cotter ee vr NAVE FP RUPAGATION _ Sound energy above the audible frequency of 16,000 Hz is mechanical energy and Propagates through the material medi by the elastic properties of the medium. Also, in-h significantly modify and modulate the Propagation of of mechanical energy, its propagation and its interact It is a common experience that whenever a medium is disturbed by a force, the particles of the medium are set into oscillation. The oscillation of the particles is either longitudinal or transverse or a combination of both. In any of these types of oscillations, there is no bodily movement of the mass of the medium as a whole; only the disturbance propagates. On the basis of particle displacement of the medium, ultrasonic waves are classified as: lomogeneities and discontinuities in the medium these waves. Thus, ultrasonics is a study of a form ion with the medium through which it Propagates. ° Longitudinal ‘waves ——_> = Direction of particle motion particle Direction of disturbance ° Transverse waves —_—_ ttt Direction of particle motion particle Direction of disturbance i Direction of particle motion e Compressional and flexural waves (Rayleigh waves and Lamb waves) Direction of disturbancetT 66 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials h waves (also called surface waves): During propagation of these waves, particle oscitlatg, Rayleigh waves (also ca follows elliptical orbits as shown in Fig. 3.1. Direction of Propagation. §——____—_»> Fig.3.1 Rayleigh Waves (Surface Waves) ‘The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface along which the wave moves; the minor axis is parallel to the direction of wave motion. These waves travel along flat or curved surfaces of thick Solids, The depth of these waves below the surface, with effective intensity, is of the order of a wavelength only. These waves are used to detect flaws or cracks on or near the surface of test objects, Lamb waves (also called flexural waves or plate waves): These waves are produced in thin metals Whose thickness is comparable to the wavelength, These waves are complex in nature; elastic properties, Structure, dimensions of the medium and cyclic frequency determine their propagation through a medium. 32a) and (b illustrate these waves, Symmetrical lamb waves have comprescional Particle displacement along the neutral axis and elliptical particle displacement along the surface, or Direction of propagation FiB.32 (a) Symmetric Lamb Waves (b) Asymmetric Lamb Waves3.1.1 cast Wa Ww ve Propagati Ulrasonics 67 ih Then waves sy, gation longitudinal op set ONE att o oF in the after the oth . er force the parte © direction, exe Tegular intervals, the particles, wheth i Position of rest Particle of the medion en Petite motion. IF an infinite fer moving in the relsove to the direction of at any tim near the point of application of fore: medium is subjected neighboring particles snot PMPAEATION of th after the start of the disturbance depends ones coms and eneray tance STURN near the on the disturbance. Asa result of the inpaloe sure pestio8 a similar manner. anges PI8*® from one ein ofthe applied fore, a diatbar muse tansmited by The periodic foreeahg 2 Oth way, the energy een Ts second particle eee i ces om element nl nfuences the tid in i ill it splacement - the energy pa vaves. In a gaseo " ag aseous medium these travel only as a longitudinal wave; in es, and in solids, they travel as longitudinal, answer, surface or lamb waves, in so far as ultrasonic testing is con in solids. : The velocit i ity of propagation of various types of waves is as foll lows: oases) «(Fllaa) (087+1.120)[E 1 Le S l+o p 2+) emed, we i e will confine our attention to the propagation of waves E= youngs modulus where C;, = longitudinal velocity (p= volume density of the medium Cy = transverse velocity Cs = surface wave velocity ‘ion ratio o= Waves variation in the ‘ical calculations, 3.1.2 Pressure and Intensity of Sound ression and rarefaction. This cas pressure variation of pressure is periodical. For all practi ed and given by: aod energy travels as waves of comp ium as the waves travel through it. The Toot mean square (rms) of the pressure is ust mum pressure P,,, = [© where Po is the maxi fo ™ 2i] given by: $8 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials - ‘ murce is The intensity of sound at a point some distance from the so w I= Al 5 where W’ = rate of energy propagation and A = area perpendicular to the direction of Propagation, This intensity depends on the * distance of the area from the source * properties of the medium i * orientation of the area with respect to the direction of energy propagation In practice, it is difficult to measure the intensity, but easier to measure the pressure, Pressure i elated to intensity and energy by the following relation: 2 1= Fm where p= density of the medium pC P 2 E- C= velocity of sound in the medium Sound pressure, power and intensity are measured on a logarithm scale. The scale is designated ste decibel scale and is a comparative scale. The level of two powers w, and w, is expressed on the decibel scale as 4 10 logy (2) This is the decibel level of w, above wy and is written as ‘dB’. The decibel scale is applied to sound measurements by the following definitions: w (@ Sound pressure level = 10 60( * | with reference to wo a L (i) Sound intensity level = 10 logia| 7~} with reference to Jy pe ii) Sound pressure level = 10 logy (3) with reference to Py 3 P = 20 lose (7 The usual reference levels used in the study of sound are: Wy = 10°? watts Jy = 107? watts/m? P, = 0.00002 newtons/meter? = 0.0002 Dynes/cm? = 2044p (micropascals) : acl Inan ultrasonic test system, signal amplitudes are measured as electrical voltages only and aie Power is proportional to the square of voltage; therefore, the level of acoustic power is giV¢! stiee Ultrasonics 69 10 logio () with 13 Teference to Y= 29 log, (%) 10 | Note: Sometimes the yy : ‘eperia a ‘ The two are related as, 1 leper = on base ¢ is used instead of the common logarithm base ‘10°, “115 dB or 1 dB = 8.69 Neper. 3.1.3 Acoustic Impedance This implies the resistance ene " of i specific impedance is defined au theme to the Thus, specific impedance z = ply an For plane harmonic waves PIV = pe Passage of sonic energy through it. In acoustics, the sure to particle velocity. P= density of the medium Y= particle velocity a velocity of sound in the medium = pe, Zs expressed in kg/m? i where is expressed in kg/m? and c is expressed in ise elias Z depends on the structure and metallurgical condition of te material, as these factors affect both p and c. 3.2 REFLECTION, REFRACTION, DIFFRACTION, MobE CONVERSION AND ATTENUATION 3.2.1 Reflection The Snail's law of reflection, as applicable to light rays, is applicable to acoustics, provided that the dimensions of the reflecting medium are large compared with the wavelength. The law may be stated as: (a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, lie in one plane. (b) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection as shown in Fig. 3.3. MN = Reflecting surface ZAOB = i= Angle of incidence AO = Incident beam ZBOC Angle of reflection OC = Reflected beam A OB = Normal at the point of incidence : A 3.2.2 Refraction Sound waves incident obliquely on the boundary separ- ating two media, where the velocities of propagation 2° 0 . different, undergo an abrupt change in direction. This Phenomenon is known as refraction. The laws governing Fig. 3.3. Reflection the phenomenon of sound refraction are similar to aa ‘plicable to light waves. The laws may be stated as:70 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials (a) The incident ray, the normal tothe refracting surface at the point of incidence and the reacts ray lie in one plane. 8 (b) The sine of the angle of incidence bears a constant A : ratio to the sine of the angle of refraction. which is : equivalent to the ratio of the sound velocities in the eS : media concerned. Figure 3.4 illustrates this ice. MN = Refraction surface mn

+ zone Near zone| Far zone Distance from the generator Divergent beam far-zone @ ) Fig. 3.8 Pressure Variation in the Forward Direction from the Surface of a Piezo-Electric Plate The length of the near field is determined by locating the peak of the final maximum pressure. This is determined by making m = 0 in the relationship. Hence, we have length of the near zone = For D> A, length of the near zone = D/4A The number of maxima and minima is given by: M=D/i. In the far zone or Fraunhoffer zone, the sound waves travel as a diverging beam. This zone is interference free. In this zone, the intensity of sound decreases E as the square of the distance from the piezo-electric plate. cl From the viewpoint of ultrasonic testing, the far field is of A interest to us. The sound beam diverges in the far field, as | the distance increases as shown in Fig, 3.9. ‘B It may be seen that the pressure amplitude is maximum y D along the axis OP, but with increasing distance, it keeps 3N fA decreasing. Also, the pressure amplitude reduces when observed away from the axis. The zero pressures for distances N, 3N and 6N are at A, B, C, D, E and F, The divergence Profile of the beam is obtained by joining the zero pressure i points, viz. O, A, C, E and O, B, D, F, etc. The angle that this line makes with the axis of the beam 'S called the angle of divergence. The angle of divergence is defined as: nie CA sol Fig. 3.9 Divergence and Pressure Variation in the Far Fielcv / Ultrasonics 75 sin = Ty ft frequeney diameter of gencrator 7= angle of divergence V= velocity of sound constant that assumes the following values is 2 rhe pressure at any point along the axis OP tion C= 0.44 for 70% pressure point 0.56 for 50% pressure point = 1.08 for 10% pressure point Al various pressure Points across the beam cross- 's taken as 100% pressure point, 1.20 for 0% pressure point The 70% pressure point corresponds to 30% reduction in pressure and is referred to as the 3 4B drop pint. Similarly, the 50% and 10% pressure points are refered to asthe 6 dB and the 20 dB drop poing respectively. The values of C mentioned are valid for small values of A/D (small values of divergence) and circular generators. If the generator is not circular, the relation is not accurate. In sessed experimentally, The ultrasonic field variation can be controlled by suitably adjusting the diameter and frequency of the ultrasonic generator. Using a large diameter transducer and high frequency can reduce divergence to asmall value, which is desirable for ultrasonic testing. However, large diameter generators also increase thenear zone (also called zone of confusion). Therefore, in practice, divergence is kept within a tolerable range by a compromise between diameter and frequency of the generator. such cases, divergence is 3.4 Prezo-Evectric Erect The word ‘piezo’ means pressure and piezo-electric effect implies pressure electricity. Coan nanally occurring crystals like quartz and tourmaline show piezo-electric property. The estas ae jected to mechanical vibration, produce electrical pulses ina perpendicular direeion = phen Si ena are subjected to high frequency electrical pulses, dimensional se is ol serve ins pore xtc Tra, Caniuous impinge earl phenomenon Ia sound Wave, i alematng This shows that the piezo-electric effect is a reversi me xpansion a eaorecsiont impinges on the piezo-electric plate, fees eS eran Voltage with the frequency of the wave. The generated voltage 7 roport pal we de agotnds of yt Pressure, Thus, a direct piezo-electric effect is used to receive ultrasoune, used for generating ultrasound. Some piezo-electric materials like qua Commercially used piezo-electric material r Phosphate, lithium sulfate, lead niobate, potassium jae irconate titanate, etc.). eiPolyervata ae eee a om solutions under controlled conditions. Polycrystalline ceramics are 'ynthetic crystals are grown frol ieee roachiieve piezo-electric property, These ceramics a intering at high temperature 0 M1 ential (~ 5 KV). The crystal domains rote ng ed ig ey ing pa” S Tcl oat ign with he eh cd romain in that condition even ae the Vif the erystal is heated above thi Which polarization is achieves i el in ture. But most of the aline and rochell salt occur in nat me . tne synthetic compounds such as ammonium dihydrogen * aasiurm dihydrogen phosphate and polycrystalline ceramicsN 36 NomDesmuctive Test and Evaluation of Materials trie property. Natural crystals also have their own ¢ remperature, the erystal loses its piezo-el ave . t ations ‘The following table shows some of the properties of popularly used piezo-electrig cya temperature. The following 1 ommon properties of piezo-electric materials TABLE 3.1 Some ci i Property Quart: (SiO") saihien Sate parti Tree ri Density (emer) er | 2.06 54 a Acoustic velocity (m sec) 5740 5460 5100 ‘000 ‘Cue temperature CC) 376 130 120 19035 Acoustic impedance (N.s'm*.10°) 15.2 M2 27 30 3.5 ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS Ultrasonic transducers (or probes or search units) are devices to generate and receive ultrasound. For non-destructive test purposes, piezo-electric elements of suitable dimensions are used to generate the complete range of ultrasonic frequencies at all levels of intensities. The transducers convert electrical energy into mechanical energy (vibration) and vice-versa, as explained earlier. A transducer essentially consists of a case, a piezo-electric element, backing material, electrodes, connectors and protection for the piezo-electric element from mechanical damage. Figure 3.10 Coaxial —>t” shows the essential elements of a transducer “°°” Casing assembly. ‘Signal connector A casing is the housing within which various elements are contained. It is metallic or molded ee plastic. When the piezo-electric element is subjected matetal to electrical impulses, it vibrates or ‘rings’ for a long time. For non-destructive testing, along period Elec Ground ——+» of vibration is undesirable as it adversely affects ,S"Und- ma defect resolution capability. To prevent excessive oe ringing, highly attenuating materials (called backing . materials) ae bonded to the back face of the piezo. Fig. 3.10 Elements of a Transducer Assembly electric element. Backing materials consist of a mixture of ‘graphite, powdered metals (e.g. tungsten) and? metal oxide of random grain size, Wear resistance of the crystal can be increased without sacrificing resolution and sensitivity by the use of a thin layer of aluminum oxide or boron carbide. 3.5.1 Types of Transducers Normal Beam Transducers These and Mate iee {or contact testing and immersion testing. Transducers generat, tans! transducer and Fig. 409 — normal to the test surface, Figure 3.11 shows a normal beam cont electric element is ~~ shows an immersion transducer, In the immersion type of testing, the piez” ‘nade completely waterproof and a grounding electrode is provided in the font f°Signal connector Backing material Electrode | —=Selrode Normal Beam with Wear Plate Fig 31 Angle Beam Transducers Ulirasonies 77 Coaxial 45 connector Casing Signal connector Backing I material “|| jhe Ground connector Crystal—{_| Fig. 3.12 Immersion Search Unit hese are contact type transducers that transmit and receive longitudinal waves at an angle to the test raterial surface, During the transmission of the wave, the longitudinal wave is mode converted to a ‘hear or surface Wave on entering the material. During reception, the shear or surface wave is mode converted back to the longitudinal wave. Figure 3,13 shows the essential elements of an angle beam wransducer. ‘The transducer is similar to a normal beam probe, except that a wedge cut at an appropriate angl atached to the normal beam transducer. le is Apart from those mentioned, various types of transducers, in different sizes and frequencies, have been developed for specific inspection applications. Some of these are discussed next. Oual Element Transducers Coaxial > ‘connector Signal connector lnthis type, the transmitter and receiver elements are this. Focused Transducers es transducers are designed to concentrate ine, 8 into a small area. This improves redugee 7 Semsitivity and resolution and also lens of the effect of acoustic noise. An acoustic 2 nom eetermined focal length is attached 10 Porateg beam probe, Sometimes it is incor- Congo transducer facing. The focusing Cylindrical or spherical. While examining Separated with a cork-divider. Figure 3.14 illustrates Transmitter element. ‘Acoustical barrier —} (cork) Casing Ground connector Electrode Wedge} Crystal Ds Fig. 3.13 Angle Beam Contact Search Unit Coaxial connectors Receiver element Plastic blocks LS 3.14 Dual Element Transducer78 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials . sing is used. Spherical focusing concentrates the sound bes... eee ae towed while examining near surface defects. Figure 3.15 illustra cone. Spherical foc transducers. ee arr oir Water . Surface contour: The disturbance caused by reflection and refraction can make it difficult to interpret the indications in contoured parts with complex geometry. In such cases, it is helpful to examine the component from two opposite sides, wherever possible. Duplicate measurements at symmetrical points can bring out the similarities or dissimilarities. Often, secondary echoes appear, which are not due to any flaw, as shown in Fig. 3.19A. These secondary echoes appear beyond the back-wall echo. Sometimes, a divergent beam traveling a slightly longer, slanted path than the axial beam in the material gives rise to such echoes. These are called ‘Ghost echoes’ and need not create confusion to the operator, as they appear beyond the back echo. Triangular reflections: While testing solid cylindrical or spherical components with a normal probe, additional echoes may be generated due to a longitudinal wave returning to the crystal after more than one reflection at the side walls. Or before entering the crystal the longitudinal wave gets mode converted to a transverse Wave, which is mode converted back to a longitudinal wave after another reflection. Either of these cases can occur de test section, as shown in Fig. 3.19. pending on the angle of incidence and the diameter of the A Back echo ~ without side reflections Signal B| due to side ‘reflections NOP | sora] c a 4 Lb Ke sion due (0 Geometry due to side reflections ‘and mode conversion Fig. 319A. Secondary Reflec Fig. 3.19 Triangular Reflections82 Non-Destructive Test ‘and Evaluation of Materials 4. Fillets and holes: When a cylindrical part with @ threaded hole is scanned from the end aathnce, a stant beam falling on the sidewall, after reflection from the threaded surface, produsn surface, a sl roe aked indication, as shown in Fig. 3.20. | , mping inside the hole with a wire and observing e a multi-pe: This possible to check this problem by dar damping of the echo. a ; 5. Mode conversion duc to geometry: Cylindrical components with shoulders and fillets give 5 to mode-converted echoes as follows: Tise fillet echo as Fig. in 3.21. « Aslant beam hitting the fillet directly results in a Aslant beam hitting a shoulder is mode-converted as a transverse wave and reaches the opposit ite fillet, Here, the wave is again mode-converted and reaches the probe, resulting in an echo This phenomenon of mode conversion at angular incidence needs to be understood clearly, * A 80 that there are smaller chances of misinterpretation of echoes. PAN Po “Oo Fm Fig. 3.20 Reflection from a Threaded Hole Fig. 3.21 Reflection due to Fillets * Mode conversion can occur in components with a threaded hole as shown in Fig. 3.22. Aer A L ' 8 t err 8 t Y Fig. 3.22 Reflection from Bore Wall In position 4. , the angle of incidence ji In position the antic ar ety 's 45° and after reflection, the beam retraces its pal mode-converted and travels i cies is 61° for a steel component, The longitudinal wave gels travels back to the bore surface. j 28 & tansverse wave, The converted transverse Wa prt te probe The resuhing finer itis mode-converted as a longitudinal wave an te echo . is located further A es resulting due to shape and Same rie eee he part, it helps to: © Mark the echo positi ‘Positions. Materi: a 5 are from possible defects or mat and geometrical considerations suggest whether the re flection’10, 6M « study 2 symmetrical location on the sam angle probes. where possible, to confirm |, Make accurate measurements of the loc composites: influence ultrasonic attenuation gepth to which an ultrasonic test can be carr of the reflected signal from defects located at different “ ny aerial characteristics: Material properties lik MMi structural in-homogencities resulting f Ultrasonics 3 € test speci men oF o n findings a symmetrical component, Use ation of the echo Paes ie density clastic modulus, met AY-up and cure operations and acoustic im ied out. Attenuat tallurgical structure in fiber-reinforced pedance. Attenuation determines the on loss also influences the amplitide vo materi ee depths impedance of two materials on cither side of an interface determine ee neTAl, The acoustic transmission of ultrasonic energy from one The reflected and transmitted energy depends on the rat the impedance of the first material. The sou impedance mismatch increases. Flaw characteristics: Ultrasonic reflection and acoustic properties of the flaw. The amplitude of reflection. A flaw filled with with organic matter or oxide inclusion gi determines the ext i medium to the other Me of efestion and Eo io of impedance of the second material to Transmitted through the interface decreases as the from a flaw depends on the size, shape, orientation acoustic properties of the flaw also determine the air produces a good reflection, whereas a flaw filled ives a weak signal. In the former case, impedance mismatch between the material and the air inside the flaw is high; in the latter case. itis low. Further, a flaw with a smooth surface reflects well while a flaw with a rough surface reflects weakly. ‘Any flaw with a good reflecting surface, oriented at right angles to the beam direction produces a signal with good amplitude. Unfavorable orientation of large flaws does not allow the beam to reach the back-wall. This situation may lead to the absence of a flaw as well as a back-wall signal. Angle probes are used in such a situation, ‘Acoustic coupling: In a direct contact test, the degree of acoustic coupling depends on the surface finish and the acoustic impedance of the intervening medium. Oils of different viscosities are used here. Thicker oils or greases are used both for vertical and horizontal surfaces of the components. The use of a different couplant can cause a variation in results even for similar tests. ona given sample. To minimize this, probin; using shear wave probes with a thick fluid as due to accumulated couplant in front of the probe. . False indications: These are caused due to noise or rever an apparent discontinuity moving in a ho equipment located nearby. This indication can 1g conditions must be standardized. Sometimes, while couplant, there may bea faint surface wave indication eration in the test specimen. Sometimes, y due to other heavy-duty rizontal plane is probabl h ‘a defect indication, as itis be distinguished from imegular and not synchronized with the time base. ees The indication due to reverberation is cause high pulse frequency. This occurs when th pulse before the next pulse is transmitted. Synchronized with the sweep line or the Completely but can be reduced to the poi pecomes possible by reducing the gain to th Interpretation of indications: All types of d Produce echoes, the amplitude of which impedance. The information available on th ti t that a Corrs h depends, amon material with low attenuate the initial sound ontinuity indication, cannot be eliminated valid discontinuity d where an he test material does not ‘The result is apparent di h a disturbance get interpretation of the ime base. Such ne required level. efects, disconunl g other t 1, in-homogeneities, ir specific acoustic ssentation is: ities OF material hings, on th e CRT during the test by A-scan pres~y haractrizing the size of the discontinuity in the path gr the 84 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials The amplitude of the signal cl ultrasonic beam. ; The loss of back reflection amplitude. © Location of discontinuity from the scanning surface. Various 4-scan indications corresponding to particular defects can be characterized as follows: }. Spherical defects (gas hole type): An echo from a single defect with dimensions greater than selected standard defect size, is sharp and clear. A group of gas holes gives rise to an representing a superimposed multi-peaked signal and the trace appears jagged. >. Volume defects of irregular shape (inclusion type): Non-metallic inclusions give rise to cho ir an ec trace that is forked or broadened (where resolution is poor). When the probe is rotated around 2 defect, the echo does not disappear, but its shape varies. 3. Sharp linear defects (crack-like): Linear defects like cracks give a sharp and clear signal, Thy amplitude can vary when the probe is moved around the defect. For long cracks, the amplitude decays when the probe is moved in a circular path with the flaw in the center. 4, Lack of penetration in welds: Echoes from this type of defect give a clear and sharp signal. The signal disappears when the probe is moved round in a circle with the defect at its center. When lack of penetration occurs at the root, the maximum reflected signal occurs at half the skip distance from the weld center. If the flaw echo remains stationary over a long distance of the scan, the lack of penetration is considerable. If the probe is moved in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the weld and the echo disappears rapidly, then the defect is small and shallow. Often, the study of echo formation and its movement over the CRT screen, while manipulating the probe, provides useful information. 3.7 ULTRASONIC TESTING 3.7.1 Basic Methods and General Considerations Allitrasonic testing depends on the nature of the product, its manufacturing process, the surface condition, geometry and accessibility of the scanning area. There are three basic test methods commonly used in industries: pulse echo, through transmission and resonance. 2 Pulse echo test method: Here, short pulses of ultrasonic waves are transmitted in the materi under test. These pulses are reflected from discontinuities in their path or from any boundary of the material. The reflected waves (or echoes) are received by the same transducer and are dispose! on the CRT, which provides the following information: . Te relative size of the discontinuity in terms of the amplitude of the signal displayed 0" * The depth ofthe discontinuity on the CRT time base scale, which is appropriately calibrated terms of known material thickness $ mel i vor of the WAVE ea this method, a single transducer is used both as transmitter and receiver of the climes (Wo transducers are used, one as transmitter and the other as receiveri rtht Ultrasonics 98 ‘The main advantage of this method i fe TE ie Of this method is that only one ating and the method is capable ot providing a a eee of the ext objets require red for ngand the m size ns well jowever, a limitation is that the i pat teoah local nual i he material immediately below th areal ae cae transducer contact surface thin the near zone ot be examines 88 the appropriate shoe is attached to the wit le priate delay sh lelay shoe is vducer in contact testing n transducer in contact testing or a suitable length of water e ing. Figure 3.23 illustrates this method ‘ater column is provided in immersion te tes CRT _—————— on Test specimen | \rq, 4 um Flaw == ee crt @ = Transmitted echo b= Flaw echo * ° = Back echo B Flaw Fig. 3.23 Pulse Echo System _2¢ Through transmission method: Two transducers are used here, one as transmitter, the other as receiver. Short pulses of waves are transmitted into the material. The test method requires access to two nearly parallel surfaces of the test object. The receiver transducer is aligned properly with the transmitter transducer on the opposite side of the test object to pick up the ultrasonic waves passing through the material. ‘The soundness or quality of the test material is evaluated in terms of energy lost as the ultrasound travels through the material, The presence of a discontinuity is indicated by variations in the energy amplitude. A significant reduction in energy ‘amplitude indicates adiscontinuity. The main disadvantage of this methods its inability to locate the defect. Misalignment of the search unit can also create an int Yblem. Figure 3.24 illustrates the test system. erpretation prol ‘An advantage of the through transmission system is better near surface resolution. cnt Sound crt duction amplitude Flaw Fig. 3.24 Through Transmission SystemUltrasonics 87 ransmitted echo law echo Incident angle 62 Refracted angle ig-50" Irmersion Angle Beam Method, Using Longitudinal Waves 1 is important to appreciate that shear waves cannot be used in a fluid: ” wae are used and introduced into the medium at an angle, with ten eee saves entering the medium get mode-converted as shear waves at an angle. After reflection ‘rom a {pieet or boundary, the transverse wave gets mode-converted and travels back to the transducer as a jongitudinal wave. — In the through transmission immersion technique, the specimen is immersed in a liquid couplant, usually water. A separate transmitter and receiver are axially adjusted through manipulators. Ultrasonic energy is transmitted into the specimen, which is mounted on a special fixture, for easy adjustment. Any defect in the path of the ultrasonic beam causes a shadow and hence, a reduction in the intensity of the beam. Figure 3.29 illustrates the test system. _, Further, to reduce the difficulty in interpretation, the water path, that is the distance between the transducer and the front surface of the specimen, should be selected such that the ultrasonic transit time in the liquid column is greater than the ultrasonic transit time between the front and back surfaces of the test material. cAT Tank —4 Water ; Front surface R = itted echo Stecinen _| a= Transmit a b= Front surface echo c= Flaw echo (Reduction in amplitude) Support Back surface ansmission Immersion System Fig, 329 Through Tra88 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials Angle Beam Testing ‘An ultrasonic beam is transmitted into the test specime! ce, To achieve this, the piezo-electric element le. The flat edge mat an angle to the test surfa ‘aan is mounted on a plastic wedge at the desired angt of the wedge is placed on the test surface as shown in Fig. 3.30. When the angle of the incident beam is other than normal to the test surface, refracted longitudinal and shear wave components are produced due to mode conversion. Longitudinal waves are originally produced in the wedge but it is possible to have either Tongitudinal or shear waves in the test specimen. Both may be — present at the same time depending upon the angle of the wedge. an Meio a ‘As the angle of incidence is increased to the second critical aan anale, when the shear wave travels paraleltothesurface, surface py wave mode is developed in the medium. This wave can penetrate "383-30 Angle Beam Technique the medium to the extent of one wavelength. This wave pattern is known as ‘surface wave’ or ‘Rayleigh wave’ and its velocity is about 90% of the velocity of shear waves. These waves are used for detecting surface discontinuities in the contact mode of testing, The waves follow the contour of the test specimen around fillet radii and other irregular surface features. Figure 3.31 illustrates this. In very thin sheets, the angular incidence of the sound Test specimen Transducer beam and mode conversion at the interface produces plate Test specimen or lamb waves. The velocity of these waves depends on the type of material, the frequency, and the velocity in Fig. 3.31. Surface Wave Testing the wedge material, the angle of the wedge and the plate thickness. Various applications of these waves are given in Table 3.2. TABLE 3.2. Application of shear, surface and plate waves Testir fing Method Typical Applications Shear i waves Inspection of welds, plates, pipes, tubing and complex geometry forging and castings Surface waves e | Inspection of surface defects (e.g, heat Weatment cracks, fatigue Cracks, tool marks, stress raisers, etc.) Detection of laminations in thin materials, lack of bonding in composite materials Plate waves 3.7.2 Testing of Products Castings stings is limi foncat i sion ral i of semay ° the detection of large isolated discontinuities such as voids, application of ultrasonics to eastinge en CisPetsed coarse porosity and coarse grain structure. The coarse grain structures. The inspec ned due to their size, shape, thickness, surface roughness amd testing cast blooms for primary and veo at c*Stines with parallel sides with ultrasonic is simple, 38 condary piping for cropping before further operations. Ultrasonic testing of ¢ inclusions, cracks androost products Ultrasonics $9 fg ous generally have uniform square section havi ect a round 332 80 aie jmen, if th pine t and causing. signal withoe ge ot Fectangular Figure Fe ae ee a acteet happens to he Fela RY ambiguity in interpretation Mile ination NO eal petluetion in the back signal amatneye ie beam it may not give fiom aitferent aes feed e explore the pre Head mlitude. Such cases require scans ¢ and rectangular aaa and to assess its nat 3 uch SqUATE phowslilie aeaniot © scanned in two directions prefer: iy Mn ana sie. Normally, other. Figure ifeaion fran ° In Of a round section of a wrought maar Dr eae zn defect indication shows un when the probe is in position B. The deface ne oss Dut re si position 4, Beene the Dlane of the defect is parallel to the sonic heamy nee en the Ou cover a “a yo al fhe scan path should cover at least 120° (preferably 180°), as indicated bean’ In such cases, probable orientations of defects. : cated by the arrow, to cover all Bcometrical sections anger ini % Flaw (0) Fig. 3.32 Simple Regular Section Fig. 3.33 Round Section Forgings of complicated shape, it may not be possible to scan 100% of the surface. In such cases, the best way is to test the billet thoroughly for any defect - and, in a multistage forging operation, to test the product 4 convenient stages. In the final forged condition, only k A T Some areas may be amenable to an ultrasonic check. 2 Figure 3.34 shows the cross section of a forging where Ticks originate from the inner radius, invariably at an angle Flaw OF 45° to the lug. To detect this type of erack, a 45° angle a beam probe is used, as shown. In the absence of a crack, a jd} ulasonic beam follows a path as shown at and aler : "flection from the inner wall, may not return 0 oe a= Transmitted echo 'Ucer, resulting in no signal. When a crack is Pere b= Flaw echo ultrasonic beam is intercepted by the crack, retraces Ils Testing of Selected Location th and produces a defect signal as indicated in B. Fig. 33490 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials Figure 3.35 shows an actuator housing, which is subjected to fluctuating hydraulic pressure, Teading to fatigue failure. Fatigue cracks appear as shown at B. Here, the geometry of the component permits the use of a 60° angle probe to detect any crack in its initial stage of formation. In the absence of a crack, as shown at position ‘A, there is no defect signal. In the presence of a crack, when the probe is positioned at B, the ultrasonic beam is intercepted by the crack, resulting in a defect signal. This type of angle beaming of critical areas is found to be useful in the detection of defects initiated during service. Weldments Fig. 3.35 Testing of Selected Locations of a Housing Welds are ultrasonically tested either by the straight beam or the angle beam technique. The angle beam technique is commonly used, as the straight beam testing requires weld beads to be ground to get a fat scanning surface, Apart from being expensive grinding of weld beads is not always permissible from design considerations. Welds are usually tested at frequencies 1, 2, 2.5 and 5 MHz with varying angles like 35°, 45°, 60°, 70° and 80°. The procedure adopted is as follows: (a) Determination of skip distance and half skip distances. Skip distance S is the distance between ‘two nodes and is given by S = 2s tang, where = refracted angle, S= skip distance and t = specimen thickness (b) Two lines are drawn from the central axis of the weld bead, one at a distance of S/2 and the other at a distance S, parallel to the weld bead. (c) Now the angle probe is moved for skip distance S to half skip distance S/2, with a swivel motion of the probe at ‘A’. When the probe is at S'the top of the weld section is scanned; when itis t 2, the root of the weld is scanned; in between S and S/2, the intermediate weld sections are scanned. Any defect in the weld section will intercept the ultrasonic beam and make it retrace is path, thereby causing a signal on the CRT screen. Figures 3.36 and 3.37 illustrate this. SET STE? Transducer 4 ASY Transducer }«—s—> As I Node Node. fi “ “ ‘Specimen {| 0 rit rl? Fig.3.36 Path of Shear Wave kip distance Fig. 3.37 Testing of WeldingTesting of Fillet Welds Ultrasonic testing is employed extensiy method. However, due to the eo, Utirasonies 94 ‘ely for butt welds, vely fort . but some fillet welds can also be tested by this mplexity of joints, all fil Figure 3.38 shows the testing of a double fillet weld, usi the weld. Scan 4 shows a multiple reflection pattern from the horizontal member; § ir all echo; scan C indicat ‘ sound weld with a weak back w: and a weak back echo, Figure 3 ransmitted echo Flaw echo (Weld) Immersion Testing of Welded Tube Figure 3.39 illustrates the immersion testing of. weld tubes. In weld testing, it is usually desirable to generate shear waves in the test object. To achieve this, the transducer is tilted through an angle of incidence between 15° and 33°. In shear Wave testing, a small and poorly defined reflection for the entry surface and a strong reflection from the crack in the test specimen are shown on the CRT screen. Much of the sound wave is reflected from the Surface. A fraction of the sound wave that enters ‘38 shows the testing of a Back surface echo (Plate) jack surface echo (Weld) ict welds are not amenable to ultrasonic testing, ing a normal probe from a hori zontal member of can B indicates a ld, showing a good defect echo ingle fillet weld using an angle probe. les a defective wel €) = Transmitted echo b= Flaw echo 3.38 Fillet Weld Testing Using Angle Probe Probe assembly CRT Front surface Flaw ‘Sound Fig, 3.39 Immersion Testing of Welded Tubes92. Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials the specimen travels around the circumference until it strikes a discontinuity that will cause a reflection. In areas where no discontinuity is present, only a small front reflection is shown. Two Probe Method (Pitch Catch) Weld defects perpendicular to the plate surface and weld axis or defects whose plane is parallel to the weld axis and perpendicular to the plate surface arc cxamined using two probes. Figure 3.40 shows the typical location of two such defects detected and evaluated by a pair of probes 7,73 and T,T,. This type of testing requires both probes to be coupled ona guiding Fig. 3.40. Pitch Catch M 3 Meth mechanism for effective working ® Two dnl Probes cr Using Resonance Method for Testing Thickness A test component is said to be in resonance when its thickness is an integral multiple of half wavelengths of the applied frequency. Continuous compression waves of variable frequency are transmitted into th material to establish a standing wave, creating : the condition for resonance. Figure 3.41 shows the standing wave pattern due to resonance. If fis the fundamental resonant frequency and Vis the velocity of the wave in the test material, then 8 tea Vv f=5 ode SIS | Harmonic He i ee oe larmonic Ml Harmonic [The thickness of the component ean be calle of tne compones ulated from this relationship. Since resonance can occur at any of the harmonic frequencies and the difference between any two adj ies gi ly two adjacent hi 5 Eee! Pees z cent harmonies gives the fundamental frequency, the following relationship Fig. 3.41 Standing Wave Pattern due to Resonance oe ae Susi - In) where.) = fn +) = resonant fr * aonant frequency at the (1 +1)" harmonic and f, = resonant frequency atthe" Direct contact as well as immersi Resonance methods are u: and detection of gross defect fonfiescnanes : aor msion resonance methods are used for thickness determination ckness gauging, corrosion inspect s osiles ed ; ae ing comp ts in thin materials, pectlog. bom teste3.8 INTERPRETATIONS AND GUIDELINES FoR ACCEPTANCE/REJECTION Interpretation implies analyzing the in amplitude of the echo signals and correlati component. 3.8.1 Determination of the Size and Shape of Flaws The appearance of a flaw echo depends upon the size, nature and orientation of the flaw within the large if its cross-section is larger than that of the sonic beam at the flaw location. The size of such a flaw i i more than the actual flaw size, due to beam divergence. Realistic flaw mapping is possible only when the Orientation of the flaw is normal to the sonic beam. A small flaw. whose size is smaller than the diameter of the probe crystal, is determined by comparing the flaw signal amplitude with the signal amplitude from a known s' ize target. ee eeUltrasonics 101 some ee ee i shape of the flaw can be obtained by observing the shape and height ho dynamics) on the CRT screen when th i pri ofthe echo when the probe is manipulated. A steep rise of the ech 11 amplitude, generally, is indicati eee ere ‘en for asmal ly. is indicative of a lamellar flaw: this hay : : : ; this happens when the flaw surface ic perpendicular fee ie beam. If the plane of the flaw is not perpendicular, the echo formation is giow and gradual. If the flaw is of irregular shape, it results in a complex and multi-peaked signal. By robe manipulation itis possible to align the sound beam in a preferred direction, Echo formation and the Frange of its shape due to sonic beaming, for linear and irregular flaws, is illustrated in Fig. 3.50. —<—— 100% reference curve for 5/64” 9 F.B.H. target Echo amplitude —> (b) Depth —>- Fig.3.50 Echo Dynamics for Different Flaws Fig. 3.51 Flaw Assessment by Distance-Amplitude Curve Method Determination of Flaw Size (Flaw Smaller than Probe Diameter) Distance-amplitude Curve Method If the acceptance limit is, say, a 5/64" diameter flat bottom hole, then a minimum of three blocks of 5/64” diameter flat bottom hole with different metal distances are selected. With a specific gain setting, a readable target echo as well as a back echo are obtained. As the target distance increases, the echo amplitude decreases and if the peaks of the echoes are joined, a curve results as shown in Fig. 3.51. This curve is known as the 100% reference curve of the distance-amplitude curve. If the echo from an unknown flaw crosses this curve, then the flaw is more than 5/64"; if it is below this curve, the flaw size is less than 5/64”. 6 DGS Diagram (AVG Diagram) Method 5 4 3 Initial ‘echo A set of curves developed by Kraut Kramer for flaw evaluation, connecting the distance, gain and the size of known disc-like flaws, are quite useful in the comparative evaluation of discontinuities. On the CRT screen, both defect and back-wall signals 4 are obtained. An arbitrary reference level on a vertical scale, say 3, as shown in Fig. 3.52 is selected. The back Depth range —> echo height is brought to this reference level and the gai pip. 3.57 Flaw Assessment by DGS Method __Reference line __ |/ Materials 102 Now Destructive Test and Evaluation of Mat cl le comes to the same reference leve} e flaw echo amplitud ‘ ne re v creased until the a i value *G", From the C4 value is noted. Now the gain fference in these two gain values gives the gain al oe car aU ra a fthe flaw ‘a’ is known; by dividing this w i he near 78 ° i of depth of z amnel " ce a Paice of the flaw in terms of the near zone, ra sy" emis the probe, the tional horizontal avis ofthe dingram as shown inf rar mere : fi i calet value: . This is plotted al ne the diagram, corresponding to the calculated vi Mya tt he anata Row sce", The pratt ofthe ttionalized Maw size °S' an the crys ame ! ea is normal to the beam axis jth diagram is applicable only when the An is norma oe eam ite hewiswstmed taboo ype. These diagrams are drawn for materials cstumed to be of dise type. and the flaw is assum x y — Cae coumlenion ch nis depani is don cto eliminate the probe characteristics. Hence, irrespective his diagram is done to The normalization of this .: of the probe, the diagram can be used universally. rationalized flaw size *S 30) 400.1 a4 4 60 10, Ga 2a 100 or 02 03° 05 1.0 3456 810 20 30 40 60 80 Fig. 3.53 DGS Diagram Correction for Curvature and Transfer Loss Where the surface is curv with flat crystal can be is small, either curved the standard flat bottom is as follows: Fo nents ‘od and the curvature is regular as in cylindrical objects, the testing of coe is done provided the convex surface has a radius of 225 mm or more. es Crystals or flat erystals with curved shoes suitably shaped can be ical approae hole calibration blocks are adopted for the curved surface, the practical A flat bottom hole block is selected, whose total hei The der test. ; ight is equal to the diameter of the part um « probe is positioned away from the flat bottom hol «ig adjusted SUC le to get the back echo. The gain is adjuste” Ultrasonics 103 that this back echo comes to a readable height on the vertical range of the CRT screen; the gain value is poted. Now the curved partis scanned with this gain, The back echo is found to be less than the earl : eight or sometimes there is no back wall echo at all, duc to transmission loss at th . r s 18S le curved entr surface. The gain Is slowly increased until the back echo from the curved part attains the same h mt The difference in these two gain values is due to curvature, which is what is required for comipaiaate the transmission loss. Hence, any curved part can be tested and evaluated after drawing the distance amplitude curve with flat reference blocks and then increasing the gain value by the compensation gain value. Most of the engineering components do not have a surface finish comparable to that ofa calibration block. Therefore, after calibration with a standard block, when the probe is transferred on to the test component, there will be some energy transmission loss on the component surface. For this transfer loss, correction can be applied. As explained earlier, a calibration block equal to the thickness of the part under test is taken and multiple echoes are obtained by placing the probe on the calibration block away from the target hole. Depth range Curve A is thus obtained. With the same gain setting, the part under test is scanned and multiple echoes are obtained. If the peaks are joined, Curve B is obtained (Fig. 3.54). Though material, gain and other conditions are similar, there is a transfer loss, resulting in a drop in echo amplitude, Now the gain is slowly increased such that Curve B overlaps Curve A and the difference in gain to bring Curve B to Curve A level is noted. After plotting the distance-amplitude curve on the calibration block, the gain is increased by a value equal to the transfer loss and the component is tested at this corrected gain value. Similarly material attenuation correction can be applied and different materials tested with available blocks. 4 Transfer loss, Echo amplitude —> Fig. 3.54 Transfer Loss Correction Guidelines for Acceptance/Rejection Afier assessing the size of a defect, a final verdict as to acceptance or rejection is required. Guidelines for the acceptance of critical, stressed engineering components are: (a) For forgings and other primary members that are finished or semi-finished a single echo amplitude more than or equal to the one obtained from a 2 mm (5/64") diameter flat bottom hole is not acceptable ; ; (b) For any defect giving an amplitude indication greater than a 1.2 mm (3/64") diameter flat bottom: hole is accepted and the estimated defect is recorded (c) A stringer type of discontinuity giving a continuous indication with an amplitude greater than that given by a 1.2 mm diameter flat bottom hole over a length exceeding 12.5 mm is unacceptable. (d) Multiple discontinuities giving indications greater than tht given by a 1.2 mm diameter lat bottom ae ae considered acceptable provided the minima separation between them is 25 mm (c) Over and above clauses (8) "(g), ifa defect indication is found to break into a surface or hole on the finished part, the defect is unacceptable~ 104 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials ra reas onent should be marked with a pencil and surrounded with Suitable Paint. The Raised feats ould be marked on the scanning surface of the component as “X". The size Of the aes ed above ‘X" in mm. The depth of each defect should be marked below +: if Seatac arn fora 1.2 mm diameter defect ata depth of 19. mm from the scanning surface mm. A typical marking for a 12 x 19.0 Guidelines for Defect Evaluation in Heavy Engineering Applications In heavy engineering applications involving huge components, large defects ce toleabl) Comparing the echo to that of an artificial flat bottom hole is neither useful nor necessary. In such cases, the general approach to evaluate the defect is to compare the defect echo amplitude to that of the back echo and express this in percentage. A typical classification of defects for heavy forging is given in Table 3,4, TABLE 3.4 Guidelines for evaluation of defects in heavy engineering applications [Component Defect Nature and Sonic Extent of Defect | Ciessification Indications Permissible | Isolated Distributed | 5 aaa | Maximum height of Maximum number of | Class 1 both flaw echo and Not permitted defects permissible over back echo is 100% a specific length and the minimum separation distance benween wo | permissible defects are | as agreed upon between the parties concerned Class 1 Maximum height of Maximum height of Flaw echo: 75% Flaw echo: 100% Back echo: 25% Back echo: 100% Chass 11 Maximum height of Maximum height of Flaw echo: 100% Flaw echo: 75% Back echo: 50% Back echo: 25% Class 1: Highly stressed dynamic components (e.g. steam turbines) Class I: Medium stressed components (e.g, hydraulic Components, die blocks, ete.) ag Class III: Low stressed general engineering components (e.g. mill rollers and general engineering Guidelines for Acceptance/Rejection of Welds Welding defects are assessed by con is show! Feference block made of the same material as that of the job. A typical reference block is sho" Fig. 3.55, A ndard "paring the defect signal with the signal obtained from a stmt,where b= beam path Length of the block determined by the angle of the search unit and the T= Thickness of the block depending on the job thickness, D= Depth of the side drilled hole (normally 1'4") d= Hole diameter varying from 3/32" to 3/8" depending the job thickness calibration for Angle Probes The basic calibration hole is 3/8" diameter for any thickness greater than 1". As an alternate to the hole, a‘V" or square notch of a known depth (usually a percentage of the thickness of the test material) can be made on the test part in a non-critical area. After the testing is over, the notch can either be weld corrected or left as it is, depending on the design requirement. With either the hole or the notch, the distance-amplitude curve can be plotted | Ultrasonics 495 oe lt L 7! ae N\ Basic calibration hole diameter Fig. 3.85 Calibration Block for Weld Testing with the angle beam probe. The search unit is positioned on the calibration block so as to beam the side-drilled hole as indicated in Fig. 3.56. The search unit is moved such that the maximum response is obtained at 3/ 8th of the beam path position (one beam T 14T T] T 1 path corresponds to one skip distance probe movement) and this echo amplitude is brought to a readable height by adjusting the gain. The peak of the echo is marked on the CRT screen. Similarly, the probe is placed at 5/8th and 7/8th beam path positions to get the maximum response and the peaks are marked. “The marked points are joined to form the primary reference curve. This curve is known as the 100% primary reference line and the line joining the 50% amplitude points of the echoes is known was the 50% reference line. After this, the gain setting should not be disturbed. For practical purposes, as agreed between the contracting viges, any bole diameter or notch size is defined Pithe limit of acceptance, Any defect giving a aS sponse more than 50% level is recorded and Fig. 3.56 Angle Beaming of Side-Drilled Hole asin s/eth 7/81 Fig. 3.57 DAC Curve for Angle Beaming—~ any indication more than 100% can be consi unacceptable. If the surface roughness of the cal; idered b it from tha fers est part, transfer loss correction should be applied as disc lock is different from ation, 106 Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials earlier. Se i i ve can be dravn using the side-

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