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Unit 1 - Basic Concepts

What is Syntax?
Languages are not indivisible wholes, they can be divided into different
domains/parts/areas/components.
Syntax is one of these domains/parts/areas/components of a language, it studies the
structure of sentences. Other grammatical areas are: phonetics and phonology
(pronunciation), orthography (spelling), semantics (meaning), pragmatics (context),
discourse (larger stretches of language) and grammar (syntax and morphology).

If you think about language, you will realize that it has structure, it is not a series of randomly
distributed elements. Instead, the linguistic units that language is made up of are organized
following a set of rules. This set of rules is called the grammar of a language.
When we learn a language, we have to learn the rules of grammar to be able to build
sentences which have all the words in the right order and with the right endings, so that
everything makes sense.

Two subdomains of grammar:

- Syntax: “it is traditionally the name given to the study of the form, positioning, and
grouping of the elements that make up sentences. In a word, it is about the
STRUCTURE of sentences.” Consequently, Syntax is concerned with the
arrangement of elements (words and larger units) within sentences.
- Morphology: “we can investigate the form and grouping of the elements within words
themselves (for example: un-de-cod(e)-able). The systematic study of word-structure
is called MORPHOLOGY and Morphology. Then Morphology is concerned with the
form and structure of words.

In syntax, we focus on how we can string words together to express more complex ideas,
producing the linguistic units we call phrases, clauses, and sentences. Words cannot be
combined at random, we have to follow a set of rules.
When a sentence is formed according to the rules, we say it is grammatical (The President
ate a doughnut.). When a sentence breaks the rules, we say it is ungrammatical (The
President a doughnut ate. //Doughnut President the ate a).

Also the work of Syntaxis is to produce the linguistic units we call phrases, clauses, and
sentences. Phrases are the smallest units that have syntactic structure. Nevertheless, words
also have a structure, so they are smaller units, but this is not the concern of syntax but
morphology.
Sentences are the largest units that have syntactic structure. Larger units (paragraphs,
chapters, entire books, etc.) also have structure; this is not the concern of syntax but
discourse.

- Phrases are sequences of connected words in which one of them is central and
determines the behavior of the whole phrase. E.g. the cat, a car.
- Clauses are the smallest units that say something, e.g., describe a situation (Nobody
cares), express a claim (Kim did it), or convey an instruction (Go home).
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- Sentences are strings of words that begin in a capital letter and end in a full stop (.)
and are typically used to express a state of affairs in the world. Sentences generally
consist either of a single clause or of a sequence of clauses.

“A unit will be defined as any sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and which has a
recognised pattern that is repeated regularly […].” (Downing & Locke, 2006: 11). In English
grammar, we can distinguish the following units: Sentences, clauses, phrases (syntax),
words (syntax and morphology) and morphemes (morphology).
The relationship between units is, in principle, as follows. ◦ Looking downwards, each unit
consists of one or more units of the rank below it: Sentences are made up of clauses,
clauses are made up of phrases, phrases are made up of words, and words are made up of
morphemes.
Looking upwards, each unit fulfills a function in the unit above it: each morpheme in a word
fulfills a function (root, prefix, etc.), each word in a phrase fulfills a function (head, modifier,
etc.), and each phrase in a clause fulfills a function (subject, direct object, etc.).

Constituent Structure
Three essential principles of English syntax:
1. Sentences/clauses/phrases have parts, which may themselves have parts.
The idea that sentences have parts which themselves may have parts is the basis of
constituent structure : each unit is made up of smaller units or constituents.
How to divide the sentence: The - President - blushed (3 words)// The President (determiner
+ Nomen) - blushed
2. These parts belong to a limited range of types.
The idea that the parts: belong to a limited range of types is the basis of the concept of
syntactic categories, units belong to categories because their syntactic behavior is similar.
3. The parts have specific roles or functions within the larger units they belong to.
The idea that the parts also have specific roles or functions they fulfill in the larger parts they
belong to, is the basis of the concept of grammatical functions: each unit performs a specific
function in the larger unit it belongs to.

Grammatical Functions
Heads: The central and obligatory word of a phrase; the head determines the positions in the
clause the phrase can occur in, that is, its distribution.

Dependents: Units, often optional, which combine with heads; which types of dependents
are allowed in a phrase depends on the head.

Main functions of words: head, modifier, complement, determiner.

Main functions of phrases: predicate, subject and object (and other types of complements),
and adjunct.

Different ways of representing our analysis of sentences, clauses and phrases. We are going
to use tree diagrams to represent our syntactic analyses. For the most part, our branching
will be singularly or binary, that is, each element in the tree will be divided into one or two
elements.
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(Morpho)syntactic Variation
In this subject, we will focus on the syntax of Standard English. Even though varieties of
English differ from each other mostly in their vocabulary and pronunciation (accent), there
exist some grammatical differences between standard and non-standard varieties (i.e.,
dialects like Singapore English or Nigerian English).
Furthermore, some grammatical differences can be found between two major subclusters
within Standard English: the British, Australasian, and South African dialects, and the
Canadian and American dialects.

For example, an AmE user will typically say I did that already where a BrE speaker would
prefer I’ve done that already → most of these differences are preferences rather than
categorical distinctions.

Differences are not necessarily errors. Two perspectives towards language use:
- Prescriptivism: how language should be used according to a set of pre-established
rules or conventions.
It has brought about prejudicial attitudes towards speakers of non-standard dialects: if one
dialect is considered correct and the others incorrect, speakers of the “incorrect” dialects are
considered by many people as ignorant or poorly educated.
In English, it has led to some rather useless grammatical rules.
E.g.: split infinitives: It is hard to completely follow his reasoning vs. It is hard to follow
completely his reasoning.
Why are split infinitives considered incorrect by prescriptivists? Because in the Victorian era
(19th century), grammarians thought that Latin was one of the most “perfect” languages:
since in Latin infinitives cannot be split, the same rule should be applied to English →
awkward examples.

- Descriptivism: how language is actually used by speakers.

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Most people adopt a prescriptivist attitude, taking their dialect or the standard dialect to
determine what is correct and what is incorrect. Linguists adopt a descriptivist perspective,
merely describing how speakers use language rather than imposing a set of rules or
conventions.

As linguists, we need to recognize that variation is normal in languages, and differences are
not mistakes. Types of variation: Region → dialects and accents. Social group → within each
regional dialect there is considerable variation in speech according to education,
socioeconomic group, ethnic group, age, and sex. Field of discourse → type of activity
engaged in through language (e.g., profession). Medium → spoken vs. written language.
Formality → formal vs. informal language (and other intermediate levels of formality).
Varieties do not vary much in the structure of sentences, clauses, and phrases.

Syntactic Categories
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Determinatives
- Prepositions
- Conjunctions

IMPORTANT: Words may have a prototypical syntactic category, but they are only really
assigned to a given category when they are used in a sentence. This means that the same
word can belong to different syntactic categories depending on their position and function in
the sentence. We can only determine the syntactic category of a word by considering how it
is used in a sentence!

Words that can various syntactic categories at the same time:

1. Noun and verb: act, access, catch. dance, hand…
2. Noun and adjective: average, classic, cold, safe
3. Noun, adjective and verb: advance, end…
4. Noun, adjective, adverb and verb: fast, light….

Each syntactic category is characterized by a series of morphological, syntactic, and

semantic features. Within many syntactic categories, we can distinguish subcategories. In
many cases, identifying the subcategory a word belongs to will be crucial for syntactic
analysis.
For our purpose, syntactic features will be more important, but morphological and semantic
features will also be useful to distinguish between the different syntactic categories.

But this does not mean that, e.g., all nouns must exhibit all the characteristics of nouns to be
considered nouns. We will find words that do not satisfy all the conditions of a syntactic
category but are still part of that category. This means that category membership (as many
other aspects of languages) is a matter of degree.
Nouns
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Morphological characteristics:
- Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and case (genitive): one book,
two books, Sarah's book.
- But many nouns are uncountable and do not inflect for number: e.g., gold,
information.
- Another distinction: common (book) vs. proper (Sarah) nouns. Proper nouns do
usually not inflect for number.

Syntactic characteristics:
- They function as heads of noun phrases.
- Nouns can be preceded by determinatives or determinative phrases: the young boy,
almost every boy. But uncountable nouns cannot typically be preceded by the article
a/an or numerals.
- Nouns can be modified by adjectives or other nouns : a large pizza, a university
degree.

Semantic characteristics: Nouns commonly refer to concrete entities, such as people and
things in the external world (e.g., book, girl), but they also denote abstract qualities, states,
or entities (e.g., freedom, friendship).

In many syntactic theories, pronouns are considered a separate syntactic category, but we
will treat them as a subcategory of nouns.
Why? → Because the main function of pronouns is to replace nouns or entire noun phrases.
- When the entities we refer to can be recovered from the speech situation or the
surrounding text: The President blushed. He becomes embarrassed easily.
- When the reference is unknown or general: They fired John yesterday.

Subtypes of pronouns:
- Personal: speaker, the adresse or other entities: I, him, it…
- Demonstrative: this, those, that…
- Possessive: my, yours, their…
- Reflexive: myself
- Reciprocal: each other
- Interrogative: Who
- Indefinite: Everything, nothing, some…
- Relative: whom

Verbs
A lexical verb is the central verb of the verb phrase from a semantic point of view: it
contributes to the central meaning of the verb phrase.
An auxiliary verb is the central verb from a syntactic point of view: it accompanies a lexical
verb to build a complex verb phrase and is the main head of the verb phrase.
- Primary auxiliaries specify the way in which the lexical verb is to be interpreted. ◦
Have (perfective aspect → John has arrived), Be (progressive aspect and passive
voice → I was coming out of my favorite café and He was invited to the party.),Do (as
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operator in negative and interrogative sentences without any other auxiliary verb → I
didn’t bring my camera. Did you bring yours?)
Important: have, be and do can also be lexical verbs. ◦ He had a small face. ◦ Miss
Foley was at the door. ◦ Katheryn did her share of the work.

- Modal auxiliaries express a wide range of meanings, having to do with concepts such
as ability, permission, necessity, and obligation. Nine central modal auxiliaries: can,
could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.
As opposed to lexical and primary auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries do not have an
infinitive form: ◦ His main dream in life is to buy a plane. ◦ His main dream in life is to
be invited to the Oscars. ◦ *His main dream in life is to can buy a plane.
In addition, they do not inflect for tense, aspect or voice.

Adjectives
Morphological characteristics: they vary for tense (“He writes page after page about tiny
details; They wrote about Venus being a jungle paradise”), aspect (“I wonder if you are
writing any more songs?”), and voice (“The article was written with penetrating
vehemence.”), for which in many cases we need an auxiliary verb.

- Many adjectives are inflected for degree: dark, darker, darkest. ◦ But in many cases,
adjectives cannot be inflected; degree is marked through adverbs like more and
most: handsome, more/most handsome.

Syntactic characteristics: they function as heads of verbs phrases. Ultimately, they are also
the head of the clause.
- They function as heads of adjective phrases.
- They can modify a noun or occur on their own (or within a larger adjective phrase) as
complements: the young boy, the house is big.
- They can be modified by adverbs: a very pretty girl.

Semantic characteristics: lexical verbs denote actions, processes, or states. Auxiliary verbs
modify the meaning of the lexical verb of the phrase.
- Most typically, adjectives describe qualities of people, things, and states of affairs: a
heavy box, he is guilty, the situation is serious.

Adverbs
Morphological characteristics:
- Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by means of the ending -ly: clearly,
eagerly. But others are not: now, very, quite.
- A few adverbs inflect for degree (soon, sooner, soonest), but most gradable adverbs
are graded by means of other adverbs (more, most).

Syntactic characteristics:
- They function as heads of adverb phrases.
- They can modify adjectives, adverbs and verbs: a very pretty girl, rather slowly, she
spoke clearly.
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- They can modify the clause, functioning as adjuncts: Frankly, I couldn’t care less.
Semantic characteristics:
- As modifiers, they can be used to intensify the meaning of the modified element:
totally wrong.
- As adjuncts, they can express many different meanings, such as time, manner, place,
degree, etc.: Get this sorted out now

Determinatives
Morphological characteristics:
- Many are invariable: some, many, all.
- Some vary for definiteness, proximity, person and/or number: a – the, this – that, my
– your, this – these.

Syntactic characteristics: They function as heads of determinative phrases, which usually

function as determiners within a noun phrase: the dog, [almost every] pig.

Semantic characteristics: They narrow down the reference of a noun.

- A noun on its own (in the singular form, e.g., book) only refers to a class of entities.
- A determinative is used to make the noun refer to an instance (or instances) of the
class of entities it represents: the book refers to a specific object, not to the whole
class of objects we know as books.

Types of determinatives
- Articles: they vary for definiteness → a/an, the.
- Demonstratives: they vary for proximity and number → this, these, that, those.
- Possessives: they indicate possession and vary for person and number → my, your,
her, his, its, our, their.
- Quantifiers: they indicate the quantity or amount of something without specifying its
number; they are invariable → some, many, all, every, few, etc.
- Numerals: they specify the number of entities referred to → one, two, three, four, etc.

Prepositions
Morphological characteristics: They are invariable: to, for, in, on, at, about, etc.

Syntactic characteristics:
- They function as heads of prepositional phrases.
- They are usually followed by a complement (I saw him before lunch), but they can
also occur on their own (I hadn’t seen him before).
- They can be modified by adverbs or other elements → I saw him straight after lunch.

Semantic characteristics: They connect two parts of a clause by expressing relations, often
of a locational or temporal nature.
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Conjunctions
Morphological characteristics:
- They are invariable: and, or, but, that, whether, if, etc.
- We distinguish between coordinators (and, or) and subordinators (that, if).

Syntactic characteristics:
- They are not heads of phrases; they function as markers of coordination or
subordination.
- Coordinators build coordinate structures, both phrases (the boy and the girl) and
clauses (I don’t want to speak too soon, but I think I have been consistent this
season); subordinators introduce dependent clauses (We assume that the store is
accessible).

Semantic characteristics: Like prepositions, both coordinators and subordinators express

relations → addition, contrast and alternative in the case of coordinators; subordinators
express a wide range of relations (temporal, causal, concessive, conditional, etc.)
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Unit 2

The Phrase
A phrase is a constituent within a clause or another phrase with a word functioning as head
and a number of dependents (zero or more).
- Noun phrases (NPs): head = noun
- Determinative phrases (DPs): head = determinative
- Prepositional phrases (PPs): head = preposition
- Adjective phrases (AdjPs): head = adjective
- Adverb phrases (AdvPs): head = adverb
- Verb phrases (VPs): head = verb
- +Conjunctions → Subordinators and coordinators do not have corresponding
phrases; they function as markers of subordination and coordination:
➢In It’s odd that he’s late, that he’s late is not a subordinate phrase.
➢In Jo or the kids took it, or the kids is not a coordinator phrase.

Every non-head constituent in a phrase is a dependent, but there are different types of
dependents. Two main types:
- Complements: subject, object, etc.
- Adjuncts: modifier, supplement, etc.

Not only single words function as heads; phrases can also be heads of larger phrases: the
president is an NP with the noun president as its head, but even the president is a larger NP,
with the NP the president as its head.
A larger type of phrase: the clause.
- It has a VP as head.
- The function this VP fulfills in the clause has a special label: predicate.
- VPs are the only category that can function as predicates.

Nominal Phrases (NP)

Noun phrases (NPs) are units headed by nouns. NPs themselves fulfill the following
functions within other larger units
In a clause or VP:
- Subject → [The students] were very helpful.
- Object → They elected [a student].
- Predicative complements → She is [a student].
- Modifier → I saw him [this morning].

In a PP: Complement → I was talking [to [a student]].

In a NP: Determiner → I was discussing [[a student’s] work].
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Structure of NPs: slight complication.

NPs are units headed by nominals → a three-level structure: the head noun is inside another
unit called nominal, which functions as the head of the NP. A young guy
- Head - nominal (the head of which is a noun) - guy
- Determiners - articles (the, yours, a, many, some, no…) - a // Normally obligatory with
singular count common noun / incompatible with pronouns // The quantificational
determiners could have a modifier (not usual) - not many, almost every, hardly any…
- Complements - to, on, that… // ◦ Complements within a NP are usually PPs or
subordinate clauses / are licensed (selected) by the head noun
- Modifiers - adverbs, prepositions, adjectives, relatives…(young, from the, who..) -
young // The default type of dependent in NPs / they modify the meaning of the head
noun

Dependents can be classified as to whether they are internal or external to the nominal in
the NP.
- Determiners: external
- Modifiers: internal (adjectives) and external (adverbs) - Even (ext) young (int) people
(head)
1. Pre headed - Internal - adjectives, quantities, norms (precedence and origin),
VP (verbs as adj)
2. Post headed - Internal - Prepositions, Nominals, clauses
3. Predeterminer - External (before the determiner) - Quantifiers (all my money,
both these books…) and Adjectives before “a” (such a, what a, more serious
a…)
4. Peripheral - External (at the beginning or the end of NP) - even, only, almost,
herself, too…
- Complements: internal

How can we distinguish between Modifiers and Complements?

- Complements: preposition given by the name

Fused head NPs:

There are NPs in which the head and a dependent are fused, that is, a single word fulfils
both functions. The dependent that is fused with the head is typically the determiner or an
internal modifier. This means that the same word functions as head and determiner, or as
head and modifier.
- Simple: There are NPs in which the head and a dependent are fused, that is, a single
word fulfills both functions. The dependent that is fused with the head is typically the
determiner or an internal modifier. This means that the same word functions as head
and determiner, or as head and modifier.
- Partitive: to talk about a part of some definite whole.
- Special: with certain words, which have acquired special fused uses.
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Fused determiner-head NPs: One word fulfills the functions of determiner and head.
- Simple: Lin has lots of friends but Zoe doesn’t have [any]; Is this bag [yours]? // The
fused head NP can be replaced by an ordinary one with a separate head retrieved
from the context → Lin has lots of friends but Zoe doesn’t have [any friends].
- Partitive: Explicit: I’d love [some of that cake]. Implicit: I took some selfies, but
[several] are out of focus. // We talk about part of a whole. In explicit partitives, the
fused head is followed by an PP complement that denotes the whole. In implicit
partitives, the PP complement is not overt but understood → … several of them …
- Special: [Many] would disagree with you on that point; I don’t think [much] happened
while I was away. // Only with certain words. Many is understood as many people,
and much can be paraphrased as much stuff.

This type of NPs is quite common and almost all elements that function as determiners can
occur as a fused determiner head. Even genitive NPs can occur as a fused determiner-head
→ I’ve brought my contribution, but not [Sarah’s]. Exceptions: a(n), every, the, no.

In some cases, the fusion of determiner and head has become a morphological fact →
every, some, any and no form compound words with body, one and thing to make words like
everyone, somebody or anything.
With one, no has not combined completely, so we write the resulting compound as two
words → no one.

Fused modifier-head NPs: One word fulfils the functions of modifier and head
- Simple: Should I wear the red shirt or [the blue]?
- Partitive: [The youngest (of their children)] was still at school.
- Special: [The French] don’t take these things too seriously; She became interested in
[the occult].

Most commons: these two (internal determinative), the best (superlative), the taller
(comparative), the third (numeral), the blue (colors) and the French (nationalities).

Determinative Phrase (DP)

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The Prepositional Phrase

Prepositional phrases (PPs) are units headed by prepositions. PPs fulfil the following
functions within other larger units:
- Dependents in Noms → a house [at the beach], the chair [in the corner], a bottle [of
milk].
- Dependents in VPs → He saw her [at school], She comes [from Paris], She fell [in
the pool].
- Complements in be VPs → He is [at lunch], She is [from Paris], That is [of interest].

There are verbs of motion like head and dart that obligatorily license PP complements
denoting direction → They were heading [to(ward) the river], The mouse darted [back into
the hole]; *They were heading, *The mouse darted.

In traditional grammar, PPs always had NP complements → a house [at the beach].
However, this is not always true. There are two types of prepositions:
- Transitive → a house [at the beach].
- Intransitive: aboard, above, across, after, along, behind, below, beneath, beyond, by,
down, in, off, outside, over, past, round, since, through, under, up → She sat [outside
(her bedroom)].

PPs with intransitive prepositions fulfil the same functions as PPs with transitive ones: ◦
Dependents in Noms → the conditions [aboard], the temperature [outside].
- Dependents in VPs → She went [aboard], He sat [outside].
- Complements in be VPs → She is [aboard], He is [outside].

Structure of PPs:
Head = preposition
Dependents:
- Complements → I was talking [to a friend], I regard her [as a friend], [until after
lunch], It won’t last [for long], I left [because I was tired].
1. ◦ Object NPs → I was talking [to a friend], I’m looking [for my glasses]. ◦
2. Predicative complements → I regard her [as a friend], I took him [for dead]. ◦
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3. PPs → I stayed [until after lunch], [According to Ed,] it’s a hoax. ◦

4. AdvPs → It won’t last [for long], I hadn’t met her [until recently]. ◦
5. Clauses → I left [because I was tired], We agreed [on how to proceed]. ◦
6. No complement (intransitive) → He sat [outside]

Two types of PP complements within PPs:

- PP complements denoting time or space → I stayed [until after lunch], She looked
[from behind the curtain], I’ve been waiting for you [since before lunch].
- PP complements with a specified preposition → according/due/owing/prior/ pursuant
to; ahead/because/instead/out of; away/apart/aside from; etc.
A handful of P + AdvP expressions: They are basically fixed phrases → before long, for
long, until recently, and a few others; *after long.

- Modifiers → We had to leave [a few minutes before the end], It landed [directly
behind us], It all seemed [completely out of this world], It was [way past midnight].
1. Temporal and spatial expressions → We had to leave [a few minutes before
the end].
2. Extent → It landed [directly behind us]; other adverbs include just, shortly,
soon, etc.
3. Degree → It all seemed [completely out of this world]; other adverbs include
quite, very much, etc.
4. Intensified exactness of time or location → She arrived [right on time], He’s
[bang on target], We walk [straight through the middle]; essentially with the
adverbs bang, right, straight, and way.

Ago: a strictly intransitive preposition that always occurs with a pre-head modifier, a measure
expression specifying the length of time that has gone by → The tenants left [some time
ago].
The modifier is obligatory because of a semantic restriction, not a syntactic one: it does not
make sense to use ago without a modifier → *The tenants left [ago].
Something similar occurs with away and back when used in this type of expressions: ◦ This
all happened [400 miles away]. ◦ The house was abandoned [years back].

PPs functioning as particles → a special type of complement within the VP. The distinctive
property of particles is that they can come between the verb and its direct object, as well as
after the object: ◦ She took the box down. ◦ She took down the box.
One constraint: if the object is a pronoun, then the particle cannot occur between the verb
and the object → She took it down; *She took down it.
Particles are all short words (one or two syllables), and they are nearly all prepositions →
along, away, back, by, down, forward, in, off, on, out, over, round, under, up.

Prepositional Idioms - fixed expressions beginning with a preposition. They usually take the
form preposition + noun + preposition:
i. by means of hard work, on behalf of my son, with effect from today.
ii. by virtue of her age, in front of the car, in league with the devil.
iii.in photos of their parents, to questions of ethics, with knowledge of his goals
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Even though the examples in (i) and (ii) are idioms while those in (iii) are not, their syntax is
the same: the entire phrases are PPs headed by the first preposition; this head is followed
by a NP complement that has a PP complement after the noun.

The Verb Phrase (VP)

Verb phrases (VPs) are units headed by verbs. VPs essentially fulfill the function of predicate
within clauses or heads of other VPs → She [takes the money].

Dependents:
- Complements:
1. Objects (NPs) → They elected [a student].
2. Predicative complements (NPs or AdjPs) → She is [a student], The car is
[old].
3. PP complements of different types → Sue gave the photo [to Max], She
comes [from Paris]
- Modifiers:
1. NPs → I saw him [this morning].
2. PPs → He sat [outside].
3. AdvPs → They [almost] suffocated.

Some notes on the morphology of verbs: Verbs are variable lexemes: they have different
inflectional forms that are required or permitted in various contexts. The set of inflectional
forms of a variable lexeme is called its paradigm. The great majority of verbs in English have
paradigms consisting of six inflectional forms.
- Primary verbs (Auxiliary): show distinctions of tense; can occur as the sole verb of a
(finite) clause; he primary head of a (finite) clause
- Secondary verbs (Complement of the auxiliary verb): the plain form is identical with
the plain present, but is used in imperative, subjunctive and infinitival clauses; ◦
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Gerund-participles occur in progressive tenses; in some cases they function like

nouns or adjectives; Past participles occur in perfect tenses and the passive voice.

The adjective Phrase (AdjP)

Adjective phrases (AdjPs) are units headed by adjectives. AdjPs usually fulfill the
following functions within other larger units:
- Internal pre-head modifiers in Noms → an [old] car, [grey] hair, [very sad]
news.
- Predicative complements in VPs → The car is [old], Her hair turned [grey],
The news was [very sad].
An adjective that heads an AdjP functioning as internal modifier is called an attributive
adjective; adjectives heading AdjPs in predicative function are referred to as predicative
adjectives.

Most adjectives can be both attributive and predicative, but some are restricted to one of
these uses:
Predicative adjectives:
- The unit they refer to is called the predicand → The car is [old].
- The predicand can be the subject or the object → The idea seems [ridiculous]; I
consider the idea [ridiculous].
- Predicative adjectives can function as complements but also as adjuncts → Max was
[unwilling to accept these terms]; [Unwilling to accept these terms,] Max resigned.

Other minor functions

- Internal post-head modifiers in Noms (postpositive adjectives) → everything [useful],
children [keen on sport], the only modification [possible]. ➢Fused-determiner heads:
the AdjP cannot occur between the determiner and the head noun → everything
[useful], somebody [rich], somewhere [safe]. ➢AdjPs with post-head dependents:
they cannot occur in attributive position because they are too long → children [keen
on sport], a report [full of errors]. ➢Certain adjectives tend to occur in postpositive
position → the only modification [possible], any students [asleep], the president
[elect].
- External modifiers in NPs → He’d chosen [too dark] a color, It seemed [such] a
bargain.➢AdjPs containing how, as, so, too, this or that as modifiers → He’d chosen
 16

[too dark] a color, [How long] a delay will there be? ➢AdjPs with such and
exclamative what → It seemed [such] a bargain, [What] a fool I was to sell them!

Structure of AdjPs:
Head = adjective
Dependents:
- Complements Complements in AdjPs are almost always PPs or subordinate clauses:
◦ As usual with complements, the choice of preposition is restricted because it is
licensed/selected by each adjective → afraid [of the dark] but not *afraid [on the
dark]; bent [on revenge] but not *bent [with revenge]. ◦ Similarly, the type of
subordinate clause depends on the adjective → glad [it was over] but not *glad [what
to do]; eager [to win] but not *eager [that I win].
- Modifiers:
1. AdvPs (most common) → [extremely] hot, [morally] wrong, [very] useful,
[almost completely] watertight.
2. DPs (AdjPs cannot have determiners) → [this] young, [that] old, [no] different,
[very much] better, [any] taller.
3. PPs (less common) → cautious [to excess], dangerous [in the extreme],
preferable [on the whole].
4. NPs (not common) → [five years] old, [two hours] long, [a great deal] smaller,
[a bit] overpowering.
 17

The Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

Adverb phrases (AvdPs) are units headed by adverbs. AdvPs function as modifiers within
other larger units:
- VPs → It [virtually evaporated], He [almost died].
- AdjPs → It was [virtually impossible], He was [almost dead].
- AdvPs → He spoke [virtually inaudibly], It fell [almost immediately].
- DPs → They broke [virtually every] rule, I have [almost no] cash.
- PPs → I did it [virtually by myself], It lasted [literally until midnight].
- NPs → I’m [virtually his only friend], I bought [literally the last copy].

Structure of AdvPs:
Head = adverb
Dependents:
- Complements → The lower portion can move [independently of the upper part],
[Fortunately for the students], the class was cancelled.
1. PPs → The lower portion can move [independently of the upper part],
[Fortunately for the students], the class was cancelled. As usual with
complements, each adverb licenses/selects a specific PP complement →
*independently on the upper part, * fortunately by the students.
- Modifiers → She sang [very well], I didn’t do it [that well], They behaved [badly in the
extreme], It happened [a bit suddenly]
1. AdvPs → She sang [very well], I did it [rather hurriedly], He spoke [remarkably
clearly].
2. DPs → I didn’t do it [that well], They arrived [much sooner than we had
expected].
3. PPs → They behaved [badly in the extreme], He didn’t answer [at all
convincingly].
4. NPs → We arrived [three hours late], It happened [a bit suddenly]
 18

Unit 3

The Clause
A clause is a special type of phrase that minimally contains a predicate and, in the vast
majority of cases, a subject. The head of the clause is the predicate, which is always
realized by a VP. Within the VP functioning as predicate, there is always at least one verb
functioning as head of the VP. We use the term main verb of the clause to refer to the lexical
verb of the VP → the main (lexical) verb determines the structure of the clause.

In all types of phrases, whenever there are complements, these have to be licensed or
selected by the head of the phrase. In the case of VPs, it is not always the head verb (which,
in VPs with auxiliaries, is the auxiliary verb) but the main verb that licenses the occurrence of
complements. E.g. it is a feature of the verb like that it licenses the occurrence of a direct
object and, in fact, it usually requires one.

As usual, the dependents of a VP may be of two types: complements and adjuncts.

Complements have to be licensed by the main (lexical) verb. Adjuncts are not restricted in
this way: they can occur freely regardless of the main verb of the clause; of course, they
have to fit semantically in the clause.
The adjuncts can be omitted without making the clause ungrammatical. But the
complements (underlined) are obligatory. Similarly, if we change the main verb, the resulting
clause may be ungrammatical → *I conversed your father, *They persist complaining about
it. E.g: I abandoned it [without asking for details].

On the basis of the types of complements that we can find in a clause, we distinguish a
series of clause constructions that are common in English. One important feature of clause
constructions: transitivity → Most clauses can be classified as to whether they have a
specific type of complement or not (and if so, how many): objects. Clauses without objects
are called intransitive; clauses with objects are called transitive. What determines if a clause
is transitive or intransitive is the main verb of the clause: some verbs occur in intransitive
patterns and others in transitive ones. Of course, the same verb may occur in both
intransitive and transitive patterns: e.g. eat → They were eating; They were eating fruit.
In English, we can distinguish 7 major clause constructions or
patterns:

The intransitive construction → NP [V]VP: [Jesus]NP [wept]VP The NP functions as the

subject of the clause and it precedes the VP. Within the VP we only have the main verb,
together with any auxiliaries that may occur (with the corresponding syntactic structure). A
variant: if the main verb of the clause is a phrasal verb, then we have a particle → [He]NP
[[passed]V [away]PP]VP

The middle construction → NP [V]VP: [The door]NP [opened]VP It is called middle

construction because of its intermediate status between the active and the passive voices: it
is used when the passive would also often be appropriate, but the verb is in the active form.
A variant: the middle construction with a semantically obligatory AdvP→ [The knife]NP
[[cuts]V [well]AdvP]VP Common to all middle constructions is that the subject is not the
agent of the action: in The door opened somebody opened the door; in The knife cuts well
somebody is using the knife to cut something else.
 19

The copular construction → NP [V XP]VP: [Madrid]NP [[is]V [an exciting city]NP]VP The
main feature of copular constructions is that the main verb is a form of be (used as a lexical
verb) or any other copular verb: e.g., become, seem, look, taste, etc. Three subtypes:
- In the NP1 [V NP2 ]VP subtype, NP1 is the subject and NP2 is a predicative
complement with the subject as predicand: [That man]NP1 [[is]V [my
grandfather]NP2 ]VP Some verbs which are usually found in other constructions may
also occur in the NP-copular construction: ◦[She]NP1 [[went]V [a bright pink]NP2 ]VP.
◦[She]NP1 [[will make]V [an excellent boss]NP2 ]VP.
- In the NP [V AdjP]VP subtype, the NP is the subject and the AdjP is a predicative
complement with the subject as predicand: [I]NP [[grew]V [bored of her
criticisms]AdjP]VP Sensory verbs (e.g., taste, smell, look) can be used in this
construction: [That meat]NP [[tastes]V [horrible]AdjP]VP AdjPs can also occur as
predicative complements with the subject as predicand with verbs that occur in
intransitive and monotransitive constructions: ◦[Ron]NP [[arrived]V [drunk]AdjP]VP.
◦[Ron]NP1 [[entered]V [the room]NP2 [drunk]AdjP]VP.
- In the NP [V PP]VP subtype, the NP is the subject and the PP is a complement,
typically denoting a location in space or time: [The festival]NP [[is]V [in the
summer]PP]VP [John]NP [[is]V [up the tree]PP]VP

The locomotive construction → NP [V PP]VP: [She]NP [[swam]V [across the English

Channel]PP]VP The structure is the same as the last subtype of copular construction (NP [V
PP]VP) but: ◦ The main verb of the clause is a motion verb, that is, a verb expressing
movement; this verb can be neutral (go, move, come) but very often it expresses manner of
motion → [The couple]NP [[danced]V [into the room]PP]VP. ◦ The PP complement denotes
the direction or path of the movement.

The monotransitive construction → NP1 [V NP2 ]VP: [They]NP1 [[built]V [the house]NP2 ]VP
NP1 is the subject and NP2 is the direct object. IMPORTANT: Not all sequences of NP1 [V
NP2 ]VP are instances of the monotransitive construction: [They]NP1 [[danced]V [all
night]NP2 ]VP → all night is a modifier.
Variants:
- if the main verb of the clause is a phrasal verb, then we have a particle either before
or after the direct object NP → [My father]NP [[took]V [over]PP [his brother’s
company]NP]VP.
- a monotransitive construction of the form NP [V PP]VP: when a transitive verb
(prepositional verb) licenses a PP complement with a function similar to that of a
direct object and the NP it contains can become the subject of a corresponding
passive clause → [He]NP [[lied]V [to me]PP]VP → [I]NP [[was lied]V [to]PP]VP.
- a monotransitive construction with a particle and a PP complement
(phrasal-prepositional verbs): NP [V PP PP]VP → [The heroes]NP [[put]V [up]PP
[with many humiliations]PP]VP.

The ditransitive construction → NP1 [V NP2 NP3 ]VP: [She]NP1 [[taught]V [the class]NP2
[Greek]NP3 ]VP NP1 is the subject, NP2 is the indirect object and NP3 is the direct object.
IMPORTANT: Not all sequences of NP1 [V NP2 NP3 ]VP are instances of the ditransitive
construction. Compare: ◦He called me a taxi → ditransitive: He called a taxi for me. ◦He
 20

called me a fool → an instance of the so-called NP-NP resultative construction: not

equivalent to He called a fool for me but to He said I was a fool.
An alternative with many verbs (but not all) → NP1 [V NP2 PP]VP: NP1 is the subject, NP2
is the direct object and the PP contains a NP that is equivalent to indirect object of the basic
ditransitive construction: [She]NP1 [[taught]V [Greek]NP2 [to the class]PP ]VP. This
alternative structure is not a ditransitive construction, because the indirect object does not
take the form of a NP but that of PP; the NP1 [V NP2 PP]VP is a subtype of the resultative
construction and the PP that contains a NP equivalent to the indirect object is merely a
complement.
Why? Because there are many verbs which can occur in the ditransitive construction but not
in the resultative alternative (and vice versa): ◦ That smell gave Bill a headache vs. *That
smell gave a headache to Bill. ◦ *John acquired Mary a new car vs. John acquired a new car
for Mary.

The resultative construction → NP1 [V NP2 XP]VP : [He]NP1 [[called]V [a taxi]NP2 [for
me]PP]VP. Three subtypes: ◦NP1 [V NP2 NP3 ]VP ◦NP1 [V NP2 PP]VP ◦NP1 [V NP2
AdjP]VP The constructions are called resultative because they can be rephrased to express
a result of the action → The people elected him their president … so he is now their
president.
- In the NP1 [V NP2 NP3 ]VP subtype, also called the NP-NP resultative variant, NP1
is the subject, NP2 is the direct object and NP3 is a predicative complement with the
object as predicand: [Mary]NP1 [[named]V [her son]NP2 [Sebastian]NP3 ]VP.
- In the NP1 [V NP2 PP]VP subtype, also called the NP-PP resultative variant, NP1 is
the subject, NP2 is the direct object and the PP is a complement typically denoting a
location in space or time, or a transfer of possession (the alternative to the
ditransitive construction): [She]NP1 [[put]V [the toys]NP2 [in the cupboard]PP]VP.
IMPORTANT: Not all sequences of NP1 [V NP2 PP]VP are instances of this variant;
they may also be examples of the monotransitive construction with a PP adjunct →
She did her homework on the train … *so her homework is now on the train
- In the NP1 [V NP2 AdjP]VP subtype, also called the NP-AdjP resultative variant, NP1
is the subject, NP2 is the direct object and the AdjP is a predicative complement with
the object as predicand: [He]NP1 [[wiped]V [the table]NP2 [clean]AdjP]VP.
IMPORTANT: Not all sequences of NP1 [V NP2 AdjP]VP are instances of this
resultative variant; they may also be monotransitive constructions with an AdjP
functioning as predicative complement of the subject: [Ron]NP1 [[entered]V [the
room]NP2 [drunk]AdjP]VP. It is also possible to create a NP-AdjP resultative
equivalent of a ditransitive construction: [The waiter]NP1 [[brought]V [me]NP2 [the
food]NP3 [cold]AdjP]VP.

These seven basic constructions may also be expanded by adding other phrases functioning
as adjuncts. These are mainly AdvPs and PPs, but we can also find NPs. They can usually
be placed initially, medially or finally, or, if there are several adjuncts, they can be divided
over the three positions. In the following table (Mackenzie & Martínez-Caro 2012: 44), this is
exemplified with a monotransitive clause with the structure NP1 [V NP2 ]VP.
 21

Complements
Complements are dependents that are licensed or selected by the head, that is, a
complement cannot be modified without changing the head of the corresponding phrase. At
the level of the clause, we can classify complements depending on whether they are internal
or external to the VP.
- External complements → subject.
- Internal complements → objects, predicative complements, other complements.

The Subject
The subject is a type of complement that occurs outside the VP. If the subject is a
complement, then it has to fulfil the requirement of being licensed by the main (lexical) verb.
Even though in English all canonical clauses must have an overt subject, the licensing
requirement is still valid. There are restrictions on what can function as the subject of certain
VPs.

Whether we will finish on time depends primarily on the weather, but *Whether we will finish
on time infuriated me.
Depend allows a subordinate clause beginning with whether as a subject but infuriate does
not. In other cases, the main verb requires a so-called dummy subject → It is snowing in
Texas but *Texas is snowing.
Most subjects take the form of NPs, but they can also be subordinate clauses.

The subject can be distinguished from other complements because of the following
morpho-syntactic features:
- Position: in canonical clauses, the subject precedes the VP (and occurs outside it); in
some special constructions, there is subject-verb inversion (e.g., questions) and in
these cases the auxiliary verb precedes the subject → It is snowing in Texas; Is it
snowing in Texas?
- Case: if the subject is a personal pronoun, then the pronoun must be in
subjective/nominative form (I, you, he, she, it, we, they); a personal pronoun
functioning as object or complement occurs in objective/ accusative form (me, you,
him, her, it, us, them).
- Agreement: all verbs other than modal auxiliaries agree with the subject in the
present tense (I run vs. she runs); be also shows agreement in the preterite (I was
vs. you were)

The subject can in many cases (though not all) be distinguished from other complements
because of the following semantic features:
1. Agency: in many cases, the subject is the agent of the action, that is, the entity that
performs the action → The manager called the police.
Many cases in which the semantic features are not applicable: Agency
- She knows French literature really well → Knowing is not an action, so there is no
agent.
- Ernie suffered a heart attack last night → The subject is the experiencer of the event
described in the clause.
- My grandmother was attacked by two vicious dogs → Passive voice, so the subject is
the entity affected by the action.
 22

2. Topicality: in many cases, the subject identifies the topic, that is, what the clause is about
→ Paris is lovely in the spring.
Many cases in which the semantic features are not applicable: Topicality
- Something is wrong with this disk drive → The subject is something but the topic is
the disk drive.
- In space, no one can hear you scream → The subject is no one but the topic is
space.
- It’s high time these kids were in bed → The subject is a dummy pronoun so it does
not have content and cannot be the topic; there is no clear topic.
- You should be really careful when handling metallic potassium → The subject is you
but the topic is handling metallic potassium.

The Object
Objects are internal complements that take the form of a NP. They can be distinguished
because of the following characteristics:
- An object is a complement, so it must be licensed by the verb.
- With some verbs, an object is obligatory.
- An object typically corresponds to the subject in a passive clause.
- If the object takes the form of a personal pronoun, this must be in the accusative
case.
- The basic object position is immediately after the main verb.

The object is licensed by the verb tell; it could not have occurred with an intransitive verb like
arrive (*Ed arrived the manager). The adjunct can occur with any semantically compatible
verb.
With tell and other verbs like accost, resemble, force, etc. the object is obligatory. No verb
requires an adjunct.
Passive voice: The manager was told (by Ed) but *Last week was arrived (by Ed).
If the object is a personal pronoun, this takes the accusative case (Ed told him). This is not
possible with the adjunct (*Ed arrived it).
We typically cannot insert anything between the verb and the object (?Ed told unexpectedly
the manager). There is no such restriction in the case of adjuncts (Ed arrived unexpectedly
last week).

Two types of object: direct and indirect. Main distinctions:

- Direct objects can occur on their own but indirect objects always occur in ditransitive
constructions accompanied by a direct object.
- The indirect object always occurs before the direct object (Sue gave Max the photo).
- With many verbs, the indirect object can be transformed into a PP complement (Sue
gave the photo to Max).
- Direct objects typically correspond to the semantic role of patient (the entity affected
by the action), while indirect objects typically correspond to the semantic roles of
recipient (Sue gave Max the photo), beneficiary (Call me a taxi) or other less clearly
defined roles (This error cost us the match).
 23

The Predicative Complement

The predicative complement is an internal complement that takes the form of a NP or an
AdjP → She is a good speaker, She is tall. Given that objects also take the form of a NP,
predicative complements could sometimes be confused with objects.
Main difference: objects refer to participants in the event described in the clause whereas
predicative complements ascribe a property to a participant mentioned before: She is a good
speaker vs. She found a good speaker.
Other differences:
- Predicative complements can usually take the form of a singular bare NP; objects
cannot: She became (the) treasurer vs. She knew the treasurer. Singular bare NPs
do not have determiners and, when functioning as predicative complements, they
typically refer to a position, a role, an office, etc.
- A direct object becomes the subject in a passive clause; this does not happen in the
case of predicative complements: Ed insulted a friend of mine / A friend of mine was
insulted (by Ed) but Ed became a friend of mine / *A friend of mine was become (by
Ed). ◦ And, of course, objects cannot be AdjPs: She is good vs. *She found good.

A few verbs license either an object or a predicative complement, but with a change in
meaning: e.g. prove, feel, make, grow
A great asset is a predicative complement → it does not refer to another participant in the
event but ascribes a property to the predicand (the subject in this case). Prove here means
‘to demonstrate as having a particular quality.’
The theorem is a (direct) object → it refers to another participant in the event; the subject
refers to a different participant. Prove here means ‘to establish the existence, truth, or
validity of something.’

Other Complements
1. Particles → He passed away.
2. Complements in monotransitive constructions with a function similar to that of direct
object → He lied to me.
3. Complements in copular constructions → The festival is in the summer.
4. Complements in locomotive constructions → She swam across the English Channel.
5. Complements in resultative constructions with a function similar to that of indirect
object → Sue gave the photo to Max.
6. Complements in resultative constructions expressing locative/temporal meanings →
She put the toys in the cupboard
They typically take the form of PPs or subordinate clauses. ◦They complained that there was
no hot water.
 24

Adjuncts
Besides complements, a clause can always be embellished or extended by adding adjuncts
at different positions.
Semantically speaking, adjuncts convey additional information which can, for the most part,
be deleted without losing an important part of the message.
Syntactically speaking, adjuncts are optional (with some exceptions) and may be more
loosely connected to the clause, but this depends on the type of adjunct we encounter.
Two types:
- Modifiers → completely integrated in the clause; not separated by punctuation marks;
they modify a particular element within the clause.
- Supplements → more loosely connected to the clause; separated by punctuation
marks; they tend to say something about the entire clause (e.g., as an afterthought)
or act as interruptions to the clause.

**Some notes on terminology:

- Adjuncts, particularly modifiers, are also called adverbials, but this is a confusing
term because it seems to imply that all adjuncts are AdvPs and this is not true.
- Supplements are often called parentheticals because they are frequently between
parenthesis or other punctuation marks. This, however, is not always true (although it
will be true for our purposes).

Adjuncts can also be classified in semantic terms. Difficulties:

- The boundary between complements and adjuncts is not always clear: some
elements that function as adjuncts can also be complements.
- A complete list of different types of adjuncts in semantic terms is impossible to
compile. There can always be more fine-grained distinctions.
- The sematic types of adjuncts can overlap, that is, the same adjunct can express a
meaning compatible with several semantic types.
But a semantic classification is useful because syntactic generalizations can be extracted
from the different semantic types.

1. Manner Adjuncts
They usually take the form of AdvPs or PPs. They are always modifiers, integrated into the
VP and saying something about the way in which the action was carried out. They tend to
occur at the end or in the middle of the VP.
Most manner adjuncts cannot occur in initial position: ◦ The choir sang ‘Jerusalem’ very
badly vs. *Very badly, the choir sang ‘Jerusalem’. ◦ The books were arranged alphabetically
by author’s surname vs. *Alphabetically, the books were arranged by author’s surname.

2. ACT-RELATED ADJUNCTS
They tend to say something about the whole action described by a clause, not the action
denoted by the verb. They are usually modifiers, integrated into the VP and located between
the subject and the main (lexical) verb. But they can also be supplements, in which case
they tend to be in initial or final position in the clause.
They usually take the form of AdvPs, and tend to have some semantic connection with the
subject: ◦ The mayor reluctantly preceded the marching band → reluctant mayor. ◦ The
marching band reluctantly followed the mayor → reluctant band.
 25

3. LOCATIONAL AND TEMPORAL ADJUNCTS

They usually take the form of AdvPs or PPs. They can be either modifiers or supplements,
though they tend to be modifiers, adding some spatial or temporal information to the action.
IMPORTANT: Many elements that tend to function as locational/temporal adjuncts can also
be complements if they are licensed by the verb: ◦ I want you to put the flowers in the middle
of the table vs. *I want you to put the flowers. ◦ At sundown, the cowboys tended to head for
the saloon vs. *At sundown, the cowboys tended to head.

4. DEGREE ADJUNCTS
They tend to express the degree to which something holds: quantity, extent, amount,
magnitude, or intensity.
They can be either modifiers or supplements, though they tend to be modifiers: ◦I very much
regret I ever said that → AdvP modifier in VP. ◦ This is totally ridiculous → AdvP modifier in
AdjP. ◦ The regulation was introduced rather sneakily → AdvP modifier in AdvP. ◦ The ship
was almost out of sight → AdvP modifier in PP. ◦ We should change the wording a little bit →
NP modifier in VP. ◦I don’t think it matters at all → PP modifier in VP.

5. PURPOSE, REASON, RESULT ADJUNCTS

They can be either modifiers or supplements. Purpose is usually expressed by means of
either a PP or a clause: ◦Open the wine to let it breathe → infinitival clause. ◦Open the wine
in order to let it breathe → PP: in + order + infinitival clause. ◦Open the wine in order that it
can breathe → PP: in + order + finite clause. ◦Open the wine so (that) it can breathe → PP:
so (+ that) + finite clause. ◦Open the wine so as to let it breathe → PP: so + as + infinitival
clause.

6. PURPOSE, REASON, RESULT ADJUNCTS

- Reason is generally expressed with PPs headed by prepositions like because, since,
as or for: ◦I can’t play because I’ve got to work. ◦ Since you’re an expert, take a look
at this. ◦ As high winds are forecast, the road is closed. ◦ Angus wore black, for they
were in mourning.
- Result is usually expressed by PPs of the form so + clause or with the result that +
clause: ◦ He was very frail, so that operating on him was judged to be unsafe. ◦ He
dropped it, with the result that it stopped working.

7. CONCESSIVE ADJUNCTS
They can be either modifiers or supplements, and express contrary circumstances.
They usually take the form of PPs headed by although or though; despite and contrary are
also common. ◦(Al)though I disapproved, I decided not to say anything. ◦ Despite his
education, he didn’t know much. ◦ Contrary to popular belief, polar bears enjoy warm
weather.
IMPORTANT: although is always a preposition, but though can also be an adverb functioning
as a connective adjunct (supplement): He went to school in Paris. His French, though, isn’t
very good.

8. CONDITIONAL ADJUNCTS
They can be either modifiers or supplements.
They usually take the form of PPs headed by if; given, provided/providing and unless are
also common. ◦If you build it, he will come. ◦ Given that you’re so opposed to it, you can’t call
 26

yourself unbiased. ◦I’ll go along with it provided/providing (that) there’s a get-out clause in
the contract. ◦ Don’t say that unless you mean it.

9. DOMAIN, MODAL, EVALUATIVE AND SPEECH-ACT ADJUNCTS

They tend to be supplements, modifying the entire clause (but they can also be modifiers).
They are usually positioned at the beginning of the clause, but can occur in other positions.
They are grouped because they behave similarly, although they express different meanings:
◦ Domain adjuncts limit the domain within which the clause content applies → Musically,
Johnny was brilliant. ◦ Modal adjuncts express meanings like those of modal verbs →
Maybe, it’s poisonous (It could be poisonous). ◦ Evaluative adjuncts express subjective
assessments → We don’t have to worry about that now, happily. ◦ Speech-act adjuncts
convey the intent of the act of uttering the sentence → Honestly, I can’t really remember.

10. CONNECTIVE ADJUNCTS

hey are always supplements. They connect clauses together by making explicit certain links
between them, such as contrast or addition. They may be single words or multi-word
phrases, and they tend to be AdvPs or PPs.
- AdvPs: e.g., also, alternatively, besides, conversely, either, finally, firstly, however,
instead, meanwhile, moreover, rather, secondly, similarly, thus, too.
- PPs: e.g., by contrast, for example, for instance, in addition, in comparison, in
conclusion, in other words, on the contrary, on the other hand.

Negation
Polarity: the grammatical system that distinguishes between positive and negative (parts of)
clauses.
Positive polarity: ‘indicating, relating to, or characterized by affirmation, addition, inclusion,
or presence.’
Negative polarity: ‘marked by absence, withholding, or removal of something positive.’

In English, positive is the default polarity: clauses are positive unless they contain some
element that makes them negative. Markers of negative polarity:
- Morphological markers → affixes like -n’t, dis-, un-, non-, etc.
 27

- Syntactic markers → words like no, not, never, nothing, etc.

Two major types of negation: clausal and subclausal.

- Clausal negation affects the entire clause and is usually (but not exclusively) marked
on the verb.
This is not an uncommon mistake → clausal: not negates the entire clause (by
negating the verb).
1. Verb negation → She didn’t tell me anything, She does not live here
anymore./ Verb negation is marked either by negative inflection (n’t) of the
verb, or by modification of the VP by the adverb not. From a syntactic
perspective, the main difference is that verb negation in finite/tensed clauses
and imperative clauses requires the insertion of an auxiliary verb do, whereas
non-verb negation never does.
2. Non-verb negation → She told me nothing, She no longer lives here.

- Subclausal negation affects just part of a clause, that is, a specific word or phrase.
This is a not uncommon mistake → subclausal: not negates the attributive adjective
uncommon.
The clearest cases of subclausal negation are negative affixes (excluding n’t): e.g.,
dislike, inattentive, nonnegotiable, unwilling, homeless, etc.
They negate exclusively the word they are attached to, but the clause remains being
positive. He was unkind vs. He wasn’t kind. Even though the meaning is the same,
the first clause is positive and the second one negative.
1. Absolute negators → no, none, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere, etc.
2. Approximate negators → few, little, rarely, seldom, barely, hardly, scarcely,
etc. Syntactically speaking, there is no difference between absolute and
approximate negators; they fulfil a role in the larger units they belong to.

In which cases is the auxiliary do required?

- In clauses with a primary verb form (finite/tensed clauses), if there is no auxiliary in
the positive clause → She didn’t tell me anything.
- In imperative clauses, in all cases → Don’t be lenient with them.
In clauses with secondary verb forms (except imperatives), the auxiliary do is not added; we
negate these verbs simply by adding not → It is vital that he not delay vs. *It is vital that he
don’t delay; Not doing your homework is a mistake vs. *Don’t doing your homework is a
mistake.
 28

Clause Type
Speech acts: a term used by philosophers to refer to the things we can do when uttering
sentences → making statements, asking questions, issuing commands, uttering
exclamations, etc. Which kind of speech act we can perform by uttering a given sentence
depends to a large extent on its syntactic form. The syntax of English distinguishes a set of
clause types that are usually (but not always) used to perform different kinds of speech acts.
Major types:
- Declarative → You are very tactful.
- Closed interrogative → Are you very tactful?
- Open interrogative → How tactful are you?
- Exclamative → How tactful you are! ◦ Imperative → Be very tactful.

These major syntactic types refer to clauses, not sentences: we may encounter different
types of clauses in one sentence → Jess made a mistake (declarative), but does it really
matter? (interrogative). Declarative clauses are the default clause type.
Why? Because declaratives lack various special syntactic properties present in the other
clause types.

Interrogative clauses:
- Closed →Is Sue here?
Closed interrogative clauses: the special syntactic property of this type of clauses is
the presence of subject-auxiliary inversion (which is not, of course, restricted to
closed interrogatives) → Is it raining?, Can’t he swim?, Did the doctor recommend it?
The fronted auxiliary verb is in a position that we call prenucleus. Two types of closed
interrogatives:
1. Polar questions → Did I tell you Tom was leaving? (the answer is either yes or
no)
2. Alternative questions → Is the meeting today, tomorrow, or on Friday? (the
answer is one of the alternatives given in the question)
- Open → Where is Sue?
Open interrogative clauses: the special syntactic properties of this type of clauses are
subject-auxiliary inversion (though not in all cases) and the presence of one (or
more) interrogative words → who (N), whom (N), whose (N/D), what (N/D), which
(D), when (Adv), where (Adv), why (Adv), how (Adv). The interrogative phrase, that
is, the interrogative word alone or in combination with other words, can perform
different functions in the clause, such as subject, object, predicative complement, or
adjunct. When the interrogative phrase is not the subject, then it is fronted and
occurs in prenucleus position:
1. Who called the police? → who is not fronted because it is the subject.
2. What are those marks? → what is in prenucleus position because it functions
as predicative complement.
When the interrogative phrase is not the subject, we have two prenucleuses: the
interrogative phrase and the auxiliary verb.
Difference: the possible answers to a closed interrogative clause are limited by the form of
the question (typically just two, yes or no); the possible answers to an open interrogative
clause are not limited. IMPORTANT: by ‘answer’ we refer to what is the true or correct
answer to a question from a purely objective perspective (Is Sue Here? Yes/No); of course,
 29

from a subjective perspective, the ‘answer’ to a closed interrogative can be also open-ended
(Is Sue Here? I’m not sure/Who wants to know?/Jill told me not to tell you).

Exclamative clauses: the syntactic pattern we call exclamative is much less frequent (and a
bit old-fashioned) than the other clause types. It is always marked by an initial exclamative
phrase that begins with either the adjective what or the adverb how.
An in the case of open interrogatives, an exclamative subject occupies its ordinary position
before the first verb, but an exclamative non-subject is obligatorily fronted (prenucleus):
- What lovely people work in this great company! → adjective what in a NP functioning
as subject.
- What a tyrant he was! → adjective what in a NP in prenucleus position (predicative
complement).
- How clever you are! → adverb how in an AdjP in prenucleus position (predicative
complement).
The exclamative adjective what functions as an external modifier in the NP it occurs.

Imperative clauses: they differ syntactically speaking from declarative clauses in the
following aspects. ◦ The subject is (almost) always omitted. ◦ The verb is always in the plain
form. ◦ Auxiliary do is always required in verb negation, even with the verb be. ◦ The subject
is (almost) always the addressee. You should be more tolerant vs. Be more tolerant. You
aren’t impetuous vs. Don’t be impetuous.
A variant with overt subject → You tell her the truth!: less common and more impolite.

Whether omitted or not, the subject of an imperative clause is almost always in the second
person and refers to the addressee(s). But there is also a specialized imperative
construction for first person plural subjects with the verb let → Let’s go and get our ball back.
In let-imperative clauses, the subject is first person plural and is semantically present in the
contracted form of us after let (‘s); us occurs in contracted form by default and it is only used
in its full form in very formal settings. Let-imperative clauses cannot have an overt subject →
*We let’s go and get our ball back. To negate a let-imperative, we add not after let’s → Let’s
not go to the meeting.
 30

Comparison
Comparative clauses: clauses that establish a comparison between two elements. How is
this comparison established? ◦ Many adjectives, some determinatives and some adverbs
have specific comparative and superlative forms; in most cases these forms are created by
adding the suffixes –er and –est, respectively.

Comparative clauses: clauses that establish a comparison between two elements. How is
this comparison established?
- Many adjectives, some determinatives and some adverbs have specific comparative
a superlative forms; in some cases these forms are created by adding the suffixes
–er and –est, respectively.
- But comparison may also be established by means of separate words, adverbs like
more and most.

IMPORTANT: more and most can be either determinatives (the comparative and superlative
forms of many and much) or adverbs modifying an adjective or adverb: ◦ He made many
mistakes → He made more mistakes than you did. (determinative) ◦ We don’t have much
time → We have more time than we need. (determinative) ◦ It’s expensive → It’s more
expensive than we expected. (adverb).

Comparative clauses: More and most are the adverbs we use for comparisons of superiority;
for comparisons of inferiority, we use fewer/less and fewest/least.
Fewer/less and fewest/least are determinatives (the comparative and superlative versions of
few/little), but less and least can also be adverbs: ◦ I’ve had few jobs → I’ve had fewer jobs
than him. (determinative) ◦ It has little value → It has less value than he claimed.
(determinative) ◦ Dale is tall → Dale is less tall than Paul.
The determinatives fewer/fewest are used with plural nouns; the determinative less/least are
used with uncountable singular nouns.

Comparative clauses: Besides superiority and inferiority, we can also establish comparisons
of equality, for which we use the adverbs as and so, or no comparative word: ◦Dale is as
energetic as Pat. ◦It wasn’t so straightforward as I expected. ◦ The sea was flat as grass.
After the adjective, we have another instance of as: this is not an adverb but a preposition.
- All the comparisons considered so far were scalar: relative degrees of a gradable
property.
- Non-scalar comparison: a type of comparison involving not relative degrees of a
gradable property but simply identity or similarity.

Comparative clauses:
Non-scalar comparison is typically marked by means of words which have some kind of
implicit comparative meaning. ◦ We went by the same route as we usually take → equality ◦
We went by a different route from the one we usually take → inequality
Non-scalar comparisons of equality are still followed by the preposition as, but in non-scalar
comparisons of inequality we don’t usually have a preposition than.
But we do use a preposition than with two non-scalar comparative items of inequality, other
and else: ◦ There must be some other way of doing it than this. ◦ Anyone else than you
would have complained.
 31

Comparative clauses: In all cases, in the comparative phrases, that is, the phrases
containing the comparative words, we can find a comparative complement signaling the
other term (comparative degree) or the set (superlative degree) of the comparison.
This complement is a PP (which itself may have a NP or a clause as complement): ◦ Max
was the tallest boy in the class → PP complement headed by the preposition in. ◦ Max is
taller than Tom → PP complement headed by the preposition than. ◦ Dale is as tall as Paul
→ PP complement headed by the preposition as. ◦ It’s more expensive than I expected →
PP complement headed by the preposition than (and a clause as object of the preposition).
 32

Unit 4

Sentence Expansion
In syntax, the most important unit is the clause: a clause is the smallest complete syntactic
unit (it transmits a complete message). But, as we mentioned in Unit 1, there is a larger unit
called the sentence: strings of words that begin in a capital letter and end in a full stop (.)
and are typically used to express a state of affairs in the world. Sentences consist either of a
single clause or of a sequence of clauses.

- Coordination, which results in compound sentences: they consist of two (or more)
independent clauses linked by a conjunction → Sam bought the tickets and Sue
parked the car.
- Subordination, which results in complex sentences: they consist of an independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses → Sam bought the tickets while Sue
parked the car.

Simple sentences: those that consist of a single independent clause → Sam bought the
tickets.

Coordination
Coordination is grouped with subordination as another sentence expansion strategy because
it can be used to expand sentences. But, coordination can also occur at levels below that of
the clause, and in these cases it cannot be considered a sentence expansion strategy. Two
syntactic types of coordination:
- Clause coordination: coordination of two clauses → It was a perfect day and
everyone was in good spirits.
- Lower-level coordination: coordination of units below the clause level → I suppose he
made a mistake or changed his mind (VPs); We met my bank manager and her
husband (NPs); She introduced me to her mother and father (Noms); We work with
and for the residents (Ps).

From a syntactic perspective, however, clause coordination and lower-level coordination are
similar. Syntactic features of coordinations:
- Headless: contrary to almost all other constructions, coordinations do not have a
head; they have two or more elements called coordinates which are independent and
have the same status.
- Limitless: in principle, there is not limit to the number of coordinates in a coordination.
- Marker: coordinates in a coordination are linked by a coordinating conjunction,
essentially and, or, but; the function of coordinators is always that of signaling that
there is coordination (marker).

In syntactic trees, we use special labels when analyzing coordinate structures:

- Coordination: this is the syntactic category of the entire coordinate structure → We
met [my bank manager and her husband]; the function of the coordination is
whatever function it performs in the larger unit it belongs to (in this case, DirObj).
 33

- Coordinate: this is the syntactic function of each of the elements forming the
coordination → We met [my bank manager and her husband]; coordinates are
numbered (Coordinate1, Coordinate2; etc.) and their syntactic categories are
whatever categories they instantiate (in this case, NPs).
- Marker: this is the syntactic function of the conjunction linking the coordinates → We
met [my bank manager and her husband].
- Coordinator (Coord): this is the syntactic category of the coordinating conjunction
linking the coordinates; in the tree, the coordinator goes with the coordinate it
precedes.

When can we coordinate two elements? Coordinations are permitted when all of its
individual coordinates would be permitted.
We met my bank manager and her husband: ◦ We met my bank manager. ◦ We met her
husband.

But the coordinates do not have to belong to the same syntactic category → Lee is [very
young but a quick learner] (AdjP – NP).
Restriction: the coordinates would have to perform the same function in the clause if they
occured individually → Lee is [very young but a quick learner] (PredComp).

But *We’re leaving [the company and next week] → the company is a complement (DirObj)
while next week is an adjunct (Mod).

A defining feature of coordinations is that they are generally limitless → Nothing [noble,
sublime, profound, delicate, tasteful or even decent] can find a place in such tableaux. This
is not possible with the coordinator but: it only allows two coordinates → Lara is in London
but Sam is in Manchester vs. *Lara is in London but Sam is in Manchester but Alex is in
Liverpool.
Regardless of the number of coordinates, the coordinator usually goes with the last
coordinate. But three additional possibilities:
- Unmarked coordination: the coordinator is understood, so there is no marker → He
felt [tired, depressed, listless] (and is understood).
- Repeated coordination: the coordinator is attached to all coordinates except the first
one for emphasis → He felt [tired and depressed and listless].
- Correlative coordination: the first coordinate is introduced by a determinative paired
with the coordinator (both…and, either…or, neither…nor) → [Both the managing
director and the company secretary] have been arrested.

Two subtypes of coordinations depending on the possible order of the coordinates:

- Symmetric: the coordinates can occur in any order → You can have [beans or peas];
You can have [peas or beans].
- Asymmetric: the coordinates have to occur in a specific order.
1. Fixed expressions like aid and abet, betwixt and between, high and dry, so on
and so forth, to and fro → We were left [high and dry] vs. *We were left [dry
and high].
2. Coordinations in which coordinates have some logical order → I [woke up and
had breakfast] vs. *I [had breakfast and woke up].
 34

A special type: layered coordination → when one (or more) of the coordinates is itself a
coordination; e.g. ◦ [[Kim works in a bank and Pat is a teacher], but [Sam is still
unemployed]]. ◦ Get me an [[egg] or [ham and cheese]] sandwich. ◦ I don’t think it’s by
[[Gilbert and Sullivan] or [Rodgers and Hammerstein]].

A coordinate can contain an adjunct as well as a marker: ◦ He felt not angry but instead
deeply disappointed. ◦ She comes home every Christmas and sometimes at Easter as well. ◦
We could meet on Friday or alternatively at the weekend if you prefer.
The expressions in bold are not markers of coordination but adjuncts in the coordinates they
belong to.

Subordination
Subordination means embedding a clause somewhere within another clause: She thought
you were angry; If they go out of business we’re in trouble. The underlined clauses function
as dependents within other units (in the examples, within a VP and a PP, respectively) →
they are called subordinate clauses.
Terminology:
- Matrix clause: the next higher clause in the sentence; the immediate clause in which
the subordinate clause is embedded.
- The matrix clause of a subordinate clause may be the main clause of the sentence,
but this is not always the case → ◦ Matrix clause is main clause → [She thought you
were angry]. ◦ Matrix clause is not main clause → [Tim says [Sue thought you were
angry]].
- Main clause: the largest clause in the sentence.

Subordinate clauses tend to differ from main clauses in their internal form (but not always):
1. She is the best candidate – I agree that she is the best candidate. - In example (1),
the subordinate clause is formally identical to the main clause version but it is
introduced by the subordinating conjunction that
2. He was looking at a photo – This is the photo he was looking at. - In example (2), the
subordinate clause has a missing element in comparison to the main clause version,
the NP complement of the preposition at.
 35

3. I gave him my name – I made the mistake of giving him my name.. - In example (3),
the subordinate clause has no subject and the only verb is a secondary form
(gerund-participle).

Four types of subordinate clauses in English:

1. Content clauses → I didn’t think that those people had been invited.
2. Comparative (subordinate) clauses → More people came than had been invited.
3. Relative clauses → They weren’t among the people who had been invited. 4
4. Non-tensed clauses → I want to write a novel.

Differences between tensed and non-tensed clauses (also called finite and nonfinite
clauses):
- Non-tensed clauses are always subordinate clauses; tensed clauses can be main or
subordinate clauses.
- Tensed clauses always have a subject (except imperative clauses and some reduced
forms of clauses); non-tensed clauses often do not have a subject.
- Tensed clauses always contain a primary form of a verb (except imperative clauses);
non-tensed clauses always contain secondary forms of verbs.

Content Clauses
Content clauses are the subordinate clauses that are formally more similar to main clauses. -
I didn’t think that those people had been invited.
Except for the presence of the subordinating conjunction that, the content clause is formally
exactly the same as a main clause. And, in fact, that is optional in many cases → I didn’t
think those people had been invited.
Content clauses are also called complement clauses, because the vast majority function as
complements → in the example mentioned here, the subordinate clause is a complement
within the VP licensed by the verb think.

The taxonomy of clause types we mentioned for main clauses is also applicable to content
clauses:
- Declarative → John is in Paris – She says that John is in Paris.
Declarative content clauses: the only formal difference between declarative content clauses
and declarative main clauses is the presence of the subordinating conjunction that → John is
in Paris – She says that John is in Paris. But this is not always the case: that is frequently
optional and even inadmissible in some cases.
1. That is obligatory when the content clause is the subject of the matrix clause → That
I need help is clear vs. *I need help is clear.
2. That is inadmissible when the content clause functions as complement of most
prepositions; only some prepositions allow the presence of that (e.g.,
notwithstanding, given, in order, and provided) → I left before he arrived vs. *I left
before that he arrived.
3. That is generally optional elsewhere; it is more frequently omitted in informal
contexts, and with short and common verbs → I know that it’s genuine vs. I know it’s
genuine.
 36

Declarative content clauses: they function as complements within the larger units they
belong to.
1. Subject → That they passed didn’t surprise us.
2. VP complement → I realize that you feel insulted
3. NP complement → You can’t ignore the fact that he was there.
4. AdjP complement → I’m so glad that you could come.
5. PP complement → I left before he arrived
As with other complements, they have to be licensed by the head (or main verb in the case
of VPs).

- Closed interrogative → Did he do it? – I wonder whether/if he did it.

Closed interrogative content clauses: contrary to closed interrogative main clauses, content
clauses do not exhibit subject-auxiliary inversion; the other special formal feature of closed
interrogative content clauses is that they are obligatorily introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions whether or if. - Did he do it? – I wonder whether/if he did it.
IMPORTANT: if in content clauses is always a conjunction and can always be replaced by
whether; do not confuse the conjunction if with the preposition if that occurs in conditional
adjuncts.
1. Conjunction if → She asked me if I’d chair the meeting – She asked me whether I’d
chair the meeting – She asked me “Will you chair the meeting?”
2. Preposition if → It’ll do better if it gets some sun – *It’ll do better whether it gets some
sun – *It’ll do better “Will it get some sun?

- Open interrogative → What do you want? – Tell me what you want.

Open interrogative content clauses: contrary to most open interrogative main clauses,
content clauses never exhibit subject-auxiliary inversion, but they do contain a fronted
interrogative phrase introduced by an interrogative word (who, what, which, etc.). ◦ Which
candidate spoke first? – I can’t say which candidate spoke first. ◦ Why did she resign? – It’s
obvious why she resigned.
For the most part, open interrogative content clauses are analyzed like their main clause
counterparts:
1. The interrogative phrase is in prenucleus position, except when it functions as the
subject of the subordinate clause.
2. The interrogative word fulfils whatever function it has within the subordinate clause.
3. But given that there is no subject-auxiliary inversion, there is no auxiliary in
prenucleus position.

Closed/open interrogative content clauses: they essentially function as complements

within the larger units they belong to.
1. Subject → What caused the delay remains unclear.
2. VP complement → The only issue is whether he was lying.
3. NP complement → The question whether it’s legal was ignored.
4. AdjP complement → I’m not sure what we can do about it.
5. PP complement → That depends on how much time we have

But there is one specific construction in which interrogative content clauses function as
supplement adjuncts: exhaustive conditionals → used to express a set of conditions that
exhaustively cover the possibilities.
 37

1. Closed → He’ll complain, whether we meet during the week or at the weekend.
2. Open → He’ll mess things up, whatever you ask him to do.

- Exclamative → What a bargain it is! – Tell her what a bargain it is.

Exclamative content clauses: there are no formal differences between them and their main
clause counterparts; in both cases we have a fronted exclamative phrase in prenucleus
position (introduced by the exclamative words what or how) and no subject-auxiliary
inversion. They function as complements:
1. Subject → What a bargain it was hadn’t yet struck me.
2. VP complement → I’d forgotten what a fine speaker she is.
3. NP complement → You've no idea what agony love can cause.
4. AdjP complement → She was surprised how pale he looked.
5. PP complement → She was surprised at how pale he looked.
The exception are imperative clauses, which are almost always main clauses; the only way
in which an imperative clause can be a subordinate clause is if we are quoting someone
else’s words directly → She said: “Do not be so impetuous”.

In syntactic trees, we use the following labels when analyzing content clauses:
- Content clauses functioning as complements are mere complements (Comp) and
not, e.g., DirObjs or PredComps; they can also be subjects (Subj).
- Marker: this is the syntactic function of the conjunction at the beginning of the content
clause, if there is one → She says that John is in Paris, I wonder whether/if he did it;
the interrogative and exclamative words at the beginning of open interrogative and
exclamative content clauses are not markers but instead perform whatever function
they have in the unit they belong to → I can’t say which candidate spoke first (Det
within NP), It’s obvious why she resigned (Mod within VP).
- Subordinator (Subord): this is the syntactic category of the subordinating conjunction
at the beginning of the content clause (that, whether and if), if there is one; the
interrogative and exclamative words at the beginning of open interrogative and
exclamative content clauses are not subordinators (D and Adv).
 38

Comparative Clauses
In Unit 3, we used the term comparative clause to refer to clauses that established a
comparison between two entities (comparative degree) or picked an entity out of a set
(superlative degree). These contained a comparative phrase, that is, a phrase containing an
item in comparative/superlative degree. Within the comparative phrase, we mentioned that
there is often a complement denoting the other term of the comparison (comparative degree)
or the set (superlative degree). This complement is always a PP, usually headed by than or
as, and it can contain a NP or a subordinate clause as complement of the preposition. In
Unit 4, we use the term comparative (subordinate) clause to refer to the subordinate clauses
functioning as complements within the complement PPs in comparative phrases: It’s more
expensive than I expected.

But why is it necessary to single them out? Because they are syntactically different from
main clauses and other subordinate clauses. Other examples:
- Superiority → She did better in the exam than we’d thought she would.
- Inferiority → The treatment was less painful than it was last time.
- Equality (non-scalar) → They come from the same part of Britain as I come from.
What’s different is that they are reduced in comparison with main clauses and content
subordinate clauses.

If we consider the comparative clauses in isolation, then it is clear that they are incomplete,
that is, there is part of the clause that is missing.
- I expected → Comp (Clause)
- we’d thought she would → Comp (VP)
- it was last time → PredComp (AdjP) ◦ I come from → Obj of P (NP)

Of course, the missing elements are understood and can be retrieved from the context. - It’s
more expensive than I expected – I expected it to be expensive.
Contrary to some main clauses and subordinate clauses, there is no gap in comparative
clauses; gaps only occur when an element moves from is original position in the clause.
 39

Relative clauses
Relative clauses: subordinate clauses with an anaphoric relationship to the matrix clause.
They contain relative words (usually pronouns), which are the words that establish the
anaphoric relation with an antecedent in the matrix clause. Most relative clauses have a gap
left behind by a fronted element: the relative word or a larger phrase containing it (relative
phrase). They are always adjuncts: the most common function of relative clauses is as
modifier of a noun within a nominal (within a NP). - The [video that I needed -] is
unobtainable.

Three types of relative clauses depending on the relative word:

- Wh relatives → The video [which I needed - ] is not available.
- That relatives → The video [that I needed - ] is not available.
- Bare relatives → The video [I needed - ] is not available.
Most relative words are pronouns, like which, that and who(m), but others are adverbs
(when, where, why) or determinatives (whose and which). How is not a possible relative
word in Standard English: *That’s the way how you do it.

The entire relative clause functions as an adjunct, typically a modifier of a noun within a
nominal. But the relative clause has its own internal structure.
Relativized constituent: the element that is in an anaphoric relationship (via the relative
word) with an antecedent in the matrix clause. The relativized constituent fulfils a function
within the relative clause.
Possible relativized constituents:
- Subject → the lawyer [who defended her]
- Object (direct or indirect) → a key [which she found - ]
- Adjunct of time → the day [when he was born - ]
- Adjunct of place → a place [where you can relax - ] ◦ Adjunct of reason → the
reason [why she got angry - ]
- Object in PP → the book [which I was referring to - ]
- Determiner in NP → the man [whose book I borrowed - ] (the relativized constituent
is the entire phrase whose book).
In every case it can also be used the particle “that”.
When the relativized constituent is the subject of the relative clause, it is not fronted and
there is no gap in the clause.

IMPORTANT: when using a that relative, there are cases in which it can be easily confused
with a content subordinate clause:
1. The court rejected the suggestion that the witness made. → Relative clause // In (1),
that is a relative pronoun: it has an antecedent and there is a gap (DirObj) in the
relative clause → the suggestion [that the witness made -]
2. The court rejected the suggestion that the witness lied. → Content clause // In (2),
that is a subordinator (marker), so it does not have an antecedent in the matrix
clause.
Function: the relative clause in (1) is a modifier of suggestion; the content clause in (2) is a
complement of suggestion.
 40

Relative phrase: the constituent in the relative clause that contains the relative word, if there
is one, and is fronted except when it functions as subject. The relative phrase may contain
other words besides the relative word.
- She hasn’t yet contacted the people [whose house she wants to rent -].
- This is the article [from which I was quoting -].
- He set them a problem, [the answer to which they found - online].
This happens basically when the relative word functions as determiner in a NP or object in a
PP.

When the relative word is an object in a PP, we can front only the relative word, leaving the
rest of the constituent (or part of it) in its original position.
- This is the article [from which I was quoting -] → This is the article [which I was
quoting from -].

Two types of relative clauses depending on their degree of syntactic integration in the matrix
clause:
- Integrated relatives → Politicians who make extravagant promises aren’t trusted.
- Supplementary relatives → Politicians, who make extravagant promises, aren’t
trusted.
How change they?
- Intonation and punctuation: supplementary relatives are separated from the rest of
the clause by pauses (speech) or punctuation (writing).
- Semantics: integrated relatives select part of a set of entities while supplementary
relatives just add information about a set of entities. But this is not always the case →
Martha has two sons she can rely on.

Syntax:
1. Supplementary relatives are always wh relatives → His father, whom/*(that) she had
never met, opposed the marriage.
2. Supplementary relatives allow a wider range of antecedents (entire clauses and
proper nouns) → Max arrived late, which caused some delay; Max, who was usually
very punctual, was twenty minutes late.
3. Determinative which occurs only in supplementary relatives → This will keep us busy
until Friday, by which time the boss will be back.
4. Integrated relatives are modifiers and supplementary relatives are supplements.
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Non-tensed clauses
Four types of non-tensed subordinate clauses in English:
1. To-infinitival clauses → I want to write a novel.
2. Bare infinitival clauses → I helped design the website.
3. Gerund-participial clauses → I dream of writing a novel.
4. Past-participial clauses → Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage.

Terminology: we use the terms gerund-participle and past-participle to refer to the

corresponding secondary verb forms (writing and filled, respectively); we use the adjectives
gerund-participial and past-participial to refer to the types of non-tensed subordinate clauses
which contain gerund- and pastparticiple verbs, respectively.

Non-tensed clauses are always subordinate clauses embedded within a matrix clause.
Non-tensed clauses are formally incomplete: there are constituents which are not explicit
(e.g., the subject in most cases), but these elements can be normally retrieved from the
matrix clause.
- I remembered to discuss it with my doctor.
- I intend to discuss it with my doctor.

In both cases, the subject of discuss is not explicit and must be retrieved from the matrix
clause (I).
In addition, the time reference of the action in the non-tensed clause is not explicitly marked;
it must be inferred from the matrix clause (past in (1) and future in (2)).
Non-tensed clauses are reduced (like comparative subordinate clauses): the missing
elements are not gaps left behind by constituents moving out of their ordinary positions.

The subject is one of the constituents that helps distinguish non-tensed from tensed clauses:
It is normally not explicit. and when it occurs explicitly, it usually has a special form different
from the one a subject would take in a tensed clause. The type of non-tensed clause
determines whether the subject can be explicit or not:
- Subjects can be explicit in to-infinitival and gerund-participial clauses → It was
unwise (for me) to invite Buster to the party; She insisted on (my/me) being present
at the interview.
- Subject cannot be explicit in bare infinitival and past-participial clauses → I helped
(*for you) design the website; (*Him/his) filled with pride, he walked towards the
stage.
When the subject is explicit in a to-infinitival clause, then it is preceded by the subordinator
for and, if it is a pronoun, it takes the accusative/objective form. When the subject is explicit
in a gerund-participial clause, its form depends on whether the non-tensed clause functions
as complement or as adjunct within the matrix clause:
- Complement: a choice between genitive and accusative forms → She insisted on her
father’s/her father being present at the interview.
- Adjunct: choice between nominative and accusative forms (only with personal
pronouns) → She sought advice from Ed, he/him being her most experienced
colleague.

IMPORTANT: The subjects of to-infinitival clauses are always preceded by the subordinator
for. The problem is that we may have other elements in the matrix clause that function as
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semantic subjects of to-infinitival clauses without being the syntactic subjects of these
clauses:
1. They arranged for Lisa to be at the staff meeting.
2. They counted on Lisa to be at the staff meeting.
3. They persuaded Lisa to be at the staff meeting.
4. They assumed Lisa to be at the staff meeting.

Lisa is only the syntactic subject of the to-infinitival clause is example (1). In examples
(2)-(4), Lisa belongs to the matrix clause and performs a function in it: ◦ In (2) it is the object
of the preposition on. ◦ In (3) and (4) it is the DirObj of persuaded and assumed, respectively.

Bare infinitival, gerund-participle and past-participial non-tensed clauses are never

introduced by markers of any kind. To-infinitival clauses always contain at least one marker,
the special marker to. To is a special type of subordinator that occurs not before the entire
clause (like other subordinators) but instead within the VP. When a to-infinitival clause
contains an explicit subject, then it is preceded by the subordinator for.
For behaves like any other subordinator: it is a marker that precedes the entire subordinate
clause.

The range of functions non-tensed clauses can perform in the matrix clause depends on the
type of non-tensed clause. Bare infinitival and past-participial clauses can fulfil a very limited
range of functions.
- Bare infinitival clauses: complements within VPs licensed only by certain verbs like
let, make, see, help, etc. → The devil made me do it; I saw her cross the street; Can
you help (me) (to) clean the table?
- Past-participial clauses: adjuncts, either modifiers (in Noms) or supplements in
clauses → The guns stolen in the break-in were recovered; Brought up in Glasgow,
he emigrated to L.A.

The range of functions non-tensed clauses can perform in the matrix clause depends on the
type of non-tensed clause. To-infinitival clauses can fulfil the widest range of functions:
1. Subject → To turn back now would be a mistake.
2. Complement in VP → I hope to convince them of my innocence.
3. Complement in Nom → It provides an opportunity to broaden the mind.
4. Complement in AdjP → He was anxious to make a good impression. ◦ Indirect
complement → The twins are too young to be left alone (Comp of young but licensed
by too; also enough, sufficient and sufficiently).
5. Complement in PP → I go to the gym in order to keep fit (only with the complex
prepositions in order and so as).
6. Adjunct (modifier in VP) → I go to the gym to keep fit.
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