Grading of Alloy Steels

There are two major grading systems used by the steel industry, the first was developed
Both of these
by the AlSI, and the second by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
systems are based on four-digit code numbers when identifying the base carbon and alloy

steels. There are selections of alloys that have five digit codes instead.

If the first digit is a one (1) in this designation it indicates a carbon steel. All carbon steels

are in this group (1xxx) in both the SAE & AISI system. They are also subdivided into four

categories due to particular underlying propeties among them. These properties are
The first digit on all other alloy steels (under the SAE-AISI system), are then classified as

follows
2 Nickel steels
3 Nickel-chromium steels
4 Molybdenum steels
5 Chromium steels
6 Chromium-vanadium steels
7 Tungsten-chromium steels

8 Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
9 Silicon-manganese steels and various other SAE grades

The second digit of the series (sometimes but not always) indicates the concentration of

the major element in percentiles (1 equals 1%). The last two digits of the series indicate

the carbon concentration to 0.01%. For example: SAE 5130 is a chromium alloy steel

carbon. 2335 steel is

containing about 1% of chromium and approximately 0.30% of
a

nickel alloy steel with about 3% nickel, and 0.35% carbon

AISI Type
Designation
1Xxx Carbon steels

2xxx Nickel steels

3xxx Nickel-chromium steels

4xxx Molybdenum steels

 5xxx Chromium steels

6xxx Chromium-vanadium steels

7xxx Tungsten steels

8xxx Nickel-chromium-vanadium steels

9xxx Silicon-manganese steels

TOOL STEELS
Tool steels are high quality steels used for cutting. machining. and shaping of

metals. They contain between 0.1-1.6%C. They are obtained by adding otheralloying
elements such as chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, manganese, silicon, and

cobalt to high carbon steels. They are more durable. stronger, more corrosion resistant,

and have better temperature stability than structural steel and engineering steels.

They are also used to make tools such as chisels, hammers, punches, cutting tools. They
possess high hardness, wear resistance and toughness (even at high temperatures).

Types of tool steels

Tool steels are classified into
Cold work tool steels
. Hot work tool steels
ii. High speed tool steels
iv. Special purpose tool steels

i. Cold work tool steels

These steels are used for making tools for cold work applications where the temperature
of the tool surface does not exceed 200°C. They have high toughness and high resistance

to abrasion, wear, and impact.

ii. Hot work tool steels

Hot work tool steels have a carbon content of 0.3 0.5% C, 6 to 25% of tungsten
chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. They are used for high temperature forming
operations where the temperature is between 200 800°C. They are not used for cutting

operation.

They are divided into 3 groups namely: Chromium hot work tool steels, tungsten hot work

tool steels and molybdenum hot work tool steel

Chromium hot work tool steels are used as hot dies for extrusion, forging. mandrels., and

punches.

Tungsten hot work tool steels are used for making punches, mandrels, and extrusion dies
for brass, steel and nickel alloys.

Molybdenum hot work tool steel are used for die casting, forging. piercing, heading.
extrusion, and trimming purposes

ii. High speed tool steels

Ihese are used for high speed cutting tools. They contain molybdenum (Mo), tungsten

w. Chromium (Cr) vanadium (V), and cobalt (Co). They are characterized by hign
hardness with their hardness in the range of 60 65 HRC at 600 650°C), high red
hardness, wear resistance, high toughness, and good hardenability.
They have a carbon content of O.6% carbon, and also contain 4% chromium, and 5
12% cobalt.

In high speed steels, carbon imparts hardness, chromium increases hardenability and

corrosion resistance while cobalt increases thermal conductivity, melting point, red
hardness, and wear resistance

High speed steels are divided into two groups namely, molybdenum high speed steels
and tungsten high speed steels
They are applied in making end mills, drills, lathe tools, planar tools, punches. reamers

Outers, taps, saws, broaches, chasers, and hobs.

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iv. Special purpose tool stecls
These are certain steels for specific applications which are too expensive for applications
that need specific requirements. They are divided into 2 types
a. Low alloy special purpose tool steels (Symbol L)
he main alloying element is chromium with small additions of molybdenum, vanadium

and nickel.

hese are basically used where high wear resistance and high toughness are needed

such as clutch plates, cams, bearings, rollers. etc.

bCarbon-tungsten special purpose tool steels (Symbol F)

These steels have high carbon content (>1.0%) with tungsten as the alloying element
These are used at low temperatures and for low-impact applications, but with high wear
resistance, Such as broaches, reamers, burnishing tools, taps, paper-cutting knives, wire
drawing dies. plug gauges, etc

STRUCTURAL STEELS

Structural steels are a category of steel grades that are mainly used for construction
purposes such as building frames of bridges and buildings. They are also employed in
the construction of freight cars, construction equipment, truck parts, machinery, crane

booms, transmission tovwers, and truck frames. The composition of carbon in structural
steel is just 0.05%-0.25%. Structural steel is economical, 100% recyclable, and has a

nigh strength-to-weight ratio. Structural steels include:

i. Carbon steels
A steel may be classified as a carbon steel if the maximum content specified for alloy1ng
elements does not exceed the following: 1.65% manganese, 0.60% silicon, 0.4 0.60%
copper but no minimum content is specified for other elements added to obtain a desired

alloying effect.
 ii. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels
These are steels which have specified minimum yield points greater than 40 ksi and
achieve that strength in the hot-rolled condition, rather than by heat treatment, are known

as HSLA steels
ii. Heat-Treated Constructional Alloy Steels
Steels that contain alloying elements in excess of the limits for carbon steel and are heat
treated to obtain a combination of high strength and toughness are termed constructional

alloy steels
iv. Heat-Treated Carbon and HSLA Steel
Both carbon and HSLA steels can be heat treated to provide yield points in the range of

50 to 75 ksi. This provides an intermediate strength level between the as-rolled HSLA

steels and the heat-treated constructional alloy steels.

Scale and Heat Resisting Steels and Alloys

Heat resisting steeis and alloys are the types of steel materials that can be used even at

high temperatures. A chromium content of 23 - 30% and less than 0.35% carbon imparts

heat resistance to the steel within a temperature range between 815- 1150 °C. Furnace

parts and annealing boxes are made from such steels.

Scaling resisting steels are made from chromium, nickel, and tungsten with controlled
carbon content. They contain 0.15% C, 0.5-2% Si, 0.5% Mn, 1 - 6% Cr, and 0.5% Mo

and can perform at temperatures of up to

700°C
Scaling and heat resisting steels find applications in nuclear power plants, furnaces

superscnic aircrafts. missiles, annealing boxes, etc.

Corrosion Resistant Steels and Alloys

Corrosiori resistant alloys are intended for applications in the chemical processing

petroieumn refining, inarine, heat treating, pollution and waste control industries wBhere
common 200, 300, and 400 Series stainless steels may not provide adequate corrosion
protection. These alloys are grouped into
1. Super-ferritic stainless steels

2. Super-austenitic stainless steels

3. Nickel base alloys

4. Duplex stainless steels.

1. Super-ferritic stainless steels

These alloys are 25 30% chromium with molybdenum additions and are more
economical than nickel bearing or nickel base corrosion resistant materials. Resistant to

stress corrosion cracking is a strong consideration for using superferritics. These steels

include E-brite26-1, Al 29-4, Al-29-4C, and al-29-4 alloys.

2. Superaustenitic stainless steels

These are alioys with significant addition of nickel, molybdenum or copper, ansd
somcimes stabilizing elements. They are more expensive than superferritics. They are
more easily formed and welded. They are also suitable for heavier cross-sections of bar
products and castings. These alloys include Al-6XN, AI-6N Plus, AL-904L, JS700, Al 20

3 Nickel base alloys

Materiais in this family range from pure nickel to high chromium-molybdenum alloys in a
nickel base. They are generally used where the application may be too severe for the
corrosion resistance of superierritics and superaustenitics. They include Al 200, Al 201
Al 400, AI 600, AI 625, Al 276.

4. Duplex stainless steels

These are generaly chromium-nickel-molybdenum materials with a nitrogen addition to

obtain a duplex. i.e., high ferritic plus austenitic microstructure which displays a
combination of moderately high yield strength and excellently high corrosion resistance.
Typical applications include piping for oil and gas wells and vessels where stress
corrosion resistance is a concern. These alloys include Ai 2205 which is the most

commonly used duplex, and Al 255, a superduplex stainless plate product.

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 CAST IRON

Cast irons are alloys of iron and carbon in which carbon content exceeds 2.14% but not
more than 6.67%. The presence of the eutectic in the structure of cast iron makes it

Suitable for use as a casting alloy.

In the iron-carbon system, carbon is thermodynamically more stable as graphite than

cementite. In cast iron, carbon may be in the form of either graphite or cementite or both.

Cast iron is a brittle material, therefore, it cannot be used in the parts of machines which

are subjected to shocks. The properties of cast iron which make it a valuable material for

engineering purposes are:

1. Low cost
2. Good casting characteristics
3. High compressive strength
4. Wear resistance
5. Excellent machinability.

Types of cast iron:

I. Grey cast iron

II. White cast iron

I1. Nodular cast iron

IV. Malleable cast iron.

iron with coke and limestone in a furnace known as

Cast iron is obtained by remelting pig
the Cupola.

I. Grey cast iron

called grey cast irons. This cast iron derives
its
Grey casi irons containing graphite are

in colour due to a
name because a fresh
fractured surface of the cast iron appears grey
as graphite flakes. It
contains
portion of its carbon which is present in a free state
large
0.1 0.9%
2.53.0% carbon, 1.4 2.8% silicon (Si), 0.5 - 0.8% manganese (Mn).
iron. It is obtained by
(P) and 0.06 0.12% sulphur (S). The remaining is
phosphorus
-

solidification as it's done in sand

mould casting.
cooling the molten iron slowly during
Properties
1. Low tensile strength
2. High compressive strength and no ductility
3. It is easily machined
4. High rigidity

5. High resistance to wear.

6. High fluidity in the molten state allowing intricate parts to be cast more easly

Applications
1. Automotive cylinder blocks and piston rings
2. Machine tool bodies
3. Pipes and pipe fittings
4. Agricultural implements
5. Rolling mills

. White cast iron

White cast iron is one whose carbon is present in a combined form, i.e. in the form of

cementite (Fe:C). It's so called because its fresh fractured surface appears white, bright
iron may contain 2.5 3.5% C, 0.14 1.5% Si, 0.4 0.6%
and silvery. A typical white
-

0.4% P, and 0.15% S. the remaining is Fe. The largest tonnage of white cast
(Mn), 0.1 -

malleable cast iron by malleabilization. Rapid cooling and

iron is used for manufacturing
cast irons.
low silicon content promote the formation of white

Properties
1. High tensile strength
2. Low compressive strength
3. It has poor machinability since it is hard and brittle
4. Excellent resistance to abrasive wear.

Application
1. Wheels

2. Rolls for crushing grains and jaw crushers

3. Balis for grinding mills
4. Liners for cement mixers
5. Extrusion nozzles.

I. Malleable cast iron

Malleable cast iron is a cast iron in which ductility and malleability have increased from
almost zero to a considerable amount by subsequent heat treatment, mainly annealing
It can be hammered and rolied into different shapes. Malleable cast iron is obtained by

annealing white cast iron. The typical composition of cast iron for malleabilization is 2.2
2.8% C, 0.8- 1.5% Si, 0.25 0.6% Mn, < 0.18% P, and 0.05% S.

Properties
1. Ductile
2. Shock resistant
3. Machinable.

IV. Nodular cast iron

Nodular cast iron is obtained by adding small amount of Mg and/or cerium to molten grey
cast iron before casting causing the graphite in the iron to solidify in the form of spherica
nodules. The graphite in this form makes the cast iron much stronger and tougher than a
cast iron containing flake graphite. The composition of nodular cast iron is 3.0- 3.6% C,

2.0-2.5% Si, 0.6% Mn, 0.04% P, and 0.04% S. The rest is Fe. Nodular iron is smelted
in frequency induction furnace.

Properties
1. High tensile strength
2. High yield strength
3. High ductility
4. High toughness

Applications
1. Valve and pump bodies
2. High strength gears and machine components
3. Pinions, gears, rollers, slides
4. Crankshafts

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 WROUGHT IRON

Wrought iron is the purest form of iron which contains 99.5-99 9% Fe lts composition
is 0 02-0.03% C. 002 -0.12% Si, o 02% Mn, 0.05 -025% P, 0 008 0.018'% S
Wrought iron is produced from pig iron by remelting it in a puddling furnace of the
reverberatory type. Balls ofthis pasty mass. each about 45 65 kg weight are formed
The slag is squeezed out by some mechanical means and the metal formed into some

commercial shape

Properties
1.1t is tough

2. It is malleable and ductile

3. It cannot stand sudden and excessive shocks
4. It can be easily forged or welded
5 It possesses high resistance to corrosion

Application
1. Chains

2 Crane hooks

3. Railway couplings
4. Water pipes

5. Bridge railings

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