UNIT -1

NEED OF EHV TRANSMISSION

Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission refers to the transmission of electric power at voltage
levels higher than what is typically considered as High Voltage (HV). The need for EHV
transmission arises from several factors, and it plays a crucial role in the efficient and
reliable supply of electricity. Here are some reasons for the need of EHV transmission:

Reduced Transmission Losses:

Higher voltage levels result in lower transmission losses. According to Ohm's Law (P = I²R),
Ppower loss in a transmission line is proportional to the square of the current. By increasing
the voltage, the current can be reduced, leading to lower I²R losses.

Long-Distance Power Transmission:

EHV transmission is essential for efficiently transmitting electricity over long distances. The
higher the voltage, the more power can be transported over a given transmission line with
lower losses.

Bulk Power Transfer:

EHV transmission facilitates the transfer of large amounts of power over the transmission
grid, allowing for the efficient movement of bulk power from power generation centers to
consumption centers.

Grid Stability and Reliability:

EHV transmission helps in maintaining the stability and reliability of the power grid. It
enables the interconnection of different regions and allows for better balancing of
electricity generation and consumption.

Economies of Scale:

EHV transmission supports economies of scale in power generation. Power plants can be
located in areas with abundant and cost-effective resources (such as renewable energy
sources) and still supply electricity to distant regions through efficient EHV transmission.

Voltage Regulation:

EHV transmission allows for better voltage regulation across the power grid. Voltage levels
can be controlled more effectively, ensuring that consumers receive electricity at the
desired voltage levels.

Integration of Renewable Energy:

As renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, are often located in remote areas,
EHV transmission becomes crucial for transporting the generated power to population
centers where it is needed.

Enhanced Power Flow Control:

EHV transmission systems provide better control over the flow of power within the grid,

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helping grid operators to manage and optimize the use of available transmission capacity.

Standard Transmission Voltage

The standard transmission voltage can vary depending on the country and the specific
characteristics of the power grid. However, there are common voltage levels used for
transmission in many parts of the world. Here are some typical standard transmission
voltages:

Low Voltage (LV):

In most electrical systems, low voltage refers to voltages up to 1,000 volts. Low voltage is
typically used for distribution networks that deliver electricity to residential, commercial,
and industrial consumers.

Medium Voltage (MV):

Medium voltage typically ranges from 1,000 volts to 69,000 volts. It is commonly used for
local distribution and for transporting electricity within industrial facilities.

High Voltage (HV):

High voltage typically refers to voltages ranging from 69,000 volts to 230,000 volts. High
voltage is used for long-distance transmission of electricity from power plants to
distribution substations.

Extra High Voltage (EHV):

Extra High Voltage refers to voltages above 230,000 volts. EHV transmission is crucial for
efficiently transmitting large amounts of power over long distances with minimal losses.
Common EHV levels include 345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV.

Ultra High Voltage (UHV):

Ultra High Voltage refers to even higher voltage levels, typically above 800 kV. UHV
transmission is employed in some regions for extremely long-distance transmission and to
minimize transmission losses.

Electrical Considerations:

1. Power Losses:

EHV transmission aims to minimize power losses, which are proportional to the square of
the current. Higher voltages result in lower currents, reducing I²R losses in the transmission
lines.

2. Insulation:

Adequate insulation is critical to prevent breakdowns and flashovers. EHV lines use
specialized insulators and insulating materials to withstand the high voltages.

3. Corona Effect:

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EHV lines are susceptible to the corona effect, which can lead to power loss and audible
noise. Design considerations include selecting conductors and insulators to minimize corona
discharge.

4. Voltage Regulation:

Precise control of voltage levels is essential in EHV systems. Voltage regulation devices, such
as tap-changing transformers, are employed to maintain the desired voltage within
acceptable limits.

5. Reactive Power Management:

EHV lines require effective management of reactive power to maintain system stability.
Compensation devices like shunt reactors and capacitors are used to control reactive power
flow.

6. Fault Analysis and Protection:

Advanced protection schemes are implemented to quickly detect and isolate faults in EHV
systems. This includes the use of relays, circuit breakers, and other protective devices.

Mechanical Considerations:

1. Conductor Design:

Conductor design is crucial for EHV lines. Conductors must have sufficient mechanical
strength to support their own weight, withstand wind and ice loads, and maintain proper
clearances.

2. Tower Design:

The design of transmission towers must consider the mechanical forces imposed by the
conductors, insulators, and environmental factors. Towers need to be structurally sound to
withstand wind, ice, and other loads.

3. Sag and Tension Calculations:

Sag and tension calculations are essential for ensuring proper conductor clearances and
avoiding excessive mechanical stress. Temperature variations can cause sag changes, so
thermal expansion and contraction are considered.

4. Corrosion Protection:

EHV towers and conductors are exposed to environmental elements. Adequate corrosion
protection measures are essential to ensure the long-term structural integrity of the
transmission infrastructure.

5. Line Maintenance:

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Regular inspection and maintenance of EHV lines are critical. This includes monitoring
conductor conditions, insulator cleanliness, and addressing any structural issues to prevent
failures.

6. Weather Considerations:

EHV lines must be designed to withstand various weather conditions, such as high winds, ice
loading, and extreme temperatures. These factors impact the structural integrity and
performance of the transmission system.

7. Line Clearances:

Maintaining proper clearances between conductors and between conductors and ground is
crucial for preventing flashovers and ensuring safety.

Surface Voltage Gradients in Conductor

Surface voltage gradients refer to the variation in voltage along the surface of a conductor.
In high-voltage transmission lines, especially Extra High Voltage (EHV) and Ultra High Voltage
(UHV) lines, understanding and controlling surface voltage gradients are crucial for
maintaining the integrity and efficiency of the transmission system. Here are some key
points related to surface voltage gradients in conductors:

1. Corona Effect:

One of the factors influencing surface voltage gradients is the corona effect. When the
electric field strength around a conductor exceeds a certain threshold, ionization of the
surrounding air occurs, leading to corona discharges. This phenomenon can cause power
loss, audible noise, and unwanted radio interference. Designing conductors and insulators
to minimize corona is important.

2. Non-Uniform Electric Field:

The electric field around a conductor is not always uniform. Irregularities in the shape of the
conductor, nearby objects, and other environmental factors can lead to non-uniform
electric fields. These non-uniformities can contribute to surface voltage gradients.

3. Grading Rings and Shielding:

To mitigate surface voltage gradients and corona effects, transmission line conductors may
be equipped with grading rings. Grading rings are placed on the conductor surface at regular
intervals, and their design helps distribute the electric field more evenly, reducing the risk of
corona.

4. Insulator Design:

Insulators are used to support conductors and provide electrical insulation. The design of
insulators must consider surface voltage gradients to prevent breakdown or flashover.

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Proper selection and placement of insulators help maintain uniform electric fields along the
surface of the conductor.

5. Environmental Conditions:

Environmental factors, such as humidity, temperature, and altitude, can affect the
performance of transmission lines. The surface voltage gradients may change under
different environmental conditions, influencing the corona discharge characteristics.

6. Material Properties:

The choice of materials for conductors and insulators can impact surface voltage gradients.
Conductors with smooth surfaces and good conductivity help minimize electric field
variations. Insulators with appropriate dielectric properties are crucial for maintaining
insulation strength.

7. Clearances and Spacings:

Proper clearances and spacings between conductors and between conductors and ground
are essential for controlling surface voltage gradients. Adequate spacing helps prevent
unwanted interactions and reduces the risk of corona discharges.

Distribution of Voltage Gradient on Sub Conductors

The distribution of voltage gradient on subconductors in a bundled conductor system is an

important consideration in high-voltage transmission lines. When multiple conductors are
bundled together, the electric field around each subconductor is influenced by the presence
of adjacent conductors. The voltage gradient distribution on subconductors is affected by
several factors:

1. Geometric Arrangement:

The spacing and arrangement of subconductors within a bundle significantly influence the
voltage distribution. Engineers use specific configurations to achieve uniform electric fields
and minimize the risk of corona discharge.

2. Grading Devices:

Grading devices, such as grading rings or corona rings, are sometimes installed on
subconductors. These devices are designed to redistribute the electric field and control the
voltage gradient along the length of the subconductor.

3. Bundle Diameter:

The overall diameter of the bundled conductor affects the electric field distribution.
Engineers carefully design the bundle diameter to ensure that the electric field is distributed
evenly across the subconductors.

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4. Spacing Between Subconductors:

The spacing between adjacent subconductors plays a crucial role in determining the voltage
gradient. Proper spacing helps in maintaining uniform electric fields and reduces the risk of
corona discharge.

5. Surface Conditions:

The surface condition of subconductors is important. Smooth and clean surfaces help in
achieving a more uniform electric field distribution. Irregularities or contaminants on the
surface can lead to non-uniform voltage gradients.

6. Line Voltage and Frequency:

The line voltage and frequency impact the electric field around the subconductors. Higher
voltages may result in more critical electric field conditions, and the frequency can affect
the corona inception voltage.

7. Environmental Factors:

Environmental conditions, such as humidity and temperature, can influence the electric
field. Changes in environmental factors can alter the characteristics of the electric field
around the subconductors.

8. Insulator Design:

The design and placement of insulators between subconductors also contribute to the
voltage gradient distribution. Proper insulation is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the
transmission line.

Features of EHV Transmission Line

Voltage Level: 345KV, 400KV, 500KV, 765KV and higher

Efficient Power Transmission:

Long-Distance Transmission:

Economies of Scale:

High Transmission Capacities:

Advanced Insulation Systems:

Sophisticated Monitoring and Control Systems:

Reactive Power Compensation:

High Tower Structures:

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Environmental Considerations:

Reliability and Redundancy:

UNIT-2

DC LINKS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

The classification of HVDC links are as follows:

Mono Polar Links

Single conductor is required and water or ground act as the return path. If the earth
resistivity is high, metallic return is used.

Bipolar Links

Double converters of same voltage rating are used in each terminal. The converter junctions
are grounded.

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Homopolar Links

It consists of more than two conductors which is having equal polarity generally negative.
Ground is the return path.

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Component of an HVDC Transmission System

The HVDC system has the following main components.

1. Converter Station

2. Converter Unit

3. Converter Valves

4. Converter Transformers

5. Filters

6. AC filter

7. DC filter

8. High-frequency filter

9. Reactive Power Source

10. Smoothing Reactor

11. HVDC System Pole

Configuration of HVDC Transmission System

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission systems can be configured in different
ways based on project requirements, transmission distance, and other factors. Two
common configurations are the Point-to-Point Configuration and the Multi-Terminal
Configuration.

Point-to-Point Configuration:

*This is the simplest and most common configuration.

*It involves two converter stations: one at the sending end and the other at the receiving
end.

*Power flows in one direction from the sending station to the receiving station.

*Used for long-distance transmission where the advantages of HVDC, such as lower
transmission losses and better control, are crucial.

Multi-Terminal Configuration:

*Also known as Multi-Point or Multi-Infeed Configuration.

*Involves more than two converter stations connected to the same DC transmission line.

*Allows for multiple power sources and/or loads to be connected to the same HVDC
system.

*Provides more flexibility and can enhance the reliability of the overall power system.

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*Commonly used in large interconnected power systems.

Back-to-Back Configuration:

*Involves two converter stations located close to each other.

*Acts as a system interface, converting power from one AC system to another without an
intermediate DC transmission line.

*Commonly used for asynchronous interconnections, where the two AC systems operate at
different frequencies.

Hybrid Configuration:

*Combines elements of point-to-point and multi-terminal configurations.

*Can have multiple point-to-point links interconnected to form a larger network.

*Offers flexibility in designing complex transmission networks.

Converter Station

A converter station is a crucial component in a High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)

transmission system. It serves as the interface between the AC (alternating current) and DC
(direct current) systems, facilitating the conversion of electrical power for efficient
transmission over long distances. A typical HVDC transmission system consists of two
converter stations: one at the sending (rectifier) end and another at the receiving (inverter)
end.

Here are the key components and functions of a converter station in HVDC transmission:

Converter Building:

The heart of the converter station is the converter building, which houses the equipment
responsible for AC to DC or DC to AC conversion. This includes the rectifiers (at the sending
end) or inverters (at the receiving end).

Converter Transformers:

Converter transformers are used to step up or step down the voltage levels between the AC
grid and the converter valves. They play a crucial role in linking the AC system to the
converter.

AC Filters:

AC filters are installed to reduce harmonics and ensure that the HVDC system complies with
grid codes and standards. These filters minimize the impact of harmonics generated during
the conversion process.

DC Filters:

DC filters are used to smooth the DC voltage and current, reducing ripple and improving the
quality of the transmitted power.

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Valve Hall (for Line Commutated Converters - LCC):

In traditional Line Commutated Converters (LCC), such as those using thyristors, the valve
hall contains the thyristor valves responsible for the rectification (at the sending end) or
inversion (at the receiving end) process. The thyristors control the flow of DC current.

Semiconductor Modules (for Voltage Source Converters - VSC):

In modern HVDC systems using Voltage Source Converters (VSC), the converter station
features semiconductor modules, often based on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs).
VSC technology provides greater controllability and flexibility compared to LCC.

Control and Protection Systems:

The converter station is equipped with sophisticated control and protection systems. These
systems monitor and control the operation of the converters, ensuring they operate within
safe limits and respond appropriately to changes in the AC or DC systems.

Cooling Systems:

The power electronics components in the converter generate heat, and cooling systems,
such as water or air cooling, are employed to dissipate this heat and maintain the
equipment within its operating temperature limits.

Communication Systems:

Communication systems enable real-time data exchange between the two converter
stations. This communication is crucial for coordinated control and monitoring of the HVDC
transmission system.

DC Switchyard:

The converter station includes a DC switchyard that connects the DC transmission line to the
converter. The DC switchyard facilitates the transfer of DC power between the converter
and the transmission line.

Type of Converter Station

Rectifier Station:

Function: The rectifier station is used at the sending (transmitting) end of an HVDC system
to convert AC power from the grid into DC power for transmission.

Converter Technology: Rectifier stations typically use Line Commutated Converters (LCC),
which commonly employ thyristors for the conversion process.

Components: The rectifier station consists of a converter building, converter transformers,

AC filters, DC filters, and a valve hall where thyristor valves control the conversion from AC
to DC.

Operation: The rectifier station converts AC power to DC, and the DC power is then
transmitted over the HVDC transmission line to the inverter station.

Inverter Station:

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Function: The inverter station is used at the receiving (substation) end of an HVDC system to
convert DC power back into AC power for distribution to the grid.

Converter Technology: Inverter stations can use either Line Commutated Converters (LCC)
or Voltage Source Converters (VSC). Modern HVDC systems increasingly use VSC technology
due to its enhanced controllability.

Components: The inverter station includes a converter building, converter transformers, AC

filters, DC filters (for VSC-based systems), semiconductor modules (thyristors for LCC or
IGBTs for VSC), and control and protection systems.

Operation: The inverter station converts the received DC power back to AC, and the AC
power is then fed into the receiving AC grid.

Voltage Source Converter (VSC) Station:

Variation of Inverter Station: Some references may distinguish between inverter stations
based on the converter technology used. In this context, an Inverter Station using Voltage
Source Converters (VSC) is a type of inverter station with specific characteristics related to
VSC technology.

Advantages of VSC: VSC technology offers advantages such as independent control of active
and reactive power, fast response to system changes, and the ability to control the direction
of power flow. It is commonly used in modern HVDC projects.

Operation and Controls of HVDC Converters

1. Rectifier (AC to DC Conversion):

Operation:

Converter Station: The rectifier station is located at the sending end and consists of a set of
thyristor-based converters. Thyristors are semiconductor devices used for power control.

AC to DC Conversion: The rectifier converts incoming AC power from the power grid into DC
power.

Filtering: Filters are used to reduce harmonic components in the DC output.

Controls:

Converter Control: Thyristor firing angle control adjusts the timing of thyristor turn-on,
controlling the amount of AC power converted to DC.

DC Voltage Control: Maintaining the desired DC voltage level is crucial for stable HVDC
transmission.

2. Inverter (DC to AC Conversion):

Operation:

Converter Station: The inverter station is located at the receiving end and contains another
set of thyristor-based converters.

DC to AC Conversion: The inverter converts DC power back to AC power before feeding it

12
into the receiving AC power grid.

Filtering: Similar to the rectifier, filters are used to minimize harmonic distortion in the AC
output.

Controls:

Inverter Control: Similar to the rectifier, thyristor firing angle control adjusts the timing of
thyristor turn-on, controlling the amount of DC power converted to AC.

AC Voltage Control: Maintaining the desired AC voltage level is crucial for stable operation.

3. System Controls:

Power Flow Control: HVDC systems often have controls to adjust the power flow between
the sending and receiving ends.

Fault Handling: Protection and control systems are in place to manage and isolate the
system in case of faults or abnormalities.

Communication Systems: Modern HVDC systems often include sophisticated

communication systems to coordinate and control the converters in real-time.

4. Multi-Terminal HVDC (MTDC) Systems:

In some cases, HVDC systems involve more than two terminals, enabling power transfer
between multiple locations.

Advanced controls are used to manage power flow and balance between different
terminals.

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission is a technology used to transmit large
amounts of electrical power over long distances with lower losses compared to traditional
High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) transmission. Here are some key characteristics of
HVDC transmission:

Charectristics of HVDC Transmission

Low Transmission Losses:

Long Distance Transmission:

Interconnection of Asynchronous Systems:

Stability and Control:

Bi-Directional Power Flow:

Reduced Environmental Impact:

Submarine Cable Applications:

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Modularity and Scalability:

Black Start Capability:

Harmonic Filters not Required:

Improved Grid Reliability:

Power Control of HVDC Transmission

High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission is a technology used to transmit large
amounts of electric power over long distances. Power control in HVDC systems is crucial for
ensuring efficient and reliable operation. There are two main types of HVDC systems: Line-
Commutated Converters (LCC) and Voltage-Source Converters (VSC). Each type has its own
methods of power control.

1. Line-Commutated Converters (LCC):

Converter Control Angle (α): In LCC HVDC systems, power control is achieved by controlling
the firing angle (α) of the thyristors in the converter. The firing angle determines when
during the AC cycle the thyristors are turned on, affecting the amount of power transferred.
By adjusting the firing angle, the real power flow can be controlled.

Tap Changers: LCC converters often use tap changers on transformers to control the
magnitude of DC voltage. By changing the tap settings, the converter can adjust the DC
voltage and consequently control the power flow.

Reactive Power Control: LCC HVDC systems inherently provide reactive power support to
the AC system. The reactive power can be controlled to some extent by adjusting the firing
angle.

2. Voltage-Source Converters (VSC):

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): VSC HVDC systems use PWM techniques to control the
output voltage. By adjusting the width of the pulses, the average output voltage can be
controlled, thereby controlling the power flow.

DC Voltage Control: VSC systems have the capability to independently control the DC
voltage. By adjusting the DC voltage level, the power transmitted can be controlled. This is
useful for regulating power flow and for fault ride-through capabilities.

Reactive Power Control: VSC HVDC systems can provide controllable reactive power
support to the AC system. This is achieved by adjusting the phase angle and magnitude of
the converter output voltage.

Frequency Control: VSC HVDC systems can also participate in frequency control by providing
or absorbing active power as needed to help stabilize the AC grid.

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Starting and Stopping of DC Link

Starting of DC Link in HVDC:

Initialization:

Before starting the HVDC transmission, the system needs to be initialized. This involves
ensuring that all control systems are operational, communication links are established, and
the converter stations are ready.

Synchronization:

The rectifier (at the sending end) is synchronized with the AC grid. Synchronization ensures
that the DC voltage generated by the rectifier is in phase with the AC voltage of the grid.
This step is crucial to avoid disturbances during the transition to HVDC operation.

Gradual Voltage Buildup:

The DC link voltage is gradually increased to the desired operating level. This is typically
done to prevent excessive current surges and voltage transients.

Inverter Connection:

Once the DC link voltage is stable, the inverter (at the receiving end) is connected to the DC
link. This completes the HVDC link, and power transmission can commence.

Stopping of DC Link in HVDC:

Reducing Power Flow:

Before stopping the HVDC transmission, the power flow through the system is gradually
reduced. This can be achieved by adjusting the converter settings to lower the transmitted
power.

Isolation of Inverter:

The inverter is disconnected from the DC link. This interrupts the power flow from the DC
link to the AC grid at the receiving end.

Voltage Reduction:

The DC link voltage is gradually reduced to zero or a safe level. This is important to avoid
excessive stresses on the components and to ensure a controlled shutdown.

Synchronization with AC Grid:

The rectifier is synchronized with the AC grid at the sending end. This prepares the system
for a smooth transition back to AC operation.

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Shutdown:

Once the DC link voltage is safely reduced, the rectifier is shut down, and the entire HVDC
system is turned off.

UNIT-3

Fundamentals of AC Power Transmission

1. lternating Current (AC):

AC is the form of electric power that alternates direction periodically. In most power
systems, the standard frequency is 50 or 60 hertz (Hz).

AC is preferred for long-distance power transmission due to its ability to easily change
voltage levels using transformers.

2. Three-Phase Power:

AC power transmission systems commonly use three-phase power. Three-phase systems

are more efficient and provide a smoother power flow compared to single-phase systems.

In a three-phase system, three sinusoidal voltages or currents are generated with a phase
difference of 120 degrees.

3. Transmission Lines:

Transmission lines are used to carry AC power over long distances from power plants to
distribution centers and end-users.

The conductors of transmission lines are usually made of aluminum or copper to minimize
power losses.

4. Voltage Levels:

High voltage is used for long-distance power transmission to minimize power losses. The
voltage is then stepped down using transformers at substations before reaching distribution
networks.

Common transmission voltage levels include 115 kV, 230 kV, 345 kV, and higher.

5. Transformers:

Transformers are essential components in AC power transmission. They are used to step up
the voltage for long-distance transmission and step it down for distribution to end-users.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, reducing current and power losses, while step-down

16
transformers decrease voltage to safe and usable levels.

6. Power Losses:

Power losses occur during the transmission of electricity due to the resistance of
conductors. Higher voltages reduce current flow, resulting in lower resistive losses.

Losses are also influenced by factors such as the length of the transmission line, conductor
material, and operating temperature.

7. Synchronous Generators:

AC power is generated by synchronous generators, which produce electricity at a constant

frequency.

These generators are often driven by turbines, which can be powered by various energy
sources such as coal, natural gas, hydroelectric, or renewable sources.

8. Grid Stability:

Maintaining the stability of the power grid is crucial for reliable AC power transmission.
Control systems, monitoring devices, and protective relays help manage grid stability.

9. Power Factor:

Power factor is a measure of how effectively electrical power is converted into useful work
output. Power factor correction is employed to improve the efficiency of power
transmission systems.

10. Phasor Diagrams:

Phasor diagrams are used to represent the amplitude and phase relationships of voltages
and currents in AC circuits. They are helpful in analyzing and designing AC power systems.

Transmission Problems in AC Transmission System

Voltage Drop:

Causes: High impedance in the transmission line, inadequate conductor size, or excessive
distance.

Effects: Reduced voltage levels at the receiving end, leading to inefficient power transfer
and potential equipment damage.

Voltage Instability:

Causes: Sudden load changes, inadequate reactive power compensation, or poor voltage
regulation.

Effects: Fluctuating voltage levels that can affect the stability of the system, leading to

17
potential equipment damage and power interruptions.

Line Losses:

Causes: Resistance in the transmission lines, skin effect, and proximity effect.

Effects: Loss of power in the form of heat, reducing the overall efficiency of power
transmission.

Corona Discharge:

Causes: High voltage gradients and sharp edges on conductors.

Effects: Loss of energy through the ionization of air surrounding the conductors, leading to
audible noise, radio interference, and power loss.

Harmonics:

Causes: Nonlinear loads, such as power electronics devices.

Effects: Distortion of the AC waveform, leading to increased losses, overheating of

equipment, and interference with communication systems.

Capacitive Charging Current:

Causes: Capacitance between conductors.

Effects: Reactive power consumption, which can lead to poor power factor and inefficient
use of electrical energy.

Transposition Issues:

Causes: Unequal spacing between conductors or improper transposition of conductors.

Effects: Unbalanced currents in the conductors, which can lead to increased losses and
electromagnetic interference.

Frequency Fluctuations:

Causes: Imbalance between generation and consumption, sudden changes in load.

Effects: Frequency deviations can impact the performance of synchronous equipment and
lead to instability in the power system.

Faults and Short Circuits:

Causes: Equipment failure, insulation breakdown, or external factors like lightning.

Effects: Interruption of power flow, potential damage to equipment, and the need for
protective devices to isolate faulty sections.

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Need of Transmission

Efficient Power Transmission:

Long-Distance Transmission:

Voltage Regulation:

Interconnected Grids:

Transformer Utilization:

Grid Synchronization:

Historical Development:

Mechanism of Active and Reactive Power Flow Control

1. Active Power Flow Control:

Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

*The TCSC is used for active power flow control by adjusting the reactance in series with the
transmission line.

*It consists of a capacitor bank in series with a thyristor-controlled reactor.

*By varying the firing angle of the thyristors, the reactance can be controlled, influencing
the power flow in the transmission line.

*Increasing the reactance reduces the effective series impedance, which increases the
transmission line's apparent power capacity and allows more active power to flow.

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM):

*STATCOM is used for active power flow control by injecting or absorbing reactive power.

*It consists of a voltage source converter (VSC) that generates a controllable AC voltage.

*By controlling the amplitude and phase of the output voltage, STATCOM can provide or
absorb reactive power, thus influencing the active power flow in the system.

*It helps in voltage support and stabilization, which indirectly affects the active power flow.

2. Reactive Power Flow Control:

Static Var Compensator (SVC):

*SVC is a shunt-connected device that regulates system voltage and controls reactive power
flow.

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*It consists of a thyristor-controlled reactor and a fixed capacitor bank.

*By varying the reactance of the thyristor-controlled reactor, SVC can either absorb or
generate reactive power to maintain the desired voltage level and improve system stability.

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):

*UPFC is a combination of series and shunt compensation devices that provide both active
and reactive power flow control.

*It consists of a combination of a series-connected TCSC and a shunt-connected STATCOM.

*By controlling the phase angle of the series TCSC and the voltage magnitude of the shunt
STATCOM, UPFC can independently control active and reactive power flow in the
transmission line.

BASIC FACT CONTROLLER

1. Static Var Compensator (SVC):

Principle of Operation: SVCs are designed to control the reactive power in a power system.
They consist of a variable reactance device such as a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) and a
fixed capacitor bank. By adjusting the TCR impedance, an SVC can provide or absorb reactive
power, helping to maintain a stable voltage profile on the power grid.

Application

Voltage Control:

Power Factor Correction:

Dynamic VAR Support:

Contingency and Fault Management:

Transmission System Enhancement:

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Industrial Applications:

Renewable Energy Integration:

Railway Electrification:

HVDC Systems:

Load Balancing:

2. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM):

Principle of Operation: A STATCOM is a voltage source converter-based device. It operates

as a shunt device that can generate or absorb reactive power as needed. The voltage source
converter is typically based on insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and can provide
rapid and precise control of voltage, helping to regulate the grid voltage and enhance
system stability.

Application

Voltage Regulation:

Power Factor Correction:

Grid Integration of Renewable Energy:

Transmission System Enhancement:

Industrial Applications:

Railway Electrification:

Mitigation of Voltage Flicker:

Islanding and Microgrid Operation:

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Black Start Capability:

3. Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

Principle of Operation: TCSCs are used to vary the series reactance in a transmission line
using thyristor-controlled devices. By adjusting the reactance, TCSCs can control the power
flow and enhance the transmission capability of the line. TCSCs are particularly effective in
mitigating voltage instability and improving system damping.

Applications

Voltage Control:

Power Flow Control:

Damping Oscillations:

Stability Enhancement:

Contingency Management:

Loss Minimization:

Voltage Flicker Mitigation:

Renewable Energy Integration:

Dynamic Reactive Power Compensation:

4. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):

Principle of Operation: UPFC is a combination of series and shunt FACTS controllers. It

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consists of a series transformer, a shunt transformer, and voltage source converters for
both components. The UPFC can independently control real and reactive power flow in a
transmission line, offering greater flexibility in power system operation.

Applications

Voltage Control:

Power Flow Control:

Contingency Management:

Enhanced Grid Reliability:

Increase Transmission Capacity:

Damping of Power Oscillations:

Renewable Energy Integration:

Grid Modernization:

Interconnection of Power Systems:

UNIT-4

Power Quality

Power quality refers to the set of electrical characteristics and parameters that determine
the suitability of electrical power to properly operate electrical devices and equipment. It is
a measure of how well the voltage and current waveforms conform to an ideal, sinusoidal
waveform, and it includes various aspects of electrical supply such as voltage variations,
frequency variations, harmonics, and interruptions.

Source of Pollution

Pollution in power quality refers to the presence of disturbances or anomalies that can
affect the smooth operation of electrical devices. Several sources contribute to power
quality pollution. Here are some common sources:

Harmonics:

Voltage Sags and Swells:

Voltage Fluctuations:

Transient Voltage Surges:

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Unbalance:

Flicker:

Notching:

Power Factor Issues:

Power Quality Disturbances

Voltage Sags and Surges:

Voltage Interruptions:

Harmonics:

Voltage Fluctuations:

Transient Voltage Spikes and Surges:

Frequency Variations:

Voltage Unbalance:

Power Factor Issues:

Voltage Fluctuations

Voltage fluctuations, also known as voltage variations or voltage flicker, are deviations from
the nominal voltage level in an electrical power system. These fluctuations can occur due to
various factors and can have significant implications for the quality of power supply.

Causes of Voltage Fluctuations:

Load Variations:

Grid Disturbances:

Renewable Energy Integration:

Unbalance Waveform Distortion

Unbalanced waveform distortion is a type of power quality issue that occurs when the
voltages or currents in a three-phase power system are not equal in magnitude or not
exactly 120 degrees apart in phase. This can lead to various problems in electrical systems
and equipment. Unbalanced waveforms can be caused by several factors, and they can
result in the following issues:

Voltage Fluctuations:

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Current Imbalance:

Torque Ripples in Motors:

Overheating of Equipment:

Voltage Drop:

Resonance:

Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency, often referred to simply as frequency, is the number of cycles per second
in an alternating current (AC) power system. In most countries, the standard power
frequency is 50 or 60 Hertz (Hz). Power frequency variations can occur due to several
reasons, and they can have various effects on power systems and connected equipment.
Here are some key points regarding power frequency variations:

1. Nominal Frequency:

The standard frequency for power systems is typically set at either 50 Hz or 60 Hz,
depending on the region.

2. Frequency Variations:

*Normal Operation

*Abnormal Conditions

Mitigation and Control of Power Quality Issues

Power quality issues can adversely affect the performance and reliability of electrical
systems. Common power quality problems include voltage sags, surges, harmonics, and
interruptions. Mitigating and controlling these issues is crucial to ensure the smooth
operation of electrical equipment and to avoid downtime. Here are some strategies for
mitigating and controlling power quality issues:

Voltage Regulation:

Surge Protection:

Harmonic Filters:

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS):

Isolation Transformers:

Power Conditioning Devices:

Energy Storage Systems:

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Power Factor Correction:

Monitoring and Analysis:

Education and Training:

Grid Connection Agreement:

Redundancy and Backup Systems:

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