PHOTO-

ELECTRIC
EFFECT

1|Page
 INDEX
S. No. Title Page No.
1. Introduction 3
2. History 5
3. Hallwach’s & 7
Lenard’s observation
4. Experimental study 9
5. Laws of emission 14
6. Failure of classical 15
wave theory
7. Einstein’s Theory 16
8. Verification of 18
Einstein’s Theory
9. Uses & Application 19

2|Page
10. Bibliography 20

Introduction
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly
metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X - rays, y - rays,
UV rays, visible light and even Infrared rays) of
suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect.
The electrons emitted by this effect are called
photoelectrons.
The current constituted
by photoelectrons is
known as photoelectric
current.
Non-metals also show
photoelectric effect.
Liquids and gases also show this effect but to limited
extent.
Each metal has a minimum energy need for an electron to
be emitted.
This is known as the work function, ϕ .

3|Page
So, for an electron to be emitted, the energy of the
photon, hf, must be greater than the work function, ϕ .The
excess energy is the kinetic energy, E of the emitted
electron.
This minimum energy can be supplied to the free
electrons in the metal for their release from the metal
surface by anyone of the following physical processes :
(a) Thermo ionic emission : by heating the metal
sufficient thermal energy can be given to free electrons to
overcome the attractive pull of the metal surface.
(b) Field emission : electrons can be extracted from
metals by applying an electric field.
(c) Photoelectric emission : by shining light of high
frequency (ultraviolet) on clean metal surfaces electrons
from inside the metal can be released.
Einstein explained it on the basis of Max Planck’s
Quantum idea. This laid the foundation of the Quantum

4|Page
theory. Therefore, the photoelectric effect is of special
interest.

5|Page
 History
Throughout the second half of the 19th century, light was
considered to be a wave propagating in an all-pervading
medium. Properties such as diffraction, interference, and
polarization convinced physicists that visible
monochromatic light is a periodic transverse oscillation.
Between 1898 and 1912, a majority of physicists thought
that x-rays were impulses propagating through the
electromagnetic field, and this was considered to be
compatible with the wave theory of light. The
photoelectric effect is generally considered to be a
byproduct of Hertz's (1887) experimental demonstration
of electromagnetic waves. Hertz (1883) had previously
shown that cathode rays were a type of wave in the ether
similar to light. Later, Thomson (1897) conclusively
showed that cathode rays consisted of charged particles
(electrons). By 1889 (2 years after its discovery by
Hertz), the photoelectric effect had assumed a special
significance for many scientists in different parts of
Europe and consisted primarily of the following
observation: illuminating a metal plate with ultraviolet
light initiates a flow of negatively charged particles from
6|Page
the plate. The nature of the photoelectric current was not
clear and led to considerable controversy.
In 1905, Albert Einstein solved this
apparent paradox by describing light as
composed of discrete quanta, now
called photons, rather than continuous
waves. Based upon Max Planck's theory
of black-body radiation, Einstein
theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was
equal to the frequency multiplied by a constant, later
called Planck's constant. A photon above a threshold
frequency has the required energy to eject a single
electron, creating the observed effect. This discovery led
to the quantum revolution in physics and earned Einstein
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. By wave particle
duality the effect can be analyzed purely in terms of
waves though not as conveniently.

7|Page
 Hallwach’s & Lenard’s
observation
During the years 1886-1902. Wilhelm Hallwachs and
Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of
photoelectric emission in
detail. Hallwachs
connected a zine plate to an
electroscope. He allowed
UV light to fall on a zinc
plate. He observed that the
zine plate became: (i)
uncharged if initially
negatively charged, (ii)
positively charged if
initially uncharged, (iii) more positively charged if initially
positively charged. From these observations he concluded
that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the
zinc plate when exposed to UV light.
A few years later Lenard observed that when UV radiations
are allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass
tube enclosing two electrodes (cathode C and anode A), a
current flows in a circuit. As soon as UV radiations are
stopped, the current also stops. These observations again
indicate that UV radiations incident on the emitter plate C

8|Page
eject out same negatively charged particles from it. These
particles are attracted by the collector plate A, setting up a
current through the evacuated glass tube.
After the discovery of electrons by JJ Thomson in 1897, it
was established that these
particles are indeed electrons
and were called photoelectrons.
In 1900, Lenard argued that that
when UV light is incident on the
emitter plate, it causes the
emission of electrons from its
surface. These electrons are
attracted by the positive collector plate so that the circuit is
completed and the current flows. This current was called
Photoelectric current.
Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the
frequency of the incident light was less than certain
minimum value, called the threshold frequency, no
photoelectrons were emitted at all.
Different substances emit photoelectrons only when exposed
to radiations of different frequencies. Alkali metals like Li.
Na. K. Cs and R are highly photosensitive. They emit
electrons even with visible light. Metals like Zn, Cd, Mg, Al
etc. respond only to UV light.
X-rays can eject electrons even from heavy metals.

9|Page
 Experimental study of
Photoelectric Effect.
Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids
Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each
occupy distinct states of well-defined binding energies.
When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy
to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into
free space with excess (kinetic) energy that is hν higher than
the electron's binding energy.
An extensive study of photoelectric effect was made by
Lenard & RA Millikan.
For the investigation of the photoelectric effect a schematic
diagram of the apparatus as used by Lenard (1902) is shown
in the fig. Experiments with the photoelectric effect are
performed in a discharge tube
apparatus. The cathode of
discharge tube is made up of a
metal which shows
photoelectric effect on which
experiment is being carried out.
A high potential is applied to a
discharge tube through a
variable voltage source and a
voltmeter and an ammeter are connected a measure the
potential difference across the
10 | P a g e
electrodes and to measure photoelectric current. Light with
frequency more than threshold frequency of cathode metal is
incident on it, due to which photoelectrons are emitted from
the cathode. These electrons will reach the anode and
constitute the photoelectric current which the ammeter will
show.
Theoretical explanation
In 1905, Einstein proposed a theory of the photoelectric
effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of
energy known as photons or light quanta. Each packet
carries energy hν that is proportional to the frequency of the
corresponding electromagnetic wave.
The proportionality constant h has become known as
the Planck constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the
electrons that are removed from their varying atomic
bindings by the absorption of a photon of energy hv , the
highest kinetic energy k is max

k max=hν−ϕ

ϕ=h ν 0

k max=h ( v−v 0 ) { ν> v is required for the emission

0 to occur.}
{ v is the threshold frequency}
0

11 | P a g e
Lenard studied the dependence of photoelectric current on
the following factors.
(i)EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF LIGHT:
The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with
respect to emitter C so that electrons ejected from C are
attracted towards collector A. Keeping the frequency of the
incident radiation and the
accelerating potential fixed, the
intensity of light is varied and the
resulting photoelectric current is
measured each time.
It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity
of incident light as shown graphically in
Fig. The photocurrent is directly
proportional to the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second. This
implies that the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is
directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
For a fixed frequency, the photoelectric current
increases linearly with increase in intensity of incident
light.
(ii) EFFECT OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE :
When the frequency and intensity of radiation are kept constant
and the positive potential of collector relative to plate is

12 | P a g e
gradually increased, then the photoelectric current i increases
with the potential difference V. At some value of the potential
difference, when all the emitted electrons are collected, thus
increasing potential difference has no effect on the current. The
current has reached its maximum value, called the saturation
current.
When the polarity of the battery is reversed, the electrons are
repelled and only the most energetic ones reach the collector, so
the current falls. When the retarding potential difference
reaches a critical value, the current drops to zero. At this
stopping potential Vo, only those electrons with the maximum
kinetic energy are able to
reach the collector.
1
eVo = 2 mv2 max

For a given frequency of light,

the saturation current
depends on the intensity of
light. Larger the intensity;
higher the saturation current.
However, the stopping potential does not change with the
intensity. It is clearly shown in fig. graphically When the
potential is decreased, the current decreases but does not
become zero at zero potential.
 For a fixed frequency and intensity of incident light, the
photoelectric current increases with increase in (+)ve
potential applied to the anode.

13 | P a g e
  When all the photoelectrons reach the plate A, current
becomes maximum and is known as saturation current.
 Photoelectrons manage to reach the plate on their own
due or cut-off of incident light does not affect the
stopping potential.
 When (-)ve potential is applied to the plate A w.r.t. C,
photoelectric current becomes zero at a particular value
of (-)ve potential called stopping potential.
(iii) FREQUENCY OF THE INCIDENT RADIATION:
For a fixed intensity of incident light, the photoelectric
current does not depend on the frequency of the incident
light. Because the photoelectric current simply depends on
the number of photoelectrons
emitted and in turn on the
number of photons incident and
not on the energy of photons.
For a fixed intensity of incident
light, the photoelectric current
increases and is saturated with
increase in (-)ve potential applied to the anode.
However, the saturation current is same for different
frequencies of the incident lights.

14 | P a g e
When potential is decreased and taken below zero,
photoelectric current decreases to zero but at different
stopping potentials for different frequencies.
Higher the frequency, higher the stopping potential

LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC
EMISSION
There is no time lag between the incident radiation on the
surface and the ejection of the electrons.
At a particular fixed frequency of incident radiation the rate
of the emission of photo electrons i.e. the photocurrent
increases with increase in the intensity of the incident light.
Photo electric effect does not occur at frequency less than
threshold frequency f .
0

At the frequency above the threshold frequency f , the kinetic

0

energy of the ejected electrons depends only on the

frequency of the exposed radiation and not on its intensity.
The photoelectric emission is one-to-one. i.e. for every
photon of suitable frequency one electron is emitted.

15 | P a g e
FAILURE OF CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY
TO EXPLAIN PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
According to the wave theory, light is an electromagnetic
wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields with
continuous distribution of energy over the region over
which the wave extends. This wave picture of light could not
explain the basic features of light as explained below
According to wave theory, when a wavefront of light strikes a
metal surface, the free electrons at the surface absorb the radiant
energy continuously. Greater the intensity of incident radiation,
greater are the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic felids,
and greater is the energy density of the wave. Hence higher
intensity should liberate photoelectrons with kinetic energy.
But this is contrary to the experimental result that the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons does not
depend on the intensity of the incident radiation.

16 | P a g e
No matter what the frequency of the incident radiation is, a light
wave of sufficient intensity (over a sufficient time) should be
able to impart enough energy required to eject the electrons
from the metal surface. Thus the wave theory fails to explain
the existence of threshold frequency.
The energy of light wave is smoothly and evenly distributed
across its advancing wavefront. Each electron intercepts an
insignificantly small amount of this energy and so it should
require a finite time to escape from metal surface. But actually,
the emission is almost instantaneous.

17 | P a g e
 EINSTEIN’S THEORY
In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the
basis of Planck's quantum theory according to which
radiation travels in the form of discrete photons. The
energy of each photon is hν , where h is planck's constant
and ν is the frequency of light.
The main points of the Einstein's Theory of
photoelectric effect are;
1.Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of
two particles- one a photon of radiation and the other an
electron of the photosensitive metal.

2.Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy hν

of the incident photon is used up in two parts;

(a)A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating
the electron from the metal surface, which is equal to the
work function ϕ of the metal.
(b)The remaining energy of the photon is used in
imparting kinetic energy to the ejected electron.
3.Very few (<1%) photons, whose energies are greater
than the work function ϕ are capable of ejecting the
photoelectrons.
18 | P a g e
19 | P a g e
By the conservation of energy,
Energy of the incident photon = maximum KE of
photoelectron + work function
1
hv = 2 mv2 max + ϕ
1
k max=
2
mv2 max =hν−ϕ

If the incident photon is of threshold frequency f then its 0

energy hν is just sufficient for the electron to leave the

metal surface and does not give it any kinetic energy.
k max=hν−ϕ

ϕ=h ν 0 { v is the threshold frequency}

0

k max=h ( v−v 0 ) { ν> v is required for the emission

0 to occur.}
k max=0{ν=v 0 }

20 | P a g e
 VERIFICATION OF EINSTEIN’S
THEORY
1
2
mv2 max = h ( v−v )
0

1)Explanation of threshold frequency:

1
If ν< v , then 2 mv2 max is negative, which is not possible.
0

Therefore, for Photoelectric emission to take place ν> v . 0

2)Explanation of effect of intensity:

Since one photon emits one electron, so the number
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light.
3) Explanation of kinetic energy:
1
It is clear that 2 mv2 max αν as h and v are constant.
0

This shows that K.E. of the photoelectrons is directly

proportional to the frequency of the incident light.
4) Explanation of time lag: Photoelectric emission is
due to collision between a photon and an electron. As
such there cannot be any significant time lag between the
incidence of photon and emission of photoelectron .i.e.
the process instantaneous. It is found that it takes only 10 8

seconds.

21 | P a g e
 USES & APPLICATION
 Automatic Fire Alarm.

 Automatic Burglar alarm.

 Scanners in Television Transmission.

 In Paper Industry to measure the Thickness of

Paper.

 To Locate Flaws or Holes in the Finished Goods.

 In Astronomy.

 To determine Opacity of Solids and Liquids.

 Automatic switching of street lights.

 To control the Temperature of Furnace.

22 | P a g e
 Photomultipliers.

 Night Vision Devices.

 Moon Dust.

 Space Crafts.

23 | P a g e
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Photoelectric effect - Wikipedia

NCERT Textbook

S.L. Arora

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect - Physics Class

12 (edurev.in)

24 | P a g e