Porosity

Instructional Objectives:
- Define porosity, total porosity, and effective porosity.
- Explain the difference between original and induced porosity.
- List the factors that affect porosity.
- Calculate effective porosity using data from the gravimetric method.
- List the common techniques for estimating porosity from well logs.

Reservoir Composition:
- Rock matrix
- Pore space
- Water
- Oil and gas

Rock Matrix and Pore Space:

Rock matrix Pore space

- Rock matrix - the grains of sandstone, limestone, dolomite, and/or shale.

- Pore space - filled with water, oil, and/or gas.

Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

- Water exists as a thin film coating the rock grain surface.

- Oil and gas occupy the larger pore spaces with a film of water between the rock surface
and the hydrocarbon.

Porosity 1
Porosity Definition:
The fractional void space within a rock that is available for the storage of fluids.

Vp Vb − Vma
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
φ = Porosity, expressed in fraction or %
Vb = Bulk volume of reservoir rock, ft3
Vma = Matrix volume, ft3
Vp = Pore volume, ft3
Vb = Vma + Vp

Packing:

Cubic Packing of Spheres

Porosity = 48%

Porosity Calculations – Uniform Spheres:

Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3
4π r 3
Matrix volume =
3
Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

Bulk Volume − Matrix Volume

Porosity =
Bulk Volume
8 r3 − 4/3π r3 π
= =1− = 47.6%
8r 3
2 (3)
Note that for uniform-sized spheres with cubic packing, porosity is independent of grain size.

Explanation:
Bulk volume is a cube with length of side = 2r
Volume of cube = A3 or (2r)3 = 8r3

4π r 3
Volume of sphere is
3

Porosity 2
 4π r 3
1/8 of sphere =
24
⎛ 4π r 3 ⎞ 4π r 3
8 of these = 8 × ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ 24 ⎠ 3

Rhombic Packing of Spheres Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 27 % Porosity = 14%

Mixing of larger and smaller particles clearly has a significant affect on porosity, reducing the
original porosity of 47.6% to 14%.
Real formations do not consist of these perfectly shaped spheres, but these theoretical packing
models help us understand the effects of particle size and distribution on porosity.

Classification of Porosity Based on Mode of Origin:

- Primary (original).
- Secondary (induced).

Primary (Original) Porosity:

- Developed at deposition.
- Typified by:
- Intergranular sandstones.
- Intercrystalline, oolitic carbonates.
- Usually more uniform than induced porosity.

Secondary (Induced) Porosity:

- Developed by geologic process occurring after deposition (e.g. faulting and uplifting).
- Typified by:
- Fracture development in some shales and carbonates.
- Vugs and solution cavities in limestones and dolomites.

Pore-Space Classification:
Total pore space
- Total porosity, φt =
Bulk volume
Interconnected pore space
- Effective porosity, φe =
Bulk volume
Production only occurs from the interconnected pore space.

Porosity 3
Comparison of total and effective porosities:
- Very clean sandstones : φt = φe
- Poorly to moderately well -cemented intergranular materials: φt ≈ φe
- Highly cemented materials and most carbonates: φt > φe

Factors that affect porosity:

- Particle shape.
- Packing.
- Particle sizes.
- Cementing materials.
- Overburden stress.
- Vugs and fractures.

Porosity increases as angularity of particles increases.

Porosity increases as the range of particle size decreases. In contrast, porosity decreases as the
volume of interstitial and cementing material increases.
Porosity decreases as the compaction increases (greater depth generally means higher
overburden stresses, higher compaction forces, and lower porosity).
Vugs and fractures will contribute to porosity, but understanding their effect on effective porosity
requires careful study of cores and special logging measurements.

Measurement of Porosity:
- Core samples (measure bulk volume, Vb, pore volume, Vp, or matrix volume, Vma).
- Open-hole logs.

Samples of the rock are obtained from drill cuttings or by coring. The drill cuttings are usually
irregularly shaped, which limits our ability to use them.

Core samples are either obtained using the drilling rig with a special coring bit and barrel (whole
core) or using a logging tool (side-wall coring). Whole cores are often 4 to 5 inches in diameter
and are usually obtained in 30 or 60-foot segments. They are generally preferred for technical
evaluation but they are also more expensive. Side-wall cores can be obtained by making an
additional logging run with a special logging device. A geologist usually studies the initial logs and
picks intervals where he thinks that he needs a formation sample. Side-wall cores are of less use
to the engineer because they are often irregularly shaped and partially damaged from the side-
wall coring process.
Open-hole porosity measurement logs (density, neutron, and sonic) are routinely used to
estimate formation porosity.

Determining Bulk Volume (Vb):

- Direct measurement.
- Volumetric displacement.
- Archimedes method (gravimetric measurement).

Direct Measurement of Bulk Volume:

- Applicable for regular-shaped cores.
- Calculate from core dimensions
π d2 L
Vb =
4
Most core analyses are conducted on core plugs that are cut from the whole core and are right
circular cylinders. Special saws are used to cut the core plugs and their faces, so they are ready
for special core analyses.
Irregularly shaped cores require a different measurement.

Porosity 4
Volumetric Displacement Method:
- Submerge core, observe volume change.
- Prevent liquid from entering pore space of sample.
- Coat with paraffin.
- Pre-saturate with liquid.
- Use mercury as test liquid.

Archimedes Method:
- Measures mass of core sample:
- Measure change in weight of core sample submerged in test liquid.
- Measure change in weight of container and test liquid when sample is introduced.
Similar to the Displacement method, liquid must not enter the pore space for the method to give
accurate results.
The Archimedes method can be used to measure bulk, matrix, and pore volumes. Method follows
Archimedes Principle: A body wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is buoyed up with a force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Choosing Bulk Volume Measurement Technique:

- Regularly shaped cores:
- Calculate from physical dimensions.
- Irregularly shaped cores:
- Volumetric.
- Gravimetric.

Example 1: Calculating Bulk Volume of Core Sample Using the Displacement Method.
A core sample coated with paraffin immersed in a container of liquid displaced 10.9 cm3 of the
liquid. The weight of the dry core sample was 20.0 g, while the weight of the dry sample coated
with paraffin was 20.9 g. Assume the density of the solid paraffin is 0.9 g/cm3.
Calculate the bulk volume of the sample.

Solution:
Weight of paraffin coating, Wparaffin =
Weight of dry core sample coated with paraffin - Weight of dry core sample =
= 20.9 g - 20.0 g = 0.9 g
W paraffin 0.9 g
Volume of paraffin coating = = = 1.0 cm 3
ρ paraffin 0.9 g / cm 3

Bulk volume of core sample + bulk volume of paraffin = 10.9 cm3

Bulk volume of core sample = (Bulk volume of core coated with paraffin) – (volume of paraffin)
=10.9 cm3 – 1.0 cm3 = 9.9 cm3

Determining Matrix Volume (Vma):

- Calculate from known or assumed matrix density.
- Displacement method.
- Gas expansion method.

Matrix Volume from Matrix Density:

If matrix density is known (or assumed), the matrix volume can be calculated from:
Dry weight of sample
Vma =
Matrix density

Porosity 5
Matrix densities, ρma, of typical pure components of reservoir rock:

Lithology Matrix Density

(g/cm3)
Sandstone 2.65
Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.87

These values are important for core and log analysis.

Unfortunately, few rocks consist of pure components but exist as a mixture of numerous minerals
of varying sizes and compositions. Therefore, one can rarely assume the matrix density and get
an accurate estimate of matrix volume.

Matrix Volume from Displacement Method:

- Reduce sample to particle size.
- Measure matrix volume of particles by:
- Volumetric method - submerge particles into a liquid and observe change in liquid
volume.
- Archimedes method (gravimetric measurement) - measure change in weight of
particles submerged in liquid.

Matrix Volume from Gas Expansion Method:

- Involves compression of gas into pores
- Uses Boyle’s law
p1 V1 = p2 V2
where,
p1 = Pressure at initial conditions, psig
p2 = Pressure at final conditions, psig
V1 = Initial volume
V2 = Final volume

P1 Initial conditions

V1

Valve Evacuate
Cell 1 closed Cell 2

- Initial conditions, with volumes of 2 cells known.

- Place core in second cell, evacuate gas (air) from second cell.
- Open valve.

Porosity 6
 P1 Final conditions
P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2

- With V1 known, record p1

- p1 = pressure at initial conditions
- V1 = Volume of cell 1
- Place cleaned, dried core sample in cell 2
- Evacuate cell 2
- Open valve

Vf = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of Cell 2 - Matrix Volume of Core

Vt = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of Cell 2
Vma = Vt - Vf

This method assumes that the core becomes saturated with the gas. Incomplete saturation would
lead to an overestimate of the matrix volume.

Applicability and Accuracy of Matrix Measurement Techniques:

- Known or assumed matrix density
- Accurate only if matrix density is known and not assumed
- Core samples are often mixtures of several components with varying matrix
densities, so density must be measured
- Displacement method - Very accurate when core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
- Gas expansion method - Very accurate, especially for samples with low porosities
- Neither method requires a prior knowledge of core properties

Example 2: Calculating the Matrix Volume and Porosity of a Core Sample Using the
Displacement Method
The core sample from Example 1 was stripped of the paraffin coat, crushed to grain size, and
immersed in a container with liquid. The volume of liquid displaced by the grains was 7.7 cm3.
Calculate the matrix volume and the core porosity. Is this effective porosity or total porosity?

Solution:
Bulk Volume, Vb = 9.9 cm3

Matrix Volume, Vma = 7.7 cm3

Vb − Vma 9.9 − 7.7

Porosity, φ= = = 0.22 or 22%
Vb 9.9

It is total porosity.

Porosity 7
Determining Pore Volume

- Saturation method (Archimedes method)

- Gas expansion method

Pore Volume from Saturation Method

- Measures the difference between the weight of a core sample saturated with a single fluid and the
dry weight of the core
Wsat − Wdry
- Pore volume, V p =
ρf
Vp = Pore volume, cm3
Wsat = Weight of core saturated with fluid, gm
Wdry = Weight of dry core, gm
ρf = Density of saturated fluid, gm/cm

Method follows Archimedes Principle: A body wholly or partly immersed in a fluid is buoyed up
with a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Comments on the Saturation method:

- Accurate in better quality rocks if effective pore spaces can be completely saturated.
- In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely saturate sample.
- Saturating fluid may react with minerals in the core (e.g. swelling clays).
This method is more difficult to apply to core samples that require a jacket or rubber sleeve such
as an unconsolidated sandstone. The jacket creates experimental problems, reducing its
accuracy.
This method cannot be used for determining porosity under confining stress, whereas the gas
expansion (Boyle’s law) method can be conducted at multiple values of confining stress.

Pore Volume From Gas Expansion Method:

Initial conditions
P1

V1 Core

Valve
Cell 1 Cell 2
closed

This method is a continuation of the measurement of the matrix volume and uses Boyle’s law.
The experiment is set up differently to measure pore volume.

Boyle’s law: p1 V1 = p2 V2

Initial cell conditions: measure V1 in Cell 1

Put core in Hassler sleeve, evacuate.

Porosity 8
 Final conditions

P1
P2

Core

Valve
Cell 1 Cell 2
open

Comments on the Gas Expansion Method:

- Very accurate for both high-quality (high φ) and low-quality (low φ) core samples.
- Should use low-molecular-weight inert gases (e.g. helium).

The gas expansion method (Boyle’s law method) is probably the preferred method for
measurement of core porosity, except for samples that are not perfect right cylinders or ones with
large surface vugs or chips. The method is preferable for poorly consolidated samples that
require a rubber sleeve or jacket.
One advantage of the method is that it is accurate and reasonably fast. Another important
feature is that the measurement can be made at confining pressures approximating reservoir
stress conditions.

Retort Distillation Apparatus for Summation of Fluids:

Core
Heating sample
element
1000-1100 °F

Cooling
water in
Cooling
water out Condenser

Summation of Fluids approach may be used when quick, qualitative data is required.
Gas saturation and bulk volume must be measured using one part of the sample with another
method such as mercury injection.
Water and oil are removed by distillation. The water is removed first at lower temperatures, and
the oil is distilled at higher temperatures.

Porosity 9
Because of the temperatures involved, clay-bound water can be removed during the water
distillation.
The oil distillation is dependent on the oil gravity and properties and generally required calibration
to each specific oil.

Archimedes Method:

Wdry Wsat Wsub

Wsat - Wdry
Vp = ρfluid
Wdry - Wsub
Vma = ρfluid
Wsat - Wsub
Vb = ρfluid
Wsat - Wdry
φ=
Wsat - Wsub
Archimedes method uses Archimedes principle for equating buoyant forces with gravity forces.

Example 3: Calculating Porosity of a Core Sample Using Archimedes Method:

Using the gravimetric method with the following data, calculate the pore and bulk volumes and
the porosity. Is this porosity total or effective?
Dry weight of sample, Wdry = 427.3 g
Weight of sample saturated with water, Wsat = 448.6 g
Density of water, ρf = 1.0 g/cm3
Weight of saturated sample immersed in water, Wsat,I = 269.6 g

Solution:
Wsat − Wdry 448.6 − 427.3
Vp = = = 21.3 cm 3
ρf 1.0
Wsat − Wsat ,i 448.6 − 269.6
Vb = = = 179.0 cm 3
ρf 1.0
Vp 21.3
φ= = = 0.119 or 11.9%
Vb 179.0
It is effective porosity.

Porosity 10
Summary of Core Porosity Measurement Methods:
- Gas Expansion (Boyle’s Law) - Vp, Vma
- Archimedes Method - Vp, Vma, Vb
- Direct Measurement (Caliper) - Vb
- Mercury Injection - Vp, Vb
- Summation of Fluids - Vp

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Gas Expansion Sample can be irregular Overestimate pore
or performed at confining volume on irregular
stress. plugs. Long equilibrium
times for low perm
material.
Archimedes Suitable for irregular Requires good
Sample. saturation of sample.
Mercury Injection Suitable for small and Destructive method.
irregular samples.
Caliper Easy, rapid. Overestimates bulk
volume. Only suitable
for regular plugs.
Summation of Fluids Directly measures oil, Requires separate pieces
gas, and water volumes. of core material. Water
of hydration can be
removed during distillation.

Lab-determined Porosity Values versus Actual Values:

- Change in pore pressure with production.
- Confining (overburden) pressure.
- Temperature.

These effects are most prevalent in:

- Unconsolidated sandstones.
- Lithologies with natural fractures or secondary porosity.

Example Porosity/Overburden Pressure Relationship:

50

40
Sandstones
Porosity, %

30

20

Shales
10

0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Overburden pressure, psi

Porosity 11
Corrections to In-situ Conditions:
- Measure porosity at various confining pressures.
- Use data to develop φ-p relationship to use as correction factor.

Factors Affecting Laboratory Porosity Measurement:

- Whole Core Method:
- Uses larger samples.
- Better and more consistent representation of formation.
- Better for heterogeneous cores or for more complex lithologies.
- Core Plug Method:
- Smaller sample requirement.
- Less representative in heterogeneous formations.
- Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to high-porosity formation.
- In low-porosity formations, φ from core plugs tends to be much greater than φ from
whole cores.

Estimating Porosity from Well Logs:

- Density log.
- Sonic log.
- Neutron log.
Determining formation porosity using open-hole porosity logging tools is the most common
method of determining porosity for several reasons:
- Coring is often more expensive than logging and may be riskier in terms of sticking the
tool in the hole.
- Coring may not be practical in soft unconsolidated formations or in formations with a high
degree of secondary porosity such as vugs or natural fractures.
When porosity measurements are considered very important, both coring and logging programs
are generally conducted. When both measurements are available, the log-based porosity
calculations are usually calibrated to the core-based porosity measurements.

Responses of Porosity Logs:

- The three porosity logs
- Respond differently to different matrix compositions.
- Respond differently to presence of gas or light oils.
- Combinations of logs can imply composition of matrix and type of hydrocarbon in pore
space.
Porosity logs are run during open-hole logging.

Porosity 12