CHP # 1 InTRODUCTION TO DATABASES

1) INTRODUCTION:
Database: Is said to be a collection of related data.By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have
implicit meaning.and a database management system (DBMS) to be the software that manages and controls access to the database.The
DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases
among various users and applications. A database application is simply a program that interacts with the database at some point in its
execution. We also use the more inclusive term database system as a collection of application programs that interact with the database
along with the DBMS and the database itself.
Example:
Studying at College
If you are at college, there will be a database system containing information about yourself, your major and minor fields, the courses you
are enrolled in, details about your financial aid, the classes you have taken in previous years or are taking this year, and details of all your
examination results. There may also be a database containing details relating to the next year’s admissions and a database containing
details of the staff working at the university, giving personal details and salary related details for the payroll office.

1.1) TRADITIONAL FILE BASED SYSTEMS:

1.1.1) File Based System: A collection of application programs that perform services for the end-users, such as the production of
reports. Each program defines and manages its own data.
File-based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system that we are all familiar with. For example, an
organization might have physical files set up to hold all external and internal correspondence relating to a project, prod uct, task, client,
or employee.
A file is simply a collection of records, which contains logically related data.
Each record contains a logically connected set of one or more fields, where each field represents some characteristic of the real-world
object that is being modeled
1.1.2) Limitations of File Based Approach:
 Separation and isolation of data:
When data is isolated in separate files, it is more difficult to access data that should be available.
Imagine storing customer information in separate files for name, contact, and orders. If a customer changes their address,
updating it requires modifying multiple files, risking inconsistencies and complicating data maintenance due to the lack of
centralized control.
 Duplication of data:
Refers to occurrence of the same information begin stored multiple files. This redundancy can lead to inconsistencies, as updating data
requires changes in multiple locations, increasing the risk of errors and making the system more challenging to maintain.Duplication is
wasteful. It costs time and money to enter the data more than once. It takes up additional storage space, again with associated costs.
Often, the duplication of data can be avoided by sharing data files.
 Data dependence:
As we have already mentioned, the physical structure and storage of the data files and records are defined in the application code. This
means that changes to an existing structure are difficult to make. If refers to tight coupling between application programs and structure of
data files. If the file structure changes it can impact programs relying on that data, requiring extensive modifications.
 Incompatible file formats:
Refers to challenge of different programs using varied structures to store data. Each application may have its own file format, making it
difficult for them to seamlessly share or exchange information. This lack of standardization can lead to integration issues and hinder
efficient data interchange between different parts of a system.
 Fixed queries of application programs:
Refers that programs are designed with specific queries hardcoded to retrieve and manipulate data. This rigidity makes it challenging to
adapt to changing information needs or modify queries without altering the program’s code. Unlike dynamic queries in a relational
database, fixed queries limit the system’s flexibility and responsiveness to evolving data requirements.
TWO MOST IMPORTANT FLAWS IN ABOVE SYSTEMS:
The definition of the data is embedded in the application programs, rather than being stored separately and independently. There is
no control over the access and manipulation of data beyond that imposed by the application programs.

1.2) DATABASE APPROACH:

1.2.1) Database:A shared collection of logically related data and its description,designed to meet the information needs of an
organization.
The database is a single, possibly large repository of data that can be used simultaneously by many departments and users.
The database is no longer owned by one department but is a shared corporate resource. The database holds not only the organization’s
operational data, but also a description of this data.For this reason, a database is also defined as a self-describing collection of integrated
records. The description of the data is known as the system catalog (or data dictionary or metadata—the “data about data”). It is
the self-describing nature of a database that provides program–data independence.
Advantages:
advantage of this approach, known as data abstraction, is that we can change the internal definition of an object without affecting the
users of the object, provided that the external definition remains the same. In the same way, the database approach separates the structure
of the data from the application programs and stores it in the database. If new data structures are added or existing structures are
modified, then the application programs are unaffected, provided that they do not directly depend upon what has been modified.
An entity is a distinct object (a person, place, thing, concept, or event) in the organization that is to be represented in the database. An
attribute is a property that describes some aspect of the object that we wish to record, and a relationship is an association between
entities.
1.2.2) Database Management System(DBMS):
DBMS:A software system that enables users to define, create, maintain, and control access to the database.
It allows users to define the database, usually through a Data Definition Language (DDL). The DDL allows users to specify the data
types and structures and the constraints on the data to be stored in the database.
• It allows users to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database, usually through a Data Manipulation Language (DML).
Having a central repository for all data and data descriptions allows the DML to provide a general inquiry facility to this data, called a
query language. The provision of a query language alleviates the problems with file-based systems where the user has to work with a
fixed set of queries or there is a proliferation of programs, causing major software management problems. The most common query
language is the Structured Query Language .
1.2.3) (Database) Application Programs:
Application Programs:A computer program that interacts with the database by issuing an appropriate request (typically an SQL statement) to the
DBMS.
Users interact with the database through a number of application programs that are used to create and maintain the database and to
generate information. These programs can be conventional batch applications or, more typically nowadays,
online applications. The application programs may be written in a programming language or in higher-level fourth-generation language.
VIEW:
The DBMS is an extremely powerful and useful tool. As the end-users are not too interested in how complex or easy a task is for the
system, it could be argued that the DBMS has made things more complex, because they now see more data than they actually need or
want.In recognition of this problem, a DBMS provides another facility known as a view mechanism, which allows each user to have his
or her own view of the database (a view is, in essence, some subset of the database).
 Views provide a level of security. Views can be set up to to exclude data that some users should not set.
 Views provide a mechanism to customize appearance of the database.
 View can present a consistent, unchanging picture of the structure of the database.(e.g. fields added or
removed,relationships changed,files split,restructured, or renamed).
1.2.4) Components of DBMS Environment:

1. Hardware:
The DBMS and application program requires a hardware to run.Particular hardware depends on organization’s requirements
and DBMS used. Some DBMS run only on particular hardware or operating systems, while others run on a wide variety of
hardware and operating systems.. A DBMS requires a minimum amount of main memory and disk space to run, but this
minimum configuration may not necessarily give acceptable performance.
2. Software:
Software components include DBMS software itself and application programs together with operating systems including
network software if DBMS is online.Applications programs are written in third-generation lanaguage (3GL)[C,C++,C#,Java,
Visual Basic etc or fourth-generation language (4GL) such as SQL, embedded in 3GL. Target DBMS may have its own fourth-
generation tools that allow rapid development.
3. Data:
 Most important component of DBMS environment- certainly from end-users’ point of view- is the data. The database contains
both the operational data and the metadata(data about data). The structure of database is called the Schema.
Data is central for storage, retrieval, and organization. It ensures integrity, security, and supports decision-making processes by
providing a reliable source for analysis and insights.
4. Procedures:
Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database. The users of the system and the
staff who manage the database require documented procedures on how to use or run the system.
5. People:
The final component is the people involved with the system.
1.2.5) Database Design: The Paradigm Shift:
The structure of the database is determined during database design.Carrying out database design can be extremely complex. To produce a
system that will satisfy the organization’s information needs requires a different approach from that of file-based systems, where the work
was driven by the application needs of individual departments. For the database approach to succeed, the
organization now has to think of the data first and the application second. This change in approach is sometimes referred to as a
paradigm shift. For the system to be acceptable to the end-users, the database design activity is crucial. A poorly designed database will
generate errors that may lead to bad decisions, which may have serious repercussions for the organization. On the other hand, a well-
designed database produces a system that provides the correct information for the decision making process to succeed in an efficient way.
1.3) Roles in the Database Environment:
1.3.1) Data and Database Administrators:
Data Administrator (DA) is responsible for the management of the data resource, including database planning; development and
maintenance of standards, policies and procedures; and conceptual/logical database design. Their duties include ensuring data integrity,
security, and optimal performance, as well as overseeing database design, implementation, and troubleshooting.
Data Base Administrators(DBA) is responsible for the physical realization of the database, including physical database design and
implementation, security and integrity control, maintenance of the operational system, and ensuring satisfactory performance of the
applications for users.The role of the DBA is more technically oriented than the role of the DA, requiring detailed knowledge of the
target DBMS and the system environment.
1.3.2) Database Designers:
In large database design projects, we can distinguish between two types of designer: logical database designers and physical database
designers.
The Logical database designer is concerned with identifying the data (that is, the entities and attributes), the relationships between the
data, and the constraints on the data that is to be stored in the database.Logical database designers must have the complete understandings
of organization’s data and its constraints(business rules).These constraints describe the main characteristics of data.
The Physical database designer decides how logical design database is to be physically realized:
 mapping the logical database design into a set of tables and integrity constraints.
 selecting specific storage structures and access methods for the data to achieve
 good performance
 designing any security measures required on the data.
the physical database designer must be fully aware of the functionality of the target DBMS and must understand the advantages and
disadvantages of each alternative implementation. The physical database designer must be capable of selecting a suitable storage strategy
that takes account of usage
1.3.3) Application Developers:
After database implementation,the application program must provide the required functionality for end-users.This is the responsibility of
application developers.Application developers work from a specification produced by system analysts.Each program contains statements
that request the DBMS to perform some operation on the database,which includes retrieving data,inserting,updating and deleting data.
Programs may be written in third-generation or fourth-generation programming language.
1.3.4) End-users:
The end-users are the “clients” of the database, which has been designed and implemented and is being maintained to serve their
information needs.
Naïve users are unaware of the DBMS. They access the database through special wriiten application progamsr that attemp to make the
opeation as simple as possible for the users. They operate database by entering simple commands or choosing options from menu.this
means that they don’t need to know anything about database or DBMS.
For example, the checkout assistant at the local supermarket uses a bar code reader to find out the price of the item. However, there is an
application program present that reads the bar code, looks up the price of the item in the database, reduces the database field containing
the number of such items in stock, and displays the price on the till.
Sophisticated users ,the sophisticated end-user is familiar with the structure of the database and the facilities offered by the DBMS.
Sophisticated end-users may use a high-level query language such as SQL to perform the required operations. Some sophisticated end-
users may even write application programs for their own use.
1.4) History of DataBase Management System:
Read in page no. 72. Hierarchial strucutures.
 the network schema—the logical organization of the entire database as seen by the DBA—which includes a definition of the
database name, the type of each record, and the components of each record type.
 the subschema—the part of the database as seen by the user or application program.
 a data management language to define the data characteristics and the data structure, and to manipulate the data.

1.5) Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS:

 Advantages:
1. Control of Redundancy:
The database approach attempts to eliminate the redundancy by integrating the files so that multiple copies of the same data are not
stored. However, the database approach does not eliminate redundancy entirely, but controls the amount of redundancy inherent in
the database. Sometimes it is necessary to duplicate key data items to model relationships; at other times, it is desirable to duplicate
some data items to improve performance.
2. Data Consistency:
Data consistency refers to maintaining accuracy,reliability, and integrity of data across the database.It ensures that data remains
valid during transactions and updates, following predefined rules and constraints.we reduce the risk of inconsistencies occurring. If
a data item is stored only once in the database, any update to its value has to be performed only once and the new value is available
immediately to all users. If a data item is stored more than once and the system is aware of this, the system can ensure that all
copies of the item are kept consistent.
3. More information from the same amount of data:
This achieved through features such as data normalization, which reduces redundancy, and the ability to create relationships
between different tables. By organizing and structuring data efficiently,leading to a richer and more insightful interpretation of the
information stored in the database.
4. Sharing of Data:
It refers to ability to access and use data from the same database by multiple users or applications concurrently.DBMS provides
mechanisms for controlled and secure sharing,ensuring that users can retrieve and manipulate data without conflicting with each
other. This facilitates collaboration, simultaneous data processing.
5. Improve Data Integrity:
Means accuracy,consistency, and reliability of data are enhanced.DBMS achieves this by enforcing constraints,relationships,and
rules defined in database schema.Features like transactions and ACID(Atomicity,consistency,isolation,durability) properties
maintain data validity during operations.
6. Improved Security:
Involves measures to safeguard data from unauthorized access,manipulation, or breaches. This includes user authentication,
encryption, access control and audit trails. It ensures that sensitive data is kept confidential,
7. Enforcement of Standards:
integration allows the DBA to define and the DBMS to enforce the necessary standards. These may include departmental,
organizational, national, or international standards for such things as data formats to facilitate exchange of data between systems, naming
conventions, documentation standards, update procedures, and access rules.
8. Economy of Scale:
Combining all the organization’s operational data into one database and creating a set of applications that work on this one source
of data can result in cost savings. the budget that would normally be allocated to each department for the development and
maintenance of its file-based system can be combined, possibly resulting in a lower total cost, leading to an economy of scale.
9. Balance of Conflicting Requirements:
Each user or department has needs that may be in conflict with the needs of other users. Because the database is under the control
of the DBA, the DBA can make decisions about the design and operational use of the database that provide the best use of
resources for the organization as a whole. These decisions will provide optimal performance for important applications, possibly at
the expense of less-critical ones.
10. Improve Data Accessibility and Responsiveness:
as a result of integration, data that crosses departmental boundaries is directly accessible to the endusers.This provides a system with
potentially much more functionality that can, for example,be used to provide better services to the end-user or the organization’s
clients.
11. Increased Productivity:
DBMS provides many of the standard functions that the programmer would normally have to write in a filebased application. At a
basic level, the DBMS provides all the low-level file-handling routines that are typical in application programs. The provision of these
 functions allows the programmer to concentrate on the specific functionality required by the users without having to worry about low-
level implementation details.
12. Improved Maintenance Through Data Independence:
In file-based systems, the descriptions of the data and the logic for accessing the data are built into each application program, making
the programs dependent on the data.In contrast, a DBMS separates the data descriptions from the applications, thereby making
applications immune to changes in the data descriptions. This is known as data independence.
13. Increased Concurrency:
In some file-based systems, if two or more users are allowed to access the same file simultaneously, it is possible that the accesses will
interfere with each other, resulting in loss of information or even loss of integrity. Many DBMSs manage concurrent database access
and ensure that such problems cannot occur.
14. Improved Backup and Recovery Services:
Modern DBMSs provide facilities to minimize the amount of processing that is lost following a failure.

 Disadvantages:
1. Complexity:
The provision of the functionality that we expect of a good DBMS makes the DBMS an extremely complex piece of software.
Database designers and developers, data and database administrators, and end-users must understand this functionality to take full
advantage of it. Failure to understand the system can lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an
organization.
2. Size:
The complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an extremely large piece of software, occupying many megabytes of
disk space and requiring substantial amounts of memory to run efficiently.
3. Cost of DBMSs:
The cost of DBMSs varies significantly, depending on the environment and functionality provided. For example, a single-user DBMS
for a personal computer may only cost $100. However, a large mainframe multi-user DBMS servicing hundreds of users can be
extremely expensive, perhaps $100,000 or even $1,000,000. There is also the recurrent annual maintenance cost, which is typically a
percentage of the list price.
4. Additional Hardware Costs:
The disk storage requirements for the DBMS and the database may necessitate the purchase of additional storage space. Furthermore,
to achieve the required performance, it may be necessary to purchase a larger machine, perhaps even a machine dedicated to running
the DBMS.
5. Cost of Conversion:
In some situations, the cost of the DBMS and extra hardware may be relatively small compared with the cost of converting existing
applications to run on the new DBMS and hardware. This cost also includes the cost of training staff to use these new systems, and
possibly the employment of specialist staff to help with the conversion and running of the systems. That’s why many organization feel
tired to upgrade to the latest system.
6. Performance:
File-based system is written for a specific application, such as invoicing. As a result, performance is generally very good. However,
the DBMS is written to be more general, to cater for many applications rather than just one. The result is that some applications may
not run as fast as they used to.
7. Greater Impact of a Failure:
The centralization of resources increases the vulnerability of the system. Because all users and applications rely on the availability of
the DBMS, the failure of certain components can bring operations to a halt.
 CHP # 2 DATABASE ENVIRONMENT
2) INTRODUCTION:
 Structure of Database means the data types, realtionships & constraints.
 the “real-world” entities Staff, PropertyforRent, PrivateOwner, and Client;
 attributes describing properties or qualities of each entity (for example, each Staff entry has a name, position, and salary);
 relationships between these entities (for example, Staff Manages PropertyforRent). Furthermore, because a database is a shared
resource, each user may require a different view of the data held in the database.
 Data abstraction generally refers to the suppression of details of data organization and storage, and the highlighting of the essential
features for an improved understanding of data. One of the main characteristics of the database approach is to support data
abstraction so that different users can perceive data at their preferred level of detail. A data model—a collection of concepts that
can be used to describe the structure of a database—provides the necessary means 2 to achieve this abstraction.
 Most data models also include a set of basic operations for specifying retrievals and updates on the database. In addition to the
basic operations provided by the data model, it is becoming more common to include concepts in the data model to specify the
dynamic aspect or behavior of a database application. This allows the database designer to specify a set of valid user-defined
operations that are allowed on the database objects.
 Representational Data Models which provide concepts that may be easily understood by end users but that are not too far removed
from the way data is organized in computer storage. Representational data models hide many details of data storage on disk but can
be implemented on a computer system directly.1)Hierarchial Model 2)Relational Data Model
 The description of a database is called the database schema, which is specified during database design and is not expected to change
frequently. Most data models have certain conventions for displaying schemas as diagrams.A displayed schema is called a schema
diagram.
 valid state—in DBMS that is, a state that satisfies the structure and constraints specified in the schema.
 The DBMS stores the descriptions of the schema constructs and constraints—also called the meta-data—in the DBMS catalog so
that DBMS software can refer to the schema whenever it needs to.
 The schema is sometimes called the intension, and a database state is called an extension of the schema.
 The data in the database at any particular point in time is called a database instance.
2.1) Three-Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture:

2.1.1) External-Level:
The external or view level includes a number of external schemas or user views. Each external schema describes the part of the database
that a particular user group is interested in and hides the rest of the database from that user group. As in the previous level, each external
schema is typically implemented using a representational data model, possibly based on an external schema design in a high-level
conceptual data model.
2.1.2) Conceptual-Level:
The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which describes the structure of the whole database for a community of users. The
conceptual schema hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user
operations, and constraints. Usually, a representational data model is used to describe the conceptual schema when a database system is
implemented.The conceptual level represents:
 all entities, their attributes, and their relationships
 the constraints on the data
 security and integrity information.
2.1.3) Internal_Level:
The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the physical storage structure of the database. The internal schema uses a
physical data model and describes the complete details of data storage and access paths for the database.Internal is concerned with:
 storage space allocation for data and indexes
 record descriptions for storage (with stored sizes for data items)
 record placement
 data compression and data encryption techniques.
Below the internal level there is a physical level that may be managed by the operating system under the direction of the DBMS.
However, the functions of the DBMS and the operating system at the physical level are not clear-cut and vary from system to system.
Some DBMSs take advantage of many of the operating system access methods, and others use only the most basic ones and create their
own file organizations. The physical level below the DBMS consists of items that only the operating system knows, such as exactly how
the sequencing is implemented and whether the fields of internal records are stored as contiguous bytes on the disk.
2.1.4) Schemas,Mapping and Instances:
The overall description of the database is called the database schema.At the highest level, we have multiple external schemas (also called
sub-schemas)that correspond to different views of the data. At the conceptual level, we have the conceptual schema, which describes all
the entities, attributes, and relationships together with integrity constraints. At the lowest level of abstraction we have the internal schema,
which is a complete description of the internal model, containing the definitions of stored records, the methods of representation, the data
fields, and the indexes and storage structures used.

2.1.5) Data Independence:

A major objective for the three-level architecture is to provide data independence, which means that upper levels are unaffected by
changes to lower levels.

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 LOGICAL DATA INDEPENDENCE: is the capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change external
schemas or application programs. We may change the conceptual schema to expand the database (by adding a record type or data
item), to change constraints, or to reduce the database (by removing a record type or data item). In the last case, external schemas
that refer only to the remaining data should not be affected. Changes to the conceptual schema, such as the addition or removal of
new entities, attributes, or relationships, should be possible without having to change existing external schemas or having to rewrite
application programs.
 PHYSICAL DATA INDEPENDENCE: Is the capacity to change the internal schema
without having to change the conceptual schema. Hence, the external schemas need not be changed as well. Changes to the internal
schema may be needed because some physical files were reorganized—for example, by creating additional access structures— to
improve the performance of retrieval or update. If the same data as before remains in the database, we should not have to change the
conceptual schema.
2.2) Database Languages:
2.2.1) The Data-Definition Language(DDL):
A languagethatallowstheDBAorusertodescribeandnametheentities, attributes, and relationships required for the application, together with
any associated integrity and security constraints.The DDL is used to define a schema or to modify an existing one. It cannot be used to
manipulate data.The result of the compilation of the DDL statements is a set of tables stored in special files collectively called the system
catalog. The system catalog integrates the metadata, which is data that describes the objects in the database and makes it easier for those
objects to be accessed or manipulated. The metadata contains definitions of records, data items, and other objects that are of interest to
users or are required by the DBMS. The DBMS normally consults the system catalog before the actual data is accessed in the database.
The terms data dictionary and data directory are also used to describe the system catalog, although the term “data dictionary” usually
refers to a more general software system than a catalog for a DBMS.storage definition language (SDL)
view definition language (VDL).
2.2.2) The Data-Manipulation Language(DML):
When database is populated with data, users must have some means to manipulate the database. Typical manipulations
include retrieval, insertion, deletion, and modification of the data. The DBMS provides a set of operations or a language called the data
manipulation language (DML) for these purposes.Data manipulation operations usually include the following:
 Insertion of new data into the database.
 Modification of data stored in the database.
 Retrieval of data contained in the database.
 Deletion of data from the database.
The part of a DML that involves data retrieval is called a query language. A query language can be defined as a high-level special-
purpose language used to satisfy diverse requests for the retrieval of data held in the database.
 Procedural DML:
A lowlevel or procedural DML must be embedded in a general-purpose programming language. This type of DML typically
retrieves individual records or objects from the database and processes each separately. Therefore, it needs to use programming
language constructs, such as looping, to retrieve and process each record from a set of records.

 Non-Procedural DML:
A high-level or nonprocedural DML can be used on its own to specify complex database operations concisely. Many DBMSs allow
high-level DML statements either to be entered interactively from a display monitor or terminal or to be embedded in a general-
purpose programming language.
2.2.3) Fourth-Generation Languages(4GL)(Non-procedural):
Fourth Generation Language, is a high-level programming language designed for rapid application development and database
management, featuring a more natural, human-readable syntax. Examples include SQL for databases and tools like
PowerBuilder.Compared with a 3GL, which is procedural, a 4GL is nonprocedural: the user defines what is to be done, not how. A 4GL
is expected to rely largely on much higher-level components known as fourth-generation tools. The user does not define the steps that a
program needs to perform a task, but instead defines parameters for the tools that use them to generate an application program. It is
claimed that 4GLs can improve productivity by a factor of ten, at the cost of limiting the types of problem that can be tackled. Fourth-
generation languages encompass:
• presentation languages, such as query languages and report generators;
• speciality languages, such as spreadsheets and database languages;
• application generators that define, insert, update, and retrieve data from the
database to build applications;
• very high-level languages that are used to generate application code.
 Form Generators:A forms generator is an interactive facility for rapidly creating data input and display layouts for screen forms.
The forms generator allows the user to define what the screen is to look like, what information is to be displayed, and where on the
screen it is to be displayed. It may also allow the definition of colors for screen elements and other characteristics such as bold,
underline, blinking, reverse video.
 Report Generators: It’s a facility for creating reports from data stored in database. It’s similar to query language that allows users
to ask questions and retrieve information from data for report. However, in case of report generator , we have much greater control
over what the output look like.Report generators can automatically determine how output should look or we can create our own
customized output using special report-generator command instructions. Language-oriented, Visually-oriented.
 Graphics Generators:A graphics generator is a facility to retrieve data from the database and display the data as a graph showing
trends and relationships in the data. Typically, it allows the user to create bar charts, pie charts, line charts, scatter charts, and so on.
 Application Generators:An application generator is a facility for producing a program that interfaces with the database. The use
of an application generator can reduce the time it takes to design an entire software application. Application generators typically
consist of prewritten modules that comprise fundamental functions.The user specifies what the program is supposed to do; the
application generator determines how to perform the tasks.
2.2.4) DBMS Interfaces:
Menu-Based Interfaces for web clients and servers: Menu-based interfaces in DBMS for web clients involve users navigating through
web-based menus to interact with databases. They offer a user-friendly, guided approach suitable for individuals less familiar with
complex query languages. While easy to use, they may have limited flexibility compared to more advanced interfaces.
Apps For Mobile Devices: Mobile DBMS apps are applications on smartphones that facilitate interactions with databases. They enable
users to query, update, and view information, providing a convenient and accessible platform for managing data on mobile devices.
Form Based Interfaces: Form-based interfaces in DBMS involve users interacting with databases through structured forms on screens,
simplifying data entry and retrieval processes. They provide a user-friendly approach to input and retrieve information.
Graphical User Interface: Graphical User Interface (GUI) in DBMS interfaces employs visual elements like icons and windows,
enhancing user interactions with databases through intuitive, graphical representations, facilitating easier navigation and data
manipulation.
Natural Language Interface: Natural Language Interfaces in DBMS enable users to interact with databases using everyday language,
allowing queries and commands to be expressed in a more human-like manner, simplifying communication between users and databases.
They aim to make database interactions more accessible and user-friendly.
Keyword-Based Data Search: Keyword-based data search interfaces in DBMS allow users to search and retrieve information by entering
specific keywords, streamlining the process of locating relevant data within the database. They provide a quick and efficient way to find
and access specific information.
Speech & Input Interface: Speech input and output interfaces in DBMS enable users to interact with databases using spoken language,
allowing vocal commands for tasks like querying and receiving spoken responses, enhancing accessibility and hands-free operation. They
provide a convenient and inclusive way for users to engage with database systems.
Interfaces For Parametric Users: Interfaces for parametric users in DBMS cater to users who require customizable parameters, allowing
them to tailor the interface to their specific needs, providing flexibility and personalized control over database interactions. These
interfaces are designed to accommodate varied user preferences and requirements.
Interfaces For The DBA: DBMS interfaces for Database Administrators (DBA) provide advanced tools and functionalities for managing
and administering databases, offering features like performance monitoring, security configuration, and database optimization to facilitate
efficient database management. They empower DBAs with specialized tools for maintaining and overseeing the database infrastructure.
Data Modeling and Conceptual Modeling:
Data Model: An integrated collection of concepts for describing and manipulating data, relationships between data, and constraints on
the data in an organization.
A data model can be thought of as comprising three components:
(1) a structural part, consisting of a set of rules according to which databases can be constructed.
(2) a manipulative part, defining the types of operation that are allowed on the data (this includes the operations that are used for
updating or retrieving data from the database and for changing the structure of the database).
(3) a set of integrity constraints, which ensures that the data is accurate.
2.2.5) Objects-Based Data Models:
Object-based data models use concepts such as entities, attributes, and relationships. An entity is a distinct object (a person, place, thing,
concept, event) in the organization that is to be represented in the database. An attribute is a property that describes some aspect of the
object that we wish to record, and a relationship is an association between entities.The object-oriented data model extends the definition
of an entity to include not only the attributes that describe the state of the object but also the actions that are associated with the object,
that is, its behavior. The object is said to encapsulate both state and behavior.
2.2.6) Record-Based Data Models:
In a record-based model, the database consists of a number of fixed-format records, possibly of differing types. Each record type defines
a fixed number of fields, typically of a fixed length. There are three principal types of record-based logical data model: the relational data
model, the network data model, and the hierarchical data model.
 Relational Data Model:
The relational data model is based on the concept of mathematical relations. In the relational model, data and relationships are
represented as tables, each of which has a number of columns with a unique name.
 Network Data Model:
The network data model is a type of data model used in databases where data is represented as records connected in a graph-like structure.
It emphasizes relationships between entities and allows for more complex and interconnected data representations compared to the
simpler tabular structure of the relational data model.
 Hierarchial Data Model:
The hierarchical data model is a database model where data is organized in a tree-like structure, with parent-child relationships
represented hierarchically. Each record has a single parent, except for the root record, fostering a clear and ordered representation of data
relationships.

2.2.7) Physical Data Model:

Physical data models describe how data is stored in the computer, representing information such as record structures, record orderings,
and access paths. There are not as many physical data models as logical data models; the most common ones are the unifying model and
the frame memory.
2.2.8) Conceptual Modeling:
Conceptual modeling or conceptual database design is the process of constructing a model of the information use in an enterprise that is
independent of implementation details, such as the target DBMS, application programs, programming languages, or any other physical
considerations. This model is called a conceptual data model. Conceptual models are also referred to as “logical models” in the literature.
However, in this book we make a distinction between conceptual and logical data models. The conceptual model is independent of all
implementation details, whereas the logical model assumes knowledge of the underlying data model of the target DBMS.
2.3) Functions of DBMS:
1. Data storage, retrieval, and update: A DBMS must furnish users with the ability to store, retrieve, and update data in the
database.This is the fundamental functions of a DBMS.
2. A user-accessible catalog: A DBMS must furnish a catalog in which descriptions of data items are stored and which is
accessible to users.A key feature of ANSI-SPARC architecture is the recognition of an integrated System catalog to hold data about
the schema, users, applications and so on. The catalog is expected to be accessible to users as well as to the DBMS.A System
Catalog is a repository information describing data in database, it is the “Data about data” or the metadata.
• names of relationships;
• integrity constraints on the data;
• names of authorized users who have access to the data;
• the data items that each user can access and the types of access allowed; for example, insert, update, delete, or read access;
3. Transaction Support: A DBMS must furnish a mechanism that will ensure either that all the updates corresponding to a given
transaction are made or that none of them is made.
A transaction is a series of actions, carried out by a single user or application program, which accesses or changes the contents of
the database.
4. Concurrency control services: A DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that the database is updated
correctly when multiple users are updating the database concurrently. One of major objective is that DBMS is
to enable many users to access shared data concurrently.
5. Recovery Services: A DBMS must furnish a mechanism for recovering the database in the event that the database is damaged
in any way.
When discussing transaction support, we mentioned that if the transaction fails, then the database has to be returned to a consistent
state. This failure may be the result of a system crash, media failure, a hardware or software error causing the DBMS to stop, or it
may be result of the user detecting an error during the transaction and aborting the transaction before it completes.
6. Authorization services: A DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the database.
7. Support for Data Communication: A DBMS must be capable of integrating with communication software. The DBMS
receives requests as communication messages and responds in similar way. All such transmissions are handled by a data
communication manager (DCM).
8. Integrity Services: A DBMS must furnish a means to ensure that both the data is the database and changes to the data follow
certain rules.“Database integrity” refers to the correctness and consistency of stored data: it can be considered as another type of
database protection. Although integrity is related to security, it has wider implications: integrity is concerned with the quality of
data itself. Integrity is usually expressed in terms of constraints, which are consistency rules that the database is not permitted to
violate.
9. Services to promote Data Independence: A DBMS must include facilities to support the independence of programs from
the actual structure of the database.
 Data independence is normally achieved through a view or sub-schema mechanism. Physical data independence is easier to achieve:
there are usually several types of change that can be made to the physical characteristics of the database without affecting views.
10. Utility Services: A DBMS should provide a set of utility services.
Utility programs help the DBA administrator the database effectively.
• import facilities, to load the database from flat files, and export facilities, to unload the database to flat files;
• monitoring facilities, to monitor database usage and operation;
• statistical analysis programs, to examine performance or usage statistics;
• index reorganization facilities, to reorganize indexes and their overflows;
garbage collection and reallocation, to remove deleted records physically from the storage devices, to consolidate the space released, and
to reallocate it where it is needed.

2.4) Centralized and Client/Server Architectures for DBMS:

2.4.1) Centralized DBMS Architecture:
Centralized DBMS architecture refers to a database management system configuration where the entire database, along with its
management functions, is hosted on a single server or a central computer. In this architecture, all data processing, storage, and control are
concentrated in one location, often making it easier to manage but potentially creating scalability and performance challenges as the
system grows.
2.4.2) Basic Client/Server Architecture:
client/server architecture involves a networked model where a client device interacts with a central server. The client requests services or
resources from the server, which processes and fulfills these requests, facilitating distributed computing and enabling more scalable and
modular systems.The idea is to define specialized servers with specific functionalities. For example, it is possible to connect a number of
PCs or small workstations as clients to a file server that maintains the files of the client machines. Another machine can be designated as
a printer server by being connected to various printers; all print requests by the clients are forwarded to this machine. Web servers or e-
mail servers also fall into the specialized server category. The resources provided by specialized servers can be accessed by many client
machines. The client machines provide the user with the appropriate interfaces to utilize these servers, as well as with local processing
power to run local applications.
A client in this framework is typically a user machine that provides user interface capabilities and local processing. When a client
requires access to additional functionality—such as database access—that does not exist at the client, it connects to a server that
provides the needed functionality. A server is a system containing both hardware and software that can provide services to the
client machines, such as file access, printing, archiving, or database access.
2.4.3) Two-Tier Client/Server Architectures of DBMS:
In a two-tier client/server architecture in DBMS:
Client Tier: This is the front-end or user interface where the client application resides. It handles the presentation logic and user
interactions.
Server Tier: The server tier hosts the database management system, managing the data and processing requests from the client. It handles
the application logic and interacts directly with the database.
This architecture simplifies the system but may lead to scalability and maintenance challenges as both application logic and data
management are closely coupled.
The architectures described here are called two-tier architectures because the software components are distributed over two systems:
client and server. The advantages of this architecture are its simplicity and seamless compatibility with existing
systems. The emergence of the Web changed the roles of clients and servers, leading to the three-tier architecture.
2.4.4) Three-Tier or N-Tier Architectures For Web Applications:
Three-tier architecture, which adds an intermediate layer between the client and the database server.
This intermediate layer or middle tier is called the application server or the Web server, depending on the application. This server plays
an intermediary role by running application programs and storing business rules (procedures or constraints) that are used to access data
from the database server.
Middle tier is added or else remaining two tiers are stated in 2-tier architecture.
2.5) Classification of DBMS:
2.5.1) Centralized DBMS: if the data is stored at a single computer site. A centralized DBMS can support multiple users, but the
DBMS and the database reside totally at a single computer site.
2.5.2) Distributed DBMS (DDBMS): can have the actual database and DBMS software distributed over many sites connected by a
computer network. Big data systems are often massively distributed, with hundreds of sites. The data is often replicated on multiple sites
so that failure of a site will not make some data Unavailable.
2.5.2.1) Homogeneous DDBMS: In a homogeneous DDBMS, all the database sites use the same DBMS software. This ensures uniformity in terms of
database management across all distributed locations. The data model, query language, and other aspects are consistent throughout the distributed system.
2.5.2.2) Heterogeneous DDBMS: In a heterogeneous DDBMS, different database sites may use different DBMS software or have variations in their
data models and structures. Integrating and coordinating data across diverse systems with varying characteristics can be more complex in a
heterogeneous environment.

CHP # 3 DATA MODELING USING ER-Model