shat the enullest phase. of bumap. ite ae aihacva Vea, sale a esfeomplete anarchy, But sibs ivan or stateless SUNG te pilized. To fulfil the needs of agriculny ly, rmergence of ICY ced an ‘the family became the wieder ‘ weety the pera rent realms of society led to qh, ther, the Fe miti, Sabha was the organization of elderly people and rae ‘i ws fe, With the emergence of sabhaand fon ¥ch finally culminated in the emergencg blurs whi The stage of ¥ with the e . memtity of fam" gence, of sal 4 “as the general assembly 0! a riged political Ife cause into he fledged state. of the full: fledged st ermeine aonacte meant in the sens family life and dharma t! deal of the principle: nt nee was the atowamnett om ae ¢ of enjoyment of property, the oan ae ‘of enjoyment of farm he sense of maintenance o the Jegal system, making it the trivarge i 3 of property, family and caste, 2. Force Theory This theory m This theory states th control over an area this group rule, When established, al exist: Population, Territory, Sovereignty ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in a systematic way, force was considered to be an important factor in the evolution of the state in India. ‘The earliest Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (Especially for the cow), pasturel and, settlements and sources of drinking water. Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan in such fights. So he was given special status and the members of clan started obeying him. This tendency continued i peacetime also and subsequently the leader became the king. e m the Vedas (Rig Veda and Sama Veda) and the Brahmanas John Spellman also opines that the king in ancient India was eant that “the State was born of Force” ean hen one person or one small group claims it forced alll citizens living within it to submit to TI the basic elements of a state ‘and Government. Though Citing examples fro (Aitareya, Shatapatha) primarily a military leader. But it should be clearly mentioned thi t at none of the politi commentators give a systematic and well knitted explanation of the role of ae © emergence of the state in ancient India. A. Theory of Mystical Origin The mystical origin theory is also known as the Di Right Theory. Medieval belief that God gives power to the king approves: ane . actions as, sanctioned by God. The theory Ree | pe eae at instilling obedience by explaining why all - ae religiously and morally obliged to obey the bel lief that God created the state and i the di e power to rule, making the tate 5 their ruler as they would obey God, To di 1b both treason and a moral sin, The gover aes tule a certain territory, hence the oe=) e " ron lar theory of origi a a Sa given divine sancti ular theory of origin of the state in ancient India, Kingship was aise ie ree eerie representative of Ged, but BW sete dnvor Bia of important gods like Indra, Varuna and Agni. through the magical powers of a, the king was exalted far above the ordinary mortals, fellow of the God. Ki rs of the great royal sacrifices, The king was evidently the |. Kings referred to their divine status in their titles and panegyrics, and they were regularly addressed ; x aeawere even ee as deva, or God. Chola kings and some Saieaes Te mStical theory of kingshi i ight wi i g gship which carried most weight with succeedin generations. The author of the Arthashastra had no illusions about re king’s godly ala and did not give into mysticism, and recognised the legends about the origin of kingship as only a propaganda. He states that the people should be told that, the king fulfils the functions of the god Indra (the king of gods) and Yama (the god of death) upon earth, ail who slight him will be punished not only by the secular arm, but also by heaven. Ashoka and other Mauryan kings took the title — Beloved of the Gods (devanampiva), and, though they seem not to have claimed wholly divine status, they were no doubt looked upon as superior semi-divine beings. As. Contract Theory Before the society came into being we were in the State of ‘Nature. An individual decided what he/she could/could not do. "There was —Survival of the Fittest. When we came in contact with ‘other people we entered a society. When we created the state and government we entered a Social Contract. ~~ Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of the state in ancient India. A social contract is an act by which individuals agree 10 forma government. According to this theory. governments are established by the people who combine to achieve some goal. 2 ~ In Western political tradition three philosophers, namely, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, who are jointly known as contractual lists formulated the social contract theory regarding the origin of the state. All of them claimed that the state is not a natural institution but ig created by a contract which suggests that the political authority is the result of mutual consent among individuals. But the three contractual list philosophers also differ in their description of confract and various issues velated to it. Contractua list philosophers start h the depiction of human nature, Based on this human nature they their description wit e make a description of the state of nature which is a stage prior to the creation of the state / 1.2 STAGES OF STATE FORMATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified. The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal assemblies, which had some place for women, were mainly pre-occupied with war, The age of This was the most pop= Indian Traanion, wunure ano Society i id stage é blies. The secon : : f assemblies. The : t reak-t MY inary i se pemeenbeamsstore an fhe cnesthood called the The chiefs were feet a a a Pee ces (os x hi stage w the be: nin taxes. AF ere seh ariae 5 ablated in the third eee %; ane ede weeael by the formation of the full fledg et ee eititorial monarchies of Kosala and Magadha Gea Western India and at the foot of the Himalayas. For the ate ee armies and organized machinery for the collection = ee ue oe the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralization based on the iS br the se sav expanding economic activities of the state. Tbe ite with the help of its bureaucracy jatious aspects 6 i its subjects. Tag a fre ee of decentralized administration in which towns, feuidatoties and military elements came to the forefront in both the Deccan and North India, This was partly neutralized by the emphasis on the divinity of the king. ~The last s jentical with the Gupta period, may be called the period of proto- feudal polity. Land grants now played an important part in the formation of the political structure and those made by the Gupta feudatories conferred fiscal and administrative “privileges on priestly beneficiaries. A21 Kingship The king was the most important figute in the body politic. In the SE Saptanga theory of the state, developed by Kautilya, the king has a been described as the head, or the most important organ of the state. in Action The king performed multidimensional functions. The king's Sgael functions involved the protection not only of his kingdom against = extemal aggression, butalso of if, property and traditional custom £ against internal foes. He protected the purity of class and caste by Se @RCede_| ensuring that those who challenged the system were excommunicated. He protected the family system by punishing adultery and ensuring fair inheritance of family property. He Protected widows and orphans by making them his wards, He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery, and he i : L Protected th i i i extortion and oppression. Religion w; fa ‘as protected by liberal grants to | d brahmins and temples and frequently to heterod a ee feared br different parties, He pAb filed toe Sects also. He also adjusted disputes between eo ‘on to local and religious laws and enforced these The ideal set before the kin i iS Was one of the only king of India to Proclaim that all ihn =e ceaseless activity for the welfare of tgetic beneficence. Ashoka was not were his children, or to take pride in his his subjects,Pomtigen teers ne ewreren ne mites into a well organized, hierarchical, cadre-based administrative system. If we rel: Arthashastra of Kautilya, the establishment of a large and complex bureaucracy was a yemarkable feature of the Mauryan government. The Arthashastra mentions 18 tirthas who are probably called mahamatras or high functionaries. Although the term mahamatra is used only on a few occasions in the Arthashastra, its real counterpart being amatya, it is familiar enough in Ashokan inscriptions. In addition to the 18 tirthas, Kautilya provides in some detail accounts of 27 adhyaksas (superintendents) concerned mostly with economic functions and some military duties, though social functions are not ignored. The Mauryas developed a well-organized bureaucracy. With the help of this centralized bureaucratic structure not only did the government regulate the economic life of the country, but also took an important part in it. All mines including pearl beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by the state, and were either worked directly with the labour of criminals or serfs, or let out to entrepreneurs, from whom the king claimed a percentage of their output as royalty. There was no room for laissez-faire in ancient India. ly on the 2.2 POLITICAL IDEALS IN ANCIENT INDIA Political ideals like liberty, justice, fraternity and nationalism are a product of the modern age. If viewed strictly from the lens of the modern times, we can't find any systematic expression of these ideals in ancient India. But seen from a different perspective, ancient Indians did have these ideals in a rudimentary form Highligting the importance of freedom the Vedas state that independence is necessary for mankind; those who are not independent are worse than dead. In varnashrma institution too, independent living has been promoted. People lived independently during grihasthaashrama and when he became dependent on the younger generation, there is the provision of them resorting to vanprastha and then to Sanyasa, again living freely in the solitude of hills and dales rather than living as dependent on their children. For disposal of justice the Mauryan state had a system of judiciary. Dharmasthiya was the civil court and kantakashodhana was organized to deal with a large number of economic crimes. The Ramayana extols this country as a karmabhumi, the land of pious acts. This shows the belongingness of people to land and their fellow beings. The early seeds of nationalism can be traced in this instance, Similarly, the ideal of ancient Indian thinkers was vasudhaivakutumbakam (treating the whole world like a family). This was the concept of universal brotherhood, or fraternity. From the days of Plato and Aristotle, European thought has turned its attention to such questions as the origin of the state, the ideal form of government, and the basis of law and politics has long been looked on as a branch of philosophy. From the above discussion, it is clear that ancient India also thought about such questions, but it had no schools of political philosophy in the Western sense.Indian Tradition, wanes Theory The Seven Limbs of the Stale © a Sars “Arthashastra. Saptanga theory of state wos een “Arthashastra. state in Kautilya has first time defined the pe ha apa The word ‘Saptang’ means seven limbs, const! erike a chariot ‘Together, they constitute the Bein oo re one asec: = dome aeopeert vere enumerated and olucidated by Kautilya for angas, a a i. ae describing the nature of the State in its totality, The seve dipta a state are Swami (The King), Amatya (The Council of Mini ay dJanapada (People and The Territory), Durga (Fortification), (Treasure), Danda (Coercive authority) and Mitra (Allies). According to Kautilya, an area cannot be a state unless there are people and rulers to control it, A state consists of multiple cities, people, military, treasury and tax system. Kautilya used the word , f ‘Raja’ which according to Spellman, corresponds to the English word * state’. The state as defined by Kautilya became an axion in the later sources. According to Kautilya the state and kingship were based on popular goodwill. The king was their leader as well as head of the state and government. In the Vedas the state was considered to be a source of peace, law and order, security and justice. In Kautilya’s eyes, the state and king are indispensable: the latter is such an essential part of society. (i) Swami (The King) Kautilya assigns to the king the highest place in the body politic. To see King, or swami, was the consumination of all other elements in state aertiee: # arthashastra-saptanga and he represented the legal and moral authority. Constitutionally, the ‘theory king was the chief executive head and commander-in-chief of the army. The king was the very life of the state. According to the Arthashastra, the king was also the defender of the dharma. According to Kautilya, the king and his ministers are the pri js e prima Scan QR Code ao + the state. The king was the head of the state and pe 7 an ted position in his polity. He is the main pillar of the st tate Precise The lang nsistbeaecholaathioimerltee - ag ereeaces - oh, aor ve peer sere for maintaining peace and order to encourage moral, e rial progress and provide a sense of i j : fener security to his subjects. Arthashastra, poe Al ie a ihe at He was vested with executive, legislative al and ing is one who has the highest qualities of leadership, intellect energy and perso ‘ibutes. Th i mily, goo personal attributes. The qualities of leadership are: birth in a noble famil id ily, o fortune, powers, association with elders. being righteo hi olute, enthusiastic an i d i iteous, truthful, resolut si Ic disciplined, not breaking hi i ni le, having lofty aims, dilatory, be’ t ig his promise, showing grati ig ry. iS l 3 > i atitud i fty aii i stronger than the neighbouring king and having ministers of iA ui i eo quality.Political Ideals in Ancient india Kautilya preferred a king who is a native of the territory, who follows the teachings of the Arthashastra, who is free ftom disease and is strong and of noble birth. Kautilya has given extensive powers to the king and these powers are meant for the welfare of his subjects. According to Kautilya the happiness of the king lies in the happiness and welfare of the people. It is not the interest ‘of self that is dear to the king but the interest of his people that is dear to him. _ The king was to regard himself as an agent of people and the foremost duty of a king is protection of the people. Kautilya says if the king is energetic, his subjects will be equally energetic. Hence the king, or swami, should always be energetic. The king has been accorded the pride of place, as the prime mover of the ship of the state. As the king occupies the central position in the theory of Arthashastra, most of the activities of the state are controlled by him. (ii) Amatya (The Council of Ministers) Amatya constitutes the second element of the state. But Kautilya refers to amatya in a different sense. In its narrow sense, the term amatya or mantrin is used for the minister of the high grade. Amatya generally means the council of ministers. In the Arthashastra the amatya constitute a regular cadre of the service from which all high officers such as chief priest, ministers, collectors, officers, envoys and the superintendents of various departments ate to be recruited. Kautilya says kingship is possible only with assistance. The king cannot rule the kindom alone. Therefore, there was the need of ministerial connection. In Arthashastra three words Mantri, Amatya and sachivause for the ministers by amatya is rather a general word for higher bureaucracy. The highest category of the amatya is the mantrins. The king deliberates over the policy of state with three or four ministers. The council of ministers is largely responsible for shaping the policy of the government. The king and ministers constituted the central government, which exercised the sovereign powers. The Arthashastra reminds the king that he can succeed only if he was assisted by competent councilors. One wheel alone does not move the carriage. The king and ministers are the two essential and most important wheels of the state. But ministers should be men of wisdom, intergrity, bravery and loyality. The integrity of the ministers can be tested in four ways viz. loyality. The council of ministers actually managed the whole state administration. Every chief executive had to depend on his council of ministers for good administration. The size of the council of ministers should be neither too big nor too small, The ministerial appointment should purely depend on qualifications. Kautilya says in council of ministers, amantri (prime minister) the foremost in importance in administration were the mahi the purohita, the senapati and the yuvraj. Mahamantri formed the topmost part of the administrative pyramid and was appointed by the king. The ministers were chosen oneG zed being ae oe and noble birth, the basis of high merit, Man in the entire administration. But the king occupied the ga of ministers in the council should not be fix, by, According to Kautilya, the mentions that one of the strong points of if Kautilya ld depend on the requirement. a naa Cae strength of the council of parishad. Territory) (iii) Janapada (People and The # of the state. This unique element of saptanga TS territorial society. Here, Jana’ denotes the ey a oat is ee mbal ofterritory where these inhabitants permanently reside. The fence, of; aoad defined in the “Arthashastra implies both territory and Popul lation, because without the territory and the population a state cannot exist. The territory should unds, forests and waterways. The janapda ntain fertile lands, mines, timber, pasture gro! u j sana femeen a and its lands fertile. The people should include men with good character and lovality, intelligent, wise masters and slaves, Kautilya envisaged ethnic difference among the people. In the beginning, only the people of common ethnic origin inhabited the land but with conquest and migration more than one ethnic the people were included in the janapada, Kautilya advised the king to induce people from other countries to migrate and settle in new villages on old sites or new sites or cause people from thickly populated areas of his own kingdom to settle down in such village with a view to securing that each village should consist of not less than one hundred and not more than five hundred families and contain a sufficient number of sudra cultivators. To protect agriculture and industry was also the responsibility of the king. Kautilya prescribes the following requisites of a prosperous janapada in terms of territory: (a) accommodate and support people; (b) defend the state against enemies; (c) find occupation for people; (d) have manageable neighbours; (e) provide pastures; (f) have arablel and, mines, forests, and (g) provide good internal communication, i.e., rivers, roads and outlet to the sea. (iv) Durga (Fortification) ai every fee it is necessary to have safety and protection system. Therefore, va Considered the forts as one of the main components of a state. He considered ualities most Pri The f forts should be strong and there should be proper arrangement for the ration andPolitical Ideals in Ancient India a) ammunition for the army. Kautilya has classified forts into four types. Firstly, the Audak fort, where there should be trenches always filled with water, Secondly, the Parvat fort which should be surrounded with high mountains and rocks. Thirdly the Dhanvan fort which should surrounded with deserts and there should be no oasis nearby. It is almost impossible to reach such forts. Fourthly, the Van fort, which are built in dense forests. It js very difficult to reach there. They are very important for the security of the state and its people. Audak and Pavat forts are most important when the state is going to attack ‘an enemy country. In case the need arises, the king could hide himself in such forts to protect them from the outside attack. The security of the treasury and the army depends ‘on these forts. And battle can also be controlled from these forts effectively. Maintenance of the army and the welcome ceremony of the foreign delegates are also done in these forts. They are also used to keep off the forest tribe and wild animals. Fortification should be done for the purpose of security from attacks. Kautilva advocates that there should be forts at all the four comers of the state so that the security from all the sides can be ensured. (v) Kosha (Treasury) Kosha, or Treasury, is an extremely important resource. It is the backbone of any economy, A strong and well managed treasury is the heart of any organization. Kosha, or Treasury, constitutes the fifth element of Kautilya’s state Kosha or Treasury is necessary for the protection and maintenance of the state in general and army in particular. The treasury should be filled with gems, gold, jewels, etc., and should have the capacity to sustain calamities for a long time. Kautilya says that all undertakings depend upon Kosha. It was the backbone of the state finances so that these are well looked after. Income of the state was derived from taxes like export taxes, sales tax, village tax, etc. In his Arthashastra Kautilya has given utmost importance to public finance. Without treasury even a family cannot run. He has described three aspects of finance at the time of war and peace. The need of money is different in both the cases. Therefore, public finance has been divided in two parts—public finance during peace, and public finance during war, But the basic principle for both finances was the same. It is the duty of a king to keep the treasury full and prosperous. The king should reward well-behaved subjects and should punish the thieves. The king should collect taxes and fill the treasury. According to Kautilya, the treasury should be collected and maintained honestly and religiously. The treasure should be so full that it may be helpful in the time of difficulty for a long time. (vi) Danda (Army or The Force) Without a sound defence system there cannot be the existence of the state And for the defence of the state there should be a strong army. Therefore, it is very necessary that he constitute a strong army and use it for the internal and external threats. Kautilya has described the army as the sixth aspect of the state. He has used ‘force’ word for the army. Force means army and army is compulsory for the defence of theBES ¢ indian Tradition, Culture ana Society 14 ; in the society and ade People, is ‘ol anti-socl e . Accepting the army as th, Sa ee area ihe le ROT ey has described Pe ey re ie RE rr aes can ofa soins rtant , an army i fou oe of the army. The first is the cla Fey iii Aieetiry comet i fiers (hired troo} : ¢ : om See the help of friendly countries. Fifth, i by the corporations. Fourth, i fiers of enemy country captured the army formed with POW (prisoners of wer) Leet aKa people: during the war. The sixth type of army can . Beye Pee ary ahd teshou onal it a ce es Pe esuies should be fully sare ety when fo hase in the field, For this purpose, the king should try Ne a ere their needs. A good soldier should be loyal, adventurous, courageous, i in military science. i ; ieee Kautilya, the army should consist of hereditary and ee aed comprising infantry, chariots, elephants and cavalry. The Kshatriyas const it te ia main part of the army. But unlike Manu, Kautilya allows even the lower castes to join the army if emergency arises. The best army should be strong, obedient and happy. The officers in the army should have more of these qualities. Kautilya gives a good description of the organization of the army and military science. (vii) Mitra (Allies) Having realized that political isolation means death, Kautilya proceeded to consider the Mitra, or the ally, as a vital factor. Kautilya’s concept of Mitra is based more on ethical considerations. The real ally should be hereditary and not artificial. It should be one with whom there is no possibility of rupture and one who is ready to come to help when occasion demands it. But on the other hand, one is to be treated as an enemy who is greedy, possessed with disloyal subjects, loose character, addicted to mean pleasures, Powerless and impotent. The ideal ally is one who has the following qualities: jal elements * a friend of the family for a long time, * constant, * amenable to control, * powerful in his support, * sharing a common interest, * able to mobilize quickly and * nota man who double crosses his friends, _Kautilya tealizes that every nation acts to maxim Alliances are ‘only good so long as they are in the best as soon as the balance of Power shifts, the allies ene: enemies may become allies, Since this is the natural ize its own interests and power. interest of both Parties. However, mies may becomes enemies and order and to be expected it is onlySociety in Ancient India cea ‘The word religion has been derived from the latin root religare which means to.connect. In this sense, religion is a set of principles which connects human beings with God. Therefore, religion essentially has some notion of God or some other supernatural entity, It is a particular way of worshipping. It is derived from the Sanskrit root dhr, which connotes 4 sustain, support or uphold. Dharma has a wide range of meanings: it is the essential foundation of something or of things in general, and thus signifies ‘truth’; it is that which je established, customary, proper and therefore, means ‘traditional’ or ceremonial; it is one's duty, responsibility, imperative and thereby moral obligation; itis that which is right, virtuous, meritorious, and accordingly ethical; and it is that which is required, precepted, or permitted through religious authority, and is thus legal. Therefore, dharma in ancient India was a code of conduct for members of the society PV. Kane also defiries dharma in terms of privileges, duties and obligations of a person. In ‘he words of Kane, the word dharma passed through several transitions of meaning and “ullimately i's most prominent significance came tobe the privileges, duties and obligations oft f the castes, as a person in a particular stage of life. We find various forms of dharma in the sense of duty in ancient India, like: (a) Samanya dharma— Some general rules which are universal in nature, like truth, non-violence and non- stealing. (b) Raj dharma— Duties of the king (c) Stree dharma— Duties of a woman. J (d) Dampatya dharma— Duties of husband and wife * \ (e) Varna dharma— Duties of varnas (f) Ashrama dharma— Duties in the different stages of life \ (g) Apad dharma— Duties during the period of crisis (ii) Artha Arthais the second purusartha. The term artha refers to worldly prosperity or wealth. It “includes all the material means of life. ‘Kautilya maintains that wealth is the basis of human requirements and that social well-being depends ultimately on. material prosperity. Indian thinkers had recognized the pursuit of ‘wealth as a legitimate human aspiration through it must be acguiired by right means. (iii) Kama ‘Kama means worldly pleasures or sensual pleasures. It refers to some of the innate desires and urges in human beings. In the narrow sense kama means sexual pleasure but in the wider sense it involves sextial, emotional and aesthetic life put together. Kama is fulfilling one’s desires. Desires may come in various forms — to be wealthy, _powerful, affinityneeds, for recognition, etc. The kama purushartha advocates that one’s desires need to be fulfilled within one’s lifetime, albeit in a state of awareness and without harming others in the process. For a person to evolve spiritually and to reach the ultimate destination, the barrier of desires need to be crossed. This can be done either by fulfilling the desires or by sublimating or transcending them.————— (iv) Moksha vation or liberation from the cycle of i tha, It means salvation OF” Moksha is the ultimate purusari*e of human existe birth and death. Se ealtation of the sel, the ultimate destination _ Moksha means liberation, 's of inner realization the the individu: selfis the same of this human birth, Itis the stage of re of the cosmos within one’s selt. Its the gs the Supreme Sell MOP ion ofthe energies of Shiva and Shall in one's self ‘The ience low and fusion ‘am with one’s Higher Self is Moksha. 3.2 VARNASHRAMA SYSTEM Various texts talk of varnashrma dharma or the Dh classes and dharma in the different stages of life 2 there was a common dharma for all members of society which must be followed equally by all, But at the same time there were different codes of conduct for different classes, or varnas, called vama-dharma. Similarly, it was expected to follow different dharmaat the different stages or ashrama of life called ashrama-dharma. 3.2.1 Varnas The first reference of varna is seen in the Rig Veda. The varna system was the basis of social stratification during the Vedic age. The tenth chapter of Rig Veda, called Purusasukta, mentions the organic theory of the origin of varnas according to which varnas originated from the different organs of the Prajapati or the creator. God created various varnas from his various organs. He created brahmins from his mouth, kshatriyas from his arms, vaishyas from his thighs and shudras from his legs. Though logically this explanation is somewhat unacceptable, this clearly points out the varying significance of varnas. A much significant feature of this varna system was that the top three varnas— brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas were described as duija or twice born. Their first birth was natural birth. But they were considered to be born again at the time of the pious yajnopavita samskara when they were invested with the sacred thread and included into the Aryan society as its full fledged member. (i) Brahmins Brahmins were at the top of varna hierarchy. They were believed to possess great spiritual powers. Thus, they had a divine existence i law, they claimed great privileges. Normally, brahmins were exempt fom execution, torture and corporal punishment, The main function: prescribed for brahmins were learning, teaching and priesthood. (ii) Kshatriya The sec i ‘ond class was the tuling class described as kshatriya or rajanya. Kshatriy. asouviey ere represented heroism, courage and strength. They constituted the warrior class. The duty of kshatriyas was protection which had both internal and external aspects. External protection meant to protect the society from external invasion, whereas internal protection meant governance in peace and protection from anarchy. Kshatriyas had the right to possess arms. (iii) Vaishyas Vaishyas represented the trading and commercial class. Though they were entitled to the services of the priesthood and to the ceremony of yajnopavita, they were third in the social hierarchy. The main task of the vaishya was to keep and maintain cattle. But it seems that later on vaishyas became economically an important class of society. The idealvaishya possessed the expert knowledge of jewels, metals, cloth, threads, spices, perfumes etc. In this sense vaishyas were the ancient Indian businessmen. In brahmanic fiterature, vaishyas are given only a few tights and humble status but Buddhist and Jain literature mention many wealthy merchants living a luxurious life. (iv) Shudras Shudras were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They pursued the task of serving the other three varnas. They were not twice born. They were deprived of various rights. They were in fact low citizens, on the fringes of Aryan society. ALL. Basham maintains that shudras were of two types ‘not excluded’ or anirvasita and ‘excluded’ or nirvasita. The distinction was made on the basis of the customs of the shudra group and the profession followed by the members of the group. Anirvasita shudras were the part of Indian varna system, whereas nirvasita shudras were quite outside the pale of Hindu society and virtually indistinguishable from the strata of people known as untouchables. Manu prescribes the same penance for killing a shudra by a brahmin as for killing acat or dog. Untouchables A large number of people were deprived of all human rights. Having any contact with them could lead to the fall from grace bya normal Hindu. They were untouchables. Sometimes, they were regarded as the excluded shudras, whereas at other times they were called the ‘fifth class’ (pancham varna). Probably, they were the aboriginal tribes who were defeated by the Aryans. Most important of these groups was the Chandala. They were not allowed to live in the Aryan towns or villages. Their chief means of livelihood were the carrying and cremation of corpses and execution of criminals who were awarded death penalty. w books of ancient India, Chandalas should be dressed in the According to the la\ garments of the corpses they cremated, should eat his food from broken vessels and should wear only those ‘ornaments which were made of iron. Later on the four varnasstem is governed by divided into various subcategories called castes. The caste sy’ ge were lec ome Soest or marriage withi bers of same caste and Second, the i ithin the member G observe \ an if o oonally whereby food was to be received from and ance of certain rules of c ge mond it bers of the sat the presence of either mem! be oar = nied together with the members of the lower caste. 3.3 ASHRAMAS, OR THE STAGES OF LIFE - u scheme of life according to which different stages dered. The average life span of an individual is d into four stages each stage having a time The ashrama system denotes the Hindi in the life of an individual are well or considered to be 100 years and it is divide n of 25 years. These four ashramas are: a rs Braiebacturbuckraier or the Stage of Studentship — This is the first stage of life, It is meant for acquiring knowledge, developing discipline and moulding character. This stage starts with the ceremony called upanayanama or investiture with the sacred thread. Here, the person became a brahmacharina, leading a celibate and austere life as a student at the home of his teacher. 2. Grihasthashrama, or the Stage of a Householder — This stage starts at marriage when the person has completed his studentship and is ready to take up the duties and responsibilities of household life. In this stage the individual gets married, earns money and begets children. The individual pursues wealth (artha) and pleasure (kama) within the limits of the moral law (dharma). 3. Vanaprasthasharma, or the Stage of a Retirement from Active Life —After discharging all the duties and obligations as a householder, the individual enters the Vanaprastha stage. It consists of the third quarter of the person's life. In this phase, after retiring from active life, the individual dedicates himself to a life of spiritual contemplation. He leaves his home and goes to the forest to become a hermit. 4. Sanyasashrama, or the Stage of Renunciation or Wandering Mystic — This is the last stage of life. Now the individual leaves his hermitage and becomes a homeless wanderer (sanyasin) with all hi rc is earthly ti i aspires and acts to attain only liberation. a 3.4 MARRIAGE The instituti ‘i ¢ institution of marriage as known today emerged during the Vedic Age (1500 BC oe i f ‘a8 a very important sanskara in ancient India. ItMarriage is the beginning—the beginning of the family—and is a life-long commitment. Italso provides an opportunity to develop selflessness as you serve your wife and children. Marriage is more than a physical union; itis also a spiritual and emotional union. This union mirrors the one between God and His place of Worship. The purpose of marriages can be vatied, but the purpose of marriage today is simply to make a commitment to the person you love. The marriage of Dushyanta and Shakuntala was an example of this marriage. Asthe Vedic religion evolved into classical orthodox Hinduism, the social ideas advanced by ‘Manu gained prominence, and large sections of Indian society moved towards patriarchy and caste-based rules. Avanged marriages are believed to have initially risen to prominence in the Indian subcontinent when the historical Vedic religion gradually gave way to classical Hinduism, substantially displacing other alternatives that were more prominent. * Marriage in ancient India had three main purposes: + Promotion of religion by performance of household sacrifices. + Progeny or the happy after life of father and his ancestors and continuation of family line or kula. + Rati or sexual pleasure The eight forms of marriage ate: 1. Brahma vivaha: This is considered to be the purest form of marriage. In this form of marriage the father of the bride offers his daughter fo 2 mat of character and learning, The daughter who is decked with ornaments and richly dressed is given as a gift to a man of good character and high learning of the same class. This was the most favoured form 2. Daiva vivaha: In the daivaform of marriage the father offers his daughter as a dakshina (sacrificial fee) to @ young priest who officiates the yajna which is arranged by him. 3. Arsa vivaha: In arsavivaha, the father of bridegroom after receiving a cow and a bull the bridegroom. 4. Prajapatya vivaha: In this type of marriage, the father offers the girl to the bridegroom. But neither does he offer any dowry not does he demand bride- price. 5. Asura vivaha: This is 2 form of marriage by purchase in which the bridegroom has to give money to the father or kinsman of the bride 6. Gandharva vivaha: This was a marriage by consent of the boy and the girl. Mutual love and consent of the bride and bridegroom was the only condition required to bring about the union. the bride gives his daughter to the | or two pairs of these animals from= in which the girl was forcit apture in which t Cibly is was marriage we Sad her kinsmen have been staine, 7, Rakshasa vivaha: Th and weep abducted from her homes ane en : their houses broken. - riage is one in which the man seduce, 8 ke vivaha: Paishacha ae co ee Piprecsarcs ¥) by force a girl who is sleeping ce fret four have been described as prashasta o, Out of these eight forms of Bes ae vest of the four forms have been considered desirable marriage, W! i me eee ordiappraved onundasiiavle Nay ant condition wa si many conditions attached with marriage One ee ean ae He ecee should be a virgin and the importance of this rule lies in a ae at it e aie remarriage of widows difficult. In the Rig Veda there is some ; ion that renders ight re-marry if her husband had disappeared and could not be found or evo Hi in married twice may be united in the next heard of. Atharva Veda mentions that a womal world with her second, not her first, husband. But generally it was not hailed. 3.5 UNDERSTANDING GENDER AS A SOCIAL CATEGORY Gender roles can be defined as the behaviours, values, and attitudes that a society considers appropriate for both male and female. Traditionally, men and women had completely opposing roles, where men were seen as the provider for the family and women were seen as the caretakers of both the home and the family. Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women’s and mer’s lives and situation in society, to the way they interrelate, their differences in access to and use of resoutces, their activities, and how they react to changes, interventions and policies. Our conception of what women and men are and what they are supposed to be is produced by the society in which we live. Thus many people say that gender is socially constructed. Though sex categorization is based on biolo s gical sex, it is maintaine y through socially constructed displays of gen ee der. Institutions also create normative , it was regarded as her second birth, with a powers, » the wife was to be present to utilize her fertilityAccording to studies, wome: ee eer eave ae Ma et tome ot with the esp, Marustariti| and ether ey! women began to decline and rights. ligious texts curtailing women s freedom. Women in the Vedic and the : post-vedic Periods: The Indian cultural tradition begins with the Vedas. Itis generally Lee ee can 1500 BC to 600 publi degree 5 f freedom given to ancient women to take part in nt ic activities indicates the nature of the status enjoyed by women. during Vedic ‘period. Women never observed purdah. They enjoyed freedom, including freedom in selecting their male partner. Traditional Woman In ancient times, women were considered with respect and dignity. During this period, there were women rishis, and were held in high esteem. In royal households, women were given respect and they ‘even rendered a significant contribution in the making of decisions and administrative functions. In many societies, women’s primary role revolved around motherhood and managing the household. While women in many different places and at different times had this in common, there were significant differences in how women performed these roles depending on kinship. No doubt the Rig Vedic women in India enjoyed high status in society and their condition was good. They were also provided opportunity to attain high intellectual and spiritual standard. In recent yeats tho role and status of women have undergone some trastic changes due to globalization and commercialism. Recognizing the achievements community, government, literature, art, sports, 6f women in all facets of life - science, o uicine — has a huge impact on the development oF self-respect and new opportunities for girls and young women. Challenges Faced by Women in India In the medieval period, the status of women went down considerably. Women started to be considered inferior to men. Many historians have called this age as the ‘dark age’ when the women’s position became miserable. Customs of purdah (a black cloth worn by women to cover their face), Sati (burning of widows), child marriage, restrictions on widow marriage, and the prevalence of joint family systems have been the factors responsible for the injustice done towards women. Women were deprived of their rights of equality with men. The Muslim influence on India caused considerably deterioration in the status of