arrange your data with High, Low, and Close entered
as Column headings, in that order.
A Stock chart has the following sub-types −

 High-Low-Close
 Open-High-Low-Close
 Volume-High-Low-Close
 Volume-Open-High-Low-Close
Surface Chart
A Surface chart is useful when you want to find the optimum combinations between two sets of data. As in a
topographic map, colors and patterns indicate areas that are in the same range of values.
To create a Surface chart −

 Ensure that both the categories and the data series are numeric values.
 Arrange the data in columns or rows on the worksheet.
A Surface chart has the following sub-types −

 3-D Surface
 Wireframe 3-D Surface
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 Contour
 Wireframe Contour
Radar Chart
Radar charts compare the aggregate values of several data series. To create a Radar chart, arrange the data in
columns or rows on the worksheet.
A Radar chart has the following sub-types −

 Radar
 Radar with Markers
 Filled Radar
Combo Chart
Combo charts combine two or more chart types to make the data easy to understand, especially when the
data is widely varied. It is shown with a secondary axis and is even easier to read. To create a Combo chart,
arrange the data in columns and rows on the worksheet.
A Combo chart has the following sub-types −

 Clustered Column – Line

 Clustered Column – Line on Secondary Axis
 Stacked Area – Clustered Column
 Custom Combination

Spreadsheet Functions;
The Date and Time Components
In the table below I entered a date in cell B2, a time in C2, and a formula in D2 that adds the two together.
Excel automatically formatted this cell using a m/d/yyyy hh:mm format. I changed the row 3 cell formatting
to General so you can see the serial number values.

You can clearly see that Date is a integer value, Time is a decimal fraction, and the Date/Time format has both
together in one number
 75

Why Does the INT Function Extract a Date?

All Dates, Times, and Date-Times are know as serial numbers in Excel. You don’t normally see the underlying
serial number. A Date-Time value like 9/14/2012 8:43 AM looks like that in the cell AND in the formula bar.

Only when you change the cell formatting to General do you see the Date-Time serial number. The integer
portion is the date serial number and the fractional part is the time serial number.

This is why the INT function will work to extract a Date from a Date-Time value. The integer value is a date
serial number. The trick is to change the cell formatting to a Date format so that Excel will show you the Date.

Logical Functions in Excel (IF, AND, OR, NOT)

Conditional and logical functions are used very often in Excel. Most of the time we use them when we want
to test if a certain criteria is met, and based on that result, we generate an output. This gives our spreadsheet
the power to make decisions.
Let’s look at the IF function first, probably the most common. The IF function has the following format:
=IF(logical_test,value_if_true,value_if_false)
In this first example, we want to determine if students passed a course. If they received at least 70% they
passed, otherwise they failed. We see that in C2 our formula is, IF(B6>=70%,return the text string PASS,
otherwise return the text string FAIL). We then copy and paste that formula down to the rest of the cells.
 76

Remember that when we want to return a text string to a cell we have to put it in quotes, otherwise we get an
error. And we double check and it looks like our formula is correct since those students that got greater than
or equal to 70% passed. So that’s a simple example of an IF statement.

We can also nest IF statements within IF statements. In this second example here, we have several people
and their incomes listed. We want to determine which income tax bracket they fall into based on the
guidelines on the right. So our formula is going to ask: If the income is less than or equal to the upper limit of
the tax bracket, return as a value that tax bracket, otherwise next check the upper limit for the next tax
bracket and so on until it finds one that matches. We see that the formula in C2 is:
=IF(B2<=8700, 10%, IF(B2<=35350, 15%, IF(B2<=85650, 25%, IF(B2<=178650, 28%, IF(B2<=388350, 33%,
35%)))))

After entering the formula we copy it all the way down for the rest of the names. With nested IF statements,
think of a big box that when you open it, has a smaller box in it, and that smaller box has an even smaller box
within that, and when you open that one, you find an even smaller box. And so on. The nested IF statements
keep checking for a condition until they find one that is TRUE, otherwise they will return a default value if
nothing turns out to be TRUE. And double-checking, it looks like our formula is correct since Excel gives us the
correct tax brackets for all the people listed here.
Mathematical & Statistical Function
1 SUM
If we want to SUM values of several cells quickly, we can use the SUM in excel for the mathematics category.
2 AVERAGE
Now, we know what overall sum values are. Next, we need to find the average salary per employee out of
these overall employees.
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3 AVERAGEIF
We know the average salary per person; we want to know the average salary based on gender for further
drill-down. What is the average salary of males and females?
We can achieve this by using the AVERAGEIF function.
4 COUNTIF
After counting the total number of employees, we may need to count how many male and female employees
there are.
So we can do this by using the “COUNTIF” function.
5 MOD
The MOD function will return the remainder when one number is divided by another. For example, dividing
the number 11 by 2 will get the remainder as 1 because only till 10 number 2 can divide.
6 ROUND
When we have fraction or decimal values, we may need to round those decimal values to the nearest integer
number. For example, we need to round the numbers 3.25 to 3 and 3.75 to 4.
7 Median Function
The problem of outliers can be solved by using another function for the central tendency – median. The
median function returns the middle value of the given range of cells.
8 Mode Function
For numerical values, mean and median usually, suffice but what about categorical values? Here, mode comes
into the picture. Mode returns the most frequent and repeated value in the given range of values.

Create spreadsheet in the area of loan and lease

 Click the "File" menu and click the "New" option.
 Click "Office.com Templates" and enter "loan amortization" in the search bar.
 Click "Office.com Templates" and enter "loan amortization" in the search bar.Click the
loan amortization template you want to use. ...
 Click "Office.com Templates" and enter "loan amortization" in the search bar.Click the
loan amortization template you want to use. ...Fill in the principal loan amount, annual
percentage rate, the term of the loan in either years or months, and the start date of
the loan
 78

Calculate Fixed Asset Depreciation Using Excel

Depreciation
Depreciation is a common accounting method that allocates the cost of a company's fixed assets over the
assets' useful life. In other words, it allows a portion of a company's cost of fixed assets to be spread out over
the periods in which the fixed assets helped generate revenue.
Businesses depreciate long-term assets for both tax and accounting purposes. For tax purposes, businesses
can deduct the cost of the tangible assets they purchase as business expenses. Microsoft Excel has built-in
depreciation functions for multiple depreciation methods including the straight-line method, the sum of the
years' digits method, the declining balance method (the DB function), the double-declining balance
accelerated method (the DDB function), the variable declining balance method (VDB function), and the units
of production method, although this method requires a non-branded Excel template.
Understanding Fixed Asset Depreciation
Suppose company XYZ bought a production machine with a useful life of five years for $5,000 and the salvage
value is $500. To calculate the depreciation value, Excel has built-in functions. The first step is to enter the
numbers and their corresponding headings in the appropriate cells.
Type "cost" into cell A1 and "$5,000" into B1.
Next, type "salvage value" into cell A2 and "$500" into cell B2.
Type "useful life" into cell A3 and "5" into cell B3.
Type "period" into cell A5 and enter the number of periods one through five into cells A6 through A10.
In cell B5, type "straight-line method."
Straight-Line Basis
To calculate the depreciation value using the straight-line basis, or straight-line method (SLN), Excel uses a built-in
function, SLN, which takes the arguments: cost, salvage, and life.1

In cell B6, type "=SLN($B$1,$B$2,$B$3)," which gives a value of $900 for period one. Since this method spreads out the
depreciation value over its useful life, you can see that the values from B6 through B10 are $900.

Other Methods
Excel is capable of calculating any depreciation method, including:
 The declining balance method, using the DB function
 The double-declining balance accelerated method with the DDB function
 The variable declining balance method with the VDB function
 The units of production method
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Most assets lose more value at the beginning of their useful life. The SYD, DB, DDB, and VDB functions apply
this property. The DB function uses a fixed rate to calculate the depreciation values. In some cases, the
salvage is difficult to reach using the DDB function. The VDB function performs the same calculations as the
DDB function but switches to a straight line to reach the salvage value. For the straight-line method, the
depreciation is the same each year.

Ratio Analysis in Excel Sheet

Step 1: Input All Required Particulars
In this step, we will input all the required specifications into Microsoft Excel.

 First of all, launch Microsoft Excel on your device and rename the sheet according to your desire. We
entitled our sheet as Specification. The modification of the sheet’s name is not mandatory. It makes
your datasheet more convenient for others.
 Then, entitle your dataset with a suitable title. For that, select the range of cells B2:C2 and click on
the Merge & Center option from the Alignment group, located in the Home We keep our dataset title
as Ratio Analysis Data.
 After that, title cells B4 and C4 as Specifications and Amounts respectively.
 Now, input all the particulars value for your organization, denotes in the range of cells B5:B20.
Step 2: Calculate All Profitability Ratios
Here, we will evaluate all the Profitability Ratios. There are five elements in the Profitability Ratio. We will
calculate them one by one.
At first, we will calculate the Gross Margin. For that, select cell C5.
Now, write down the following formula into the cell.
=(Specification!$C$5-Specification!$C$6)/Specification!$C$5
Press Enter to get the Gross Margin.
Secondly, to calculate the Operating Profit Margin, select cell C6 and write down the following formula:
=Specification!$C$7/Specification!$C$5
Press the Enter, and you will get the value.
Next, we are going to determine the Net Margin in cell C7. The formula of calculation is shown below:
=Specification!$C$10/Specification!$C$5
Then, press the Enter to get the result.
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After that, to estimate the Return on Assets or ROA, write the following formula into cell C8.
=Specification!$C$7/Specification!$C$12
Press Enter on the keyboard.
Finally, for Return on Equity or ROE write down the following formula into cell C9.
=Specification!$C$10/Specification!$C$14
At last, press Enter to get the value of ROE.
Step 3: Evaluate Every Efficiency Ratios
In this following step, we will calculate all the Efficiency Ratios. The Efficiency Ratio contains six elements. We
are going to find their value one by one.
In the beginning, we will determine the Receivables Turn-over Ratio. To estimate its value, select cell F5.
Then, write down the following formula into the cell.
=Specification!$C$5/Specification!$C$17
Press Enter to get the value of Receivables Turn-over Ratio.
Next, to figure out the Inventory Turn-over Ratio, select cell F6 and write down the following formula:
=Specification!$C$6/Specification!$C$19
Similarly, press the Enter, and you will get the value.
After that, we are going to determine the Payable Turn-over Ratio in cell F7. The formula of calculation is
shown below:
=Specification!$C$6/Specification!$C$20
Press the Enter to get the ratio result.
Our next item is the Asset Turnover Ratio. To estimate its value, write the following formula into cell F8.
=Specification!$C$5/Specification!$C$12
Now, press Enter on the keyboard.
Next, for evaluating the value of the Fixed Asset Turnover Ratio writes down the following formula into
cell F9.
=Specification!$C$5/Specification!$C$13
Again, press Enter to get the value of the Fixed Asset Turnover Ratio.
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Step 4: Determine Liquidity Ratios

In this step, we are going to figure out all the Liquidity Ratios. In the Liquidity Ratio, we have to find three
elements. They are Current, Quick, and Cash Ratios. The calculation is given as follows:
First, we are going to calculate the Current Ratio. For that, select cell C15.
Now, write down the following formula into the cell.
=Specification!$C$15/Specification!$C$16
Then, press Enter to get the ratio value.
After that, to figure out the Quick Ratio, select cell C16 and write down the following formula:
=(Specification!$C$18+Specification!$C$17)/Specification!$C$16
Similarly, press the Enter, and you will get the value of Quick Ratio.
Next, we will determine the Cash Ratio in cell C17. The formula to calculate the Cash Ratio is shown below:
=Specification!$C$18/Specification!$C$16
Finally, press the Enter to get the ratio result.
Step 5: Estimate Solvency Ratios
In this final calculation step. We have to evaluate the Solvency Ratios. In the Solvency Ratio, we will find three
elements like the previous ratio. Their calculation procedure is given below:
At first, we will find the Debt to Equal Ratio. For that, select cell F15.
After that, write down the following formula into the cell.
=Specification!$C$11/Specification!$C$14
Now, press Enter and you will get the ratio’s value.
Then, to get the Debt Ratio, select cell F16 and write down the following formula:
=Specification!$C$11/Specification!$C$12
Similarly, press the Enter, and you will get the value.
Finally, we will determine the Interest Coverage Ratio in cell F17. The formula to calculate the ratio is
shown below:
=Specification!$C$8/Specification!$C$9
In the end, press the Enter to get the Interest Coverage Ratio.
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UNIT-3
Microsoft PowerPoint
Information can be displayed using an electronic presentation application. This information is
usually presented as a slide show — the data is displayed on a slide that may be viewed on a
computer monitor or projected onto a screen using an LCD projector. A presentation might
consist of multiple slides that are exhibited one after the other. The presentation tool in MS
Office is MS PowerPoint. Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation application, although
there are alternatives such as Corel Presentations OpenOffice.org, Impress, etc.
PowerPoint (PPT) is a powerful and simple-to-use presentation graphics software tool for
creating professional-looking electronic slide shows. A PowerPoint presentation, or PPT, is a
collection of slides that exhibit a graphical and visual interpretation of data in order to deliver
information in a more creative and dynamic way.
Three major components of a presentation program are:
(i) An editor that allows text to be input and formatted
(ii) a means for inserting visual pictures, audio, and video
(iii) and a slide-show system to display the final content.
How to open MS PowerPoint
Step 1: Go to the program section in the windows start menu.
Step 2: Go to MS Office & click on it. A drop-down list is seen
Step 3: Click on MS PowerPoint & MS PowerPoint window will pop up.
Creating a Presentation
Once your MS PowerPoint Window pops up, you can create & save the file by:
Step 1: Click on the Microsoft button on the top left.
Step 2: Click on new, a new Presentation window will pop up.
Step 3: Click on Create & a new presentation will be created.
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Saving a Presentation
Once you have created a presentation, it can be easily saved with the help of following steps:
Step 1: Click on the Microsoft icon
Step 2: Click on the Save button
Step 3: A new Window for Save As will pop up.
Step 4: Select the drive (by clicking on it: Example: Local Drive (D)) in which you want to save
the presentation. Then your drive will open up, select the folder in which you want to save the
presentation (Example: img folder here) & then give the required name to your presentation
(Example: MyPresentation here). Your presentation is created & saved with the provided
name.

Basic Elements of a PowerPoint Window/Slide

You can see various bars in the presentation window. They are:
(i) Title Bar: This shows the name/title given by you to the current presentation. If user do not
save the presentation by any name, default name given by MS PowerPoint appears in this bar.
(ii) Menu Bar: Contains menu items like insert, views, design, animations, etc.
(iii) Office Button: MS Office button on the left-most top.
(iv) Formatting Toolbar: Have tools like Bold, Italic, Underline, Font shape & size etc. to format
your data.
(v) Zoom Slider: To zoom in or zoom out your presentation.
(vi) Slide Sorter Pane: This allows us to choose which slides will be shown in which sequence
during the slide show.
(vii) Notes Pane: This allows us to type notes that we may require later when preparing for
the presentation, but they will not be displayed during the slide show.
(viii) View Buttons: Provides different views of your presentation like : normal, slide show &
slide sorter.
(ix) Slide Pane: This is where we type, format, and otherwise design the slide.
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Concept of Slide Shows

After preparing the presentation, it’s time for the slide show. Steps for slide show are:
Step 1. Click on the view Option on the top Menu Toolbar
Step 2. Click on the slide show option.
Step 3. The slide show will start (Press Esc key (escape) to come out of slide show)
Note: Shortcut for the slide show is: F5

Preparation and presentation of slides

Add a slide
 In the thumbnails on the left pane, select the slide you want your new slide to follow.
 In the Home tab, in the Slides section, select New Slide.
 In the Slides section, select Layout, and then select the layout you want from the menu.
Add and format text
 Place the cursor inside a text box, and then type something.
 Select the text, and then select one or more options from the Font section of
the Hometab, such as Font, Increase Font Size, Decrease Font
Size, Bold, Italic, Underline, etc.
 To create bulleted or numbered lists, select the text, and then
select Bullets or Numbering.
Add a picture, shape, and more
Go to the Insert tab.
To add a picture:
In the Images section, select Pictures.
In the Insert Picture From menu, select the source you want.
Browse for the picture you want, select it, and then select Insert.
To add illustrations:
In the Illustrations section, select Shapes, Icons, 3D Models, SmartArt, or Chart.
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In the dialog box that opens when you click one of the illustration types, select the item you
want and follow the prompts to insert it.

Use charts and graphs in your presentation

You can make a chart in PowerPoint or Excel. If you have lots of data to chart, create your
chart in Excel, and then copy it into your presentation. This is also the best way if your data
changes regularly and you want your chart to always reflect the latest numbers. In that case,
when you copy and paste the chart, keep it linked to the original Excel file.
To create a simple chart from scratch in PowerPoint, click Insert > Chart and pick the chart
you want.
 Click Insert > Chart.
 Click the chart type and then double-click the chart you want.
 In the worksheet that appears, replace the placeholder data with your own information.
When you insert a chart, small buttons appear next to its upper-right corner. Use
the Chart Elements button to show, hide, or format things like axis titles or data
labels. Or use the Chart Styles button to quickly change the color or style of the
chart.
 When you’ve finished, close the worksheet.
Changing slide layouts
Arrange slide content with different PowerPoint slide layouts to suit your taste and
preference, or to improve the clarity and readability of the content.
 Select the slide that you want to change the layout for.
 Select Home > Layout.
 Select the layout that you want.
The layouts contain placeholders for text, videos, pictures, charts, shapes, clip art, a
background, and more. The layouts also contain the formatting for those objects, like theme
colors, fonts, and effects.
 86

Tally.ERP 9
Tally.ERP 9 is one of the most popular accounting software used in India. It is complete
enterprise software for small & medium enterprises.
Tally.ERP 9 is a perfect business management solution and GST software with an ideal
combination of function, control, and in-built customisability.
Tally.ERP 9 permits business owners and their associates to interact more in accounts related
discussions and is a complete product that retains its original simplicity yet offers
comprehensive business functionalities such as Accounting, Finance, Inventory, Sales,
Purchase, Point of Sales, Manufacturing, Costing, Job Costing, Payroll and Branch
Management along with compliance capabilities for Excise, TDS, TCS, and now GST too!
Update: TallyPrime is the latest version of Tally. Simplicity, speed, flexibility, and reliability are
a trademark of Tally products and with TallyPrime you will experience them at a whole new
level. You can multitask without losing the progress, navigate and discover the product much
easier, invoice with amazing simplicity and much more to delight you.

How to use Tally.ERP 9

Process 1: Installation : (Buying a machine, we first install it for using it)
Tally software can be purchased and downloaded from the Tally website. We can download a
30-day trialversion if we are not sure if we want to use it yet. Tally 9 is for Windows only. We
can also use Tally in Educational Mode, which allows you to learn how to use the software
without having to purchase a license. Some features are restricted in this mode.
Process 2: Navigation : (After installation is complete, we use it’s hardware supports or
software supports to use the machine)
Tally.ERP 9 is designed to be navigated by using the keyboard. While we can click any option
we want, everything in Tally has a keyboard shortcut. The Shortcut as we say is usually the key
displayed next to each available option. Learning how to get around with the keyboard will
increase efficiency.
 87

Process 3: Create a company : (After we get some idea about the machine, we set the
program for it to work )
To use Tally, we will first need to create a company in the program. Even when we are not
using tally professionally, we still need to create a company using the following steps :
Step 1: In the opening menu, select "Create Company"
Step 2: Enter Company details :
Enter the company name as it appears on banking records
Enter the company address, statutory compliance, telephone number, and email
Step 3: Turn on "Auto Backup" to ensure that a copy of all your work is saved in case
something happens to the original.
Step 4: Choose your currency
Step 5: If you are using Tally to just manage your accounts, then select "Accounts only" in the
Maintain menu and If you are using Tally for inventory management as well, select "Accounts
with inventory".
Step 6: Enter the start of your financial year and the start date for the book
Process 4 : Usage: (Now since we were going to use the machine, it becomes important to
first learn about the machine's usage)

Creating Ledgers
Understanding what ledgers are for: Ledgers in Tally record all of the transactions for that
account. One will need to create a ledger for each account that they do business with. Two
ledgers are included in Tally by default: "Cash" and "Profit and Loss Account". We can create
as many other ledgers as we need.
Step 1: Open Create Ledger window by following the given direction: Gateway of Tally >
Account’s Info > Ledger > Create
Step 2: Select the group. Here we will be required to select as to which group the ledger will
be assigned to. Choosing the right group is important, as it will affect how numbers and sales
are totalled later
 88

Step 3: Give the ledger a name. Enter a name for your ledger to know what the ledger
contains in it without having to open it
Step 4: Enter an opening balance (if any).For Example: If you are creating a ledger for your
bank account, this would be the amount currently in it. If you are starting a ledger for the
amount owed to a Vendor, the amount you owe would be the starting balance

Creating Vouchers
Understand the purpose of vouchers: It is a document that contains the details of a financial
transaction. These are used for all aspects of a business, from sales to deposits. Tally.ERP 9
comes with several of the most popular types of voucherspre-configured for usage.
Step 1: Open the vouchers screen using the following direction: Gateway of Tally > Accounting
Vouchers
Step 2: In this step, we can choose the voucher we want to create. Here’s is the list :
F4: Contra : For recording money deposited into or withdrawn from the bank, or for
recording any sum transferred between two accounts in the same
company.
F5: Payment This voucher is used for payments made by the business.
F6: Receipts For recording any income earned by the company (sales, rent, interest,
etc.) and for recording the proceeds received from Sundry debtors.
F7: Journal For recording all adjustment or due entries such as prepaid expense,
accrued income etc., For recording purchase of assets for recording Input
tax reversal entries, reverse charge entries under GST
F8: Sales This is used for recording all the sales made by the company
F9: Purchase This is used for recording all the inventories purchased by the company in
the course of business.
Step 3: Enter the required information.
The information needed to complete the voucher will vary depending on the type of voucher
we want to create. We will have to typically need to determine which ledger the voucher will
be attached to, as well as enter the date and names of any involved parties.
 89

Invoice and salary statement/ Generating Pay Slips (Payroll)

The new enhanced Payroll in Tally.ERP 9 offers fast and easy salary processing.
The Payroll process is a five-step procedure in Tally.ERP 9.
Step 1: Create employees , employee groups and employee categories
Create the employee masters, add employee details. categorize employees based on their
projects or office location, and add organizational groups that best represent their job
functions such as m arketing, R&D, sales, or accounts .
Step 2: Create Payroll Masters
Payroll masters represent various the Payroll Units and the Attendance/Production Type used
in your organization. For example , Payroll Units could be Simple or Compound while the
Attendance Type could include Present and Leave without Pay.
Step 3: Create Pay Heads
Pay heads represent the different components that constitute a salary structure.
You can add any complex type of pay head with ease in Tally.ERP 9.
Step 4: Create Salary Details
Create the applicable salary structure for employees and employee groups.
Step 5: Process Payroll and Generate Pay Slip
Record a payroll voucher that represents the various heads such as PF, ESI and PT towards
which employees and the employer contributes.
Generate the pay slip, which includes attendance details, provides a listing of each component
of the employee’s earnings and deductions, and displays the net amount paid to the
employee for a given pay period. Employees can use the pay slip to understand how the net
amount is calculated.
 90

MAINTAIN INVENTORY IN TALLY

It is very easy to maintain inventories in Tally.ERP9. Any type of stocks or inventories can be
maintained in tally software. Before maintenance of inventories in tally, you must keep the
following points in you mind:-
1. First of all, when you create a company in which you are working, there is a column in the
format of creation of company – ‘MAINTAIN’. Here you have two options (1) Accounts only
and (2) Accounts with Inventory. You must select ‘Accounts with Inventory’ for maintenance
of inventories in tally.
2. If you are already maintaining the accounts only in tally and you want to start to maintain
the inventories also. That can be done only after you alter the company structure. For
example – suppose you have already created a company in the name of M/s XYZ Limited and
you are maintaining the account of that company. Now, you want to start to maintain the
inventory also. So, what you have to do is, you must first alter the structure of company in
tally. When you shall go for alteration of the company structure, you shall see the screen after
you select ‘Accounts with Inventory’ in place of ‘Accounts only’ under the column –
‘MAINTAIN’ :-
Press ‘Y’ key after all above alteration. Now, you can maintain the inventories in tally.
3. Select ‘Features’ under ‘Gateway of Tally’
4. Select ‘Inventory Features’
5. After reaching in Inventory Features, you shall find you will find so many columns to be
filled up. You can fill any thing according to your requirement. But, at least,you must select the
following options to maintain inventories in general:-
 Integrate Accounts and Inventory – Select – Yes
 Allow Invoicing – Yes
 Enter Purchase in Invoice Format – Yes
 Use Debit/Credit Notes – Yes
 Use Invoice Mode for Credit Notes – Yes
 Use Invoice Mode for Debit Notes – Yes
 Separate Discount Column on Invoice – Yes
Now, your tally software is ready to maintain the inventories.
 91

Balance Sheet Definition

Balance Sheet is one of topmost financial statement prepared by the businesses. The financial
details of the balance sheet help you and the external stakeholders to evaluate the financial
performance of the business on a given date. Before knowing the steps to prepare a balance
sheet and reading the balance sheet, it is important to be familiar with the components and
format of the balance sheet.
Knowing the balance sheet format, equations, components will help you to prepare a balance
sheet easily. More importantly, knowing the fundaments will make you read the balance sheet
without any complications.
How to prepare balance sheet
Steps to prepare balance sheet
As mention in the above illustration, you need to follow 4 steps to complete the balance
sheet. The steps are listed and explained below:
 Preparing ledger account
 Creating trial balance
 Preparing trading and profit & loss account
 Preparing balance sheet
Step- 1: Prepare ledger accounts
From the transaction you have accounted in the journal book (a book where day to day
transactions are recorded), you must prepare an account statement for each ledger to
determine the closing balance. This is because a ledger account may have several transactions
and there is no way that journal book will tell you the current balance of each account.
Here, preparing ledger account is nothing but posting all the debit and credit transaction into
a statement belonging to a ledger account. For example, in preparing cash ledger account, you
must post all debit (receipts) and credit (payments) into statement and difference between
these two including the opening balance of cash will be the closing balance.
 92

Step-2: Create trial balance

Trial balance is a summary of all the ledger accounts. It lists all ledger accounts with closing
balance posted from individual ledger accounts statement (discussed above). The format of
trial balance consists of the Debit column and Credit column in which the closing balance of
each ledger accounts will be posted.
As a thumb rule, the total of debit balance in trial balance should match the total of credit
balance. Only when it matches, it is assumed that the posting and ledger accounts are
arithmetically correct. The purpose of preparing trial balance is to ascertain whether recording
and posting of ledger accounts are correct. It’s the first statement in the process of preparing
a balance sheet and hence, it always preferred to do a trial check whether every debit is equal
to the credit.
Step- 3: Preparing trading and profit & loss account
Profit and loss accounts is a financial statement prepared to know the profitability of the
business. This consists of 2 sections namely Trading account and profit & loss account. Most
businesses combine these two in a single statement and few, especially into manufacturing
segment prefer to prepare separately.
Trading Account reflects the result of buying and selling of goods including the direct cost
associated with it. It shows the gross loss or gross profit without considering the operational
expenses and incomes. On the other side, profit & loss account shows you the net profit
considering the gross profit/loss and all the indirect expenses and income.
Trading and Profit & loss account consists of all the ledger accounts having a nature of the
purchase, sales, direct expense and income, indirect expenses and income. While preparing
Trading and profit & loss account, you need to post only the ledgers belong to above nature.
Step-4 : Prepare balance sheet
Now that you have prepared all the above statements, it’s time to prepare a balance sheet.
You need to consider all the ledgers which are non-revenue in nature. In other words, all the
ledgers except the one which you have already considered for the Trading and Profit & loss
account should be considered for the balance sheet.
 93

Don’t stress yourself! Find out Balance Sheet format and nature of accounts to be considered
for Balance Sheet.
Broadly, the balance sheet consists of assets and liabilities. In the process of preparing a
balance sheet, first, start with the assets side. Start capturing fixed assets ledgers like land and
buildings, furniture, etc., and then investments and all the current assets like cash,
Bank, Accounts receivables, Closing stock, etc.
Next step is to bring all the ledgers having nature of liability under the liabilities side of the
balance sheet. Remember, if there is any adjustment like depreciation, bad debts, etc. you can
do it in the balance sheet as well.
Once you have captured all details into the balance sheet, the assets side should be equal to
the liabilities side of the balance sheet. Only then, your balance sheet is arithmetically correct.
 94

UNIT-4
Introduction to HTML
HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It is used to design web pages using a markup
language. HTML is the combination of Hypertext and Markup language. Hypertext defines the
link between web pages. A markup language is used to define the text document within the
tag which defines the structure of web pages. This language is used to annotate (make notes
for the computer) text so that a machine can understand it and manipulate text accordingly.
Most markup languages (e.g. HTML) are human-readable. The language uses tags to define
what manipulation has to be done on the text.
HTML is a markup language used by the browser to manipulate text, images, and other
content, in order to display it in the required format. HTML was created by Tim Berners-Lee in
1991. The first-ever version of HTML was HTML 1.0, but the first standard version was HTML
2.0, published in 1995.
Elements and Tags: HTML uses predefined tags and elements which tell the browser how to
properly display the content. Remember to include closing tags. If omitted, the browser
applies the effect of the opening tag until the end of the page.
HTML page structure:
The basic structure of an HTML page is laid out below. It contains the essential building-block
elements (i.e. doctype declaration, HTML, head, title, and body elements) upon which all web
pages are created.
<!DOCTYPE html>: This is the document type declaration (not technically a tag). It declares a
document as being an HTML document. The doctype declaration is not case-sensitive.
<html>: This is called the HTML root element. All other elements are contained within it.
<head>: The head tag contains the “behind the scenes” elements for a webpage. Elements
within the head aren’t visible on the front-end of a webpage. HTML elements used inside the
<head> element include:
<style>
<title>
<base>
 95

<noscript>
<script>
<meta>
<link>
<body>: The body tag is used to enclose all the visible content of a webpage. In other words,
the body content is what the browser will show on the front-end.
An HTML document can be created using any text editor. Save the text file using .htmlor .htm.
Once saved as an HTML document, the file can be opened as a webpage in the browser.
Features of HTML:
 It is easy to learn and easy to use.
 It is platform-independent.
 Images, videos, and audio can be added to a web page.
 Hypertext can be added to the text.
 It is a markup language.
Why learn HTML?
 It is a simple markup language. Its implementation is easy.
 It is used to create a website.
 Helps in developing fundamentals about web programming.
 Boost professional career.
Advantages:
 HTML is used to build websites.
 It is supported by all browsers.
 It can be integrated with other languages like CSS, JavaScript, etc.
Disadvantages:
 HTML can only create static web pages. For dynamic web pages, other languages
have to be used.
 A large amount of code has to be written to create a simple web page.
 The security feature is not good.
 96

HTML frames
 Frames are the sections created on the window.
 Each section can load a separate HTML document.
 The window is divided into frames in a similar way the tables are organized into rows
and columns.
 Frames provide the facility to display multiple HTML document inside one browser
window at a time.
 To create frames, we need <frameset> and <frame> tag.
1. <frameset> tag
 Collection of frames is called as frameset.
 If you are using frames on a page then use <frameset> tag instead of <body> tag.
 The rows attribute of <frameset> tag indicates horizontal frames and cols attribute
indicates vertical frames.
Syntax:<frameset>...........</frameset>

<frameset> Tag Attributes:

Attributes Description

cols It specifies how many columns are to be contained in the frameset and the
(Columns) size of each column.

rows It works like the 'cols' attribute and takes the same values, but it is used to
specify the number of rows in the frameset.

border It specifies the width of the border of each frame in pixels. For example;
border = “5”. A value of zero means no border.

frame It specifies whether a three-dimensional border should be displayed between

frames. It takes value either 1 (Yes) or 0 (No). For example; frameborder =
“0” specifies no border.

framespacing It specifies the amount of space between frames in a frameset. It can take
any integer value. For example; framespacing = “10” means there should be
10 pixels spacing between each frame.
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2. <frame> tag
<frame> tag is used to define a frame within a <frameset> tag.
A frame should be used within a <frameset> tag.
Syntax:<frame src=”frm1.htm”>
<frame> Tag Attributes:

Attributes Description

src It is used to give the file name that should be located in the frame. Its value can
be any URL, for example, src= “/html/abc.html”

name It allows to give a name to a frame. This attribute is used to indicate that a
document should be loaded into a frame.

frameborder It specifies whether or not the borders of that frame are shown. This attribute
overrides the value given in the frameborder attribute on the <frameset> tag if
one is given. This can take values either 1 (Yes) or 0 (No).

marginwidth It allows to specify the width of the space between the left and right of the frame's
border and the content. The value is given in pixels. For example; marginwidth =
“10”.

marginheight It allows to specify the height of the space between the top and bottom of the
frame's borders and its contents. The value is given in pixels. For example;
marginheight = “10”.

noresize By default, a user can resize any frame by clicking and dragging on the borders of
a frame. It prevents a user from being able to resize the frame. For example;
noresize = “noresize”.

scrolling It controls the appearance of the scrollbars that appear on the frame. It takes
values either “Yes”, “No” or “Auto”. For example; scrolling = “no” means it should
not have scroll bars.

longdesc It allows to provide a link to another page which contains a long description of the
contents of the frame. For example; longdesc = “framedescription.html”
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Example: HTML Frame

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Frames Example</title>
</head>
<frameset cols="50%,50%">
<frame src="http://www.careerride.com/test-login.aspx" >
<frame src="http://careerride.com/" >
</frameset>
</html>

HTML table
 Table is nothing but a two dimensional matrix with a combination of rows and columns.
 The <table> tag is used to define a table.
 Table rows are created by using <tr> tag.
 Table tows are divided into table data by using <td> tag.
 The <th> tag is used to create table column heading or row heading.
Table border
 The border attribute indicates border thickness of the table.
 The default value of border is 0.
Background color
The bgcolor attribute is used to set the background color of a table.
Table border color
The bordercolor attribute is used to set the border color of a table.
 99

Example: Table with background color, border and border color

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" bordercolor="blue" bgcolor="pink">
<tr>
<td align="center">Row 1, Column 1</td>
<td align="center">Row 1, Column 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center">Row 2, Column 1</td>
<td align="center">Row 2, Column 2</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Table Heading
 Table heading is the title given to the table row or column or both.
 The <th> tag is used to create table column heading or row heading.
Example: Table Heading
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Header Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Subject</th>
 100

<th>Total marks</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Math</td>
<td>100</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Science</td>
<td>100</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Rowspan and Colspan Attribute
rowspan: This attribute is used to combine two or more rows into a single cell.
colspan: This attribute is used to combine two or more columns into a single cell.
Example: Table rowspan and colspan attributes
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Colspan & Rowspan Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1">
<tr>
<th>Column 1</th>
<th>Column 2</th>
<th>Column 3</th>
<th>Column 4</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2">Row 1 Cell 1</td>
<td>Row 1 Cell 2</td>
 101

<td>Row 1 Cell 3</td>

<td>Row 1 Cell 4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Row 2 Cell 2</td>
<td>Row 2 Cell 3</td>
<td>Row 2 Cell 4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="4">Row 3 Cell 1</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Cellspacing and Cellpadding Attributes
Cell spacing: Cell spacing specifies the distance between the edges of the table cells.
Cell padding: Cell padding specifies the distance between the edges of the table cells and their
content.
Example: Table cellspacing and cellpadding attributes
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table Cellspacing & Cellpadding Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="4">
<tr>
<th>Subject</th>
<th>Total marks</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Math</td>
<td>100</td>
 102

</tr>
<tr>
<td>Science</td>
<td>100</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Width and Height Attributes
Width and height attributes are used to set table width and height.
Values are given in pixels.
Table Caption
The <caption> tag is used to give heading to the whole table.
This tag is always placed after <table> and before first <tr> tag.
Example: Table width, hight and caption
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Table width, hight and caption Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<table border="1" width="300" height="100">
<caption>Employee Details</caption>
<tr>
<th>Name</th>
<th>Salary</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Varun Rathi</td>
<td>7000</td>
</tr>
 103

<tr>
<td>Nitesh Singh</td>
<td>8000</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>

HTML Attributes
Core attributes
Core attributes may also be applied across almost the entire range of HTML elements.
Core attributes are:
id
title
class
style
lang
dir

id
The id attribute of an HTML element provides a unique identifier for an element within the
document.
The value of id attribute must be absolutely unique.
The id attribute value must begin with an alphabet and followed by any combination of digit,
hyphens (-), underscores (_), colons (:), and periods (.).
The id value is case sensitive.
Syntax:
<element id=“value”>

Example:
<div id=“mnu”>
 104

Title
 The title attribute specifies extra information about an element.
 The information is displayed in a tooltip when the mouse pointer is placed over the
element.
Syntax:
<element title=“text”>
Example:
<h1 title=“about JavaScript”>JavaScript</h1>
class
 The class attribute is used to specify the class of element.
 This attribute is used to associate an element with a style sheet.
 One or more class names can be specified for an element.
Syntax:
<element class="classname">
Example:
<div class="applycolor">Welcome to CareerRide Info</div>

style
 The style attribute specifies an inline style for the element.
 This attribute provides the facility to specify Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) rules within the
element.
Example:
<p style="font-family:arial; color:#800080; text-align:center">CareerRide Info</p>
lang
 The lang attribute specifies the language of the element’s content along with the
language of any attribute content.
 This attribute is used to identify the language of the content on a web page.
 The language of the document is declared in the <html> tag.
Syntax:
<element lang=“language_code”
 105

Dir
 The dir attribute specifies the reading direction for text as left to right or right to
left.
 The dir attribute tells the browser the direction in which the displayed text is
intended to be read.
The dir attribute can take one of the following two values.

Value Meaning

ltr Left to right direction

rtl Right to left direction

Syntax:
<element dir="ltr">
Example:
<p dir="rtl"> content </p>
HTML Lists
 Lists are used to represent group of items.
 They must contain one or more list elements.
 HTML supports three types of lists – Ordered list, Unordered list and Definition list.
1. Ordered list
 Ordered list is the collection of related items which has special order or sequence. This
list is numbered.
 The ordered list is created by using <ol> tag.
Syntax:
<ol>text</ol>
Example: Ordered list
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Example of HTML Ordered List</title>
 106

</head>
<body>
<ol>
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Computer Science</li>
<li>Language</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>
Output:
1. Maths
2. Physics
3. Computer Science
4. Language
Attributes of <ol> tag

Attributes Description Example and Output

type Used to specify type of numbering like 1/a/A/I/i. Default Example:

type is „1‟. <ol type="a">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Language</li>
</ol>

Output:
a. Maths
b. Physics
c. Language
 107

start Using this attribute any value can be set as the starting Example:
position. <ol type="i" start="4">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Language</li>
</ol>

Output:
iv. Maths
v. Physics
vi. Language

value Using this attribute the numbering sequence can be Example:

changed in the middle of an ordered list. <ol>
It is to be specified with the <li> tag. <li type="a"
value="3">Maths</li>
<li value="5">Physics</li>
</ol>

Output:
c. Maths
5. Physics

2. Unordered list:
 Unordered list is nothing but the collection of related items which has no special order
or sequence.
 The list item in the list is indicated by bullet.
Syntax:
<ul>text</ul>
Example: Unordered list
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Example of HTML Ordered List</title>
</head>
<body>
 108

<ul>
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Computer Science</li>
<li>Language</li>
</ul>
</body>
</html>
Output:
Maths
Physics
Computer Science
Language
Attributes of <ul>

Attribute Description Example and Output

type Used to specify type of list item like bullet, circle and square. Example:
Default type is bullet. <ul type="square">
<li>Maths</li>
<li>Physics</li>
<li>Language</li>
</ul>

Output:
 109

3. Definition list:
 Definition list has two parts, first is definition term and second is actual definition.
 The <dl> tag is used to create definition list.
 The <dl> tag encloses <dt> and <dd> tags which are used for definition term and actual
definition respectively.
Syntax:
<dl>
<dt>Definition Term</dt>
<dd>Definition</dd>
</dl>
Example: Definition list
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Example of HTML Definition List</title>
</head>
<body>
<dl>
<dt><b>jQuery</b></dt>
<dd>jQuery is a JavaScript Library.</dd>
<dt><b>AngularJS</b></dt>
<dd>AngularJS is a JavaScript framework.</dd>
</dl>
</body>
</html>
Output:
jQuery
jQuery is a JavaScript Library.
AngularJS
AngularJS is a JavaScript framework.
 110

HTML Image

 The tag is used to insert image in web page.

 It is an empty tag, means it does not have end tag.
Syntax:
<img src="url" alt="some_text">

Example:
<img src="http://www.careerride.com/images/new/logo.png" width="200" height="100"
alt="CareerRide Info" align="left">

Attributes of <img> tag

Attributes Description

vspace Specifies the amount of space to the top and bottom of the image.

hspace Specifies the amount of space to the left and right of the image.

alt Specifies alternate text for an image when image is not found.

src Indicate the source file.

border Specifies the thickness of border.

width and height Specifies width and height of the image.

align Use to set horizontal alignment of the image. (left, right)

valign Used to set vertical alignment of the image. (top, bottom)

 111

Example: Image <img> tag

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>HTML Image Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<img src="http://www.careerride.com/images/new/logo.png" width="200" height="22"
alt="CareerRide Info" align="right">
</body>
</html>

CSS: Cascading Style Sheets

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a stylesheet language used to describe the presentation of a
document written in HTML or XML (including XML dialects such as SVG, MathML or XHTML).
CSS describes how elements should be rendered on screen, on paper, in speech, or on other
media.
CSS is among the core languages of the open web and is standardized across Web browsers
according to W3C specifications. Previously, the development of various parts of CSS
specification was done synchronously, which allowed the versioning of the latest
recommendations. You might have heard about CSS1, CSS2.1, or even CSS3. There will never
be a CSS3 or a CSS4; rather, everything is now CSS without a version number.
After CSS 2.1, the scope of the specification increased significantly and the progress on
different CSS modules started to differ so much, that it became more effective to develop and
release recommendations separately per module. Instead of versioning the CSS specification,
W3C now periodically takes a snapshot of the latest stable state of the CSS specification and
individual modules progress. CSS modules now have version numbers, or levels, such as CSS
Color Module Level 5.
 112

Key resources
CSS Introduction
If you're new to web development, be sure to read our CSS basics article to learn what CSS is
and how to use it.
CSS Tutorials
Our CSS learning area contains a wealth of tutorials to take you from beginner level to
proficiency, covering all the fundamentals.
CSS Reference
Our exhaustive CSS reference for seasoned Web developers describes every property and
concept of CSS.

Tutorials
CSS first steps
CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is used to style and layout web pages — for example, to alter the
font, color, size, and spacing of your content, split it into multiple columns, or add animations
and other decorative features. This module provides a gentle beginning to your path towards
CSS mastery with the basics of how it works, what the syntax looks like, and how you can start
using it to add styling to HTML.
CSS building blocks
This module carries on where CSS first steps left off — now you've gained familiarity with the
language and its syntax, and got some basic experience with using it, it's time to dive a bit
deeper. This module looks at the cascade and inheritance, all the selector types we have
available, units, sizing, styling backgrounds and borders, debugging, and lots more.
The aim here is to provide you with a toolkit for writing competent CSS and help you
understand all the essential theory, before moving on to more specific disciplines like text
styling and CSS layout.
 113

CSS styling text

With the basics of the CSS language covered, the next CSS topic for you to concentrate on is
styling text — one of the most common things you'll do with CSS. Here we look at text styling
fundamentals, including setting font, boldness, italics, line and letter spacing, drop shadows,
and other text features. We round off the module by looking at applying custom fonts to your
page, and styling lists and links.
CSS layout
At this point we've already looked at CSS fundamentals, how to style text, and how to style
and manipulate the boxes that your content sits inside. Now it's time to look at how to place
your boxes in the right place in relation to the viewport, and to each other. We have covered
the necessary prerequisites so we can now dive deep into CSS layout, looking at different
display settings, modern layout tools like flexbox, CSS grid, and positioning, and some of the
legacy techniques you might still want to know about.
Reference
CSS reference: This exhaustive reference for seasoned Web developers describes every
property and concept of CSS.
CSS key concepts:
The syntax and forms of the language
Specificity, inheritance, and the Cascade
CSS units and values and functional notations
Box model and margin collapse
The containing block
Stacking and block-formatting contexts
Initial, computed, used, and actual values
CSS shorthand properties
CSS Flexible Box Layout
CSS Grid Layout