Chapter 4

Motion in Two Dimensions

Position and Displacement

The position of an object

r is described
by its position vector, r .
The displacement of the object is
defined as the change in its position.
r r r
r  rf − ri

Section 4.1
Average Velocity
The average velocity is the ratio of the displacement to the time interval for the
displacement.
r
v avg 
t
The direction of the average velocity is the direction of the displacement vector.
The average velocity between points is independent of the path taken.
▪ This is because it is dependent on the displacement, which is also
independent of the path.
In two- or three-dimensional kinematics, everything is the same as in one-
dimensional motion except that we must now use full vector notation.
Positive and negative signs are no longer sufficient to determine the direction.

Section 4.1
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity is the limit of
the average velocity as Δt approaches
zero.
r r
r r dr
v  lim =
t → 0  t dt

▪ As the time interval becomes

smaller, the direction of the
displacement approaches that of
the line tangent to the curve.

Section 4.1
Instantaneous Velocity, cont

The direction of the instantaneous velocity vector at any point in a particle’s path
is along a line tangent to the path at that point and in the direction of motion.
The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector is the speed.
▪ The speed is a scalar quantity.

Section 4.1
Average Acceleration

The average acceleration of a particle as it moves is defined as the change in the

instantaneous velocity vector divided by the time interval during which that
change occurs.
r r r
r v v f − vi
aavg  =
t tf − t i

Section 4.1
Average Acceleration, cont

As a particle moves, the direction of the

change in velocity is found by vector
subtraction.
r r r
v = vf − vi
The average acceleration is a vector
r
quantity directed along v.

Section 4.1
Instantaneous Acceleration
r
The instantaneous acceleration is the limiting value of the ratio v t as Δt
approaches zero.
r r
r v dv
a  lim =
t →0 t dt
▪ The instantaneous equals the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to
time.

Section 4.1
Producing An Acceleration

Various changes in a particle’s motion may produce an acceleration.

▪ The magnitude of the velocity vector may change.
▪ The direction of the velocity vector may change.
▪ Even if the magnitude remains constant

▪ Both may change simultaneously

Section 4.1
Kinematic Equations for Two-Dimensional Motion

When the two-dimensional motion has a constant acceleration, a series of

equations can be developed that describe the motion.
These equations will be similar to those of one-dimensional kinematics.
Motion in two dimensions can be modeled as two independent motions in each of
the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes.
▪ Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction.

Section 4.2
Kinematic Equations, 2

Position vector for a particle moving in the xy plane.

r
r = x ˆi + yˆj
The velocity
r vector can be found from the position vector.
r dr
v= = v x ˆi + v y ˆj
dt
▪ Since acceleration is constant, we can also find an expression for the
velocity as a function of time:
r r r
vf = vi + at

Section 4.2
Kinematic Equations, 3
The position vector can also be expressed as a function of time:
r r r r 2
▪ rf = ri + vi t + 2 at
1
▪ This indicates that the position vector is the sum of three other vectors:
▪ The initial position vector
▪ The displacement resulting from the initial velocity
▪ The displacement resulting from the acceleration

Section 4.2
Kinematic Equations, Graphical Representation of Final
Velocity
The velocity vector can be represented
by its components.
r
v f is generally
r not along the direction of
r
either vi or a

Section 4.2
Kinematic Equations, Graphical Representation of Final
Position

The vector representation of the

position vector
r
rf is generally
r notr alongr the same
direction as ri , v i or a
r r
v f and rf are generally not in the same
direction

Section 4.2
Graphical Representation Summary

Various starting positions and initial velocities can be chosen.

Note the relationships between changes made in either the position or velocity
and the resulting effect on the other.

Section 4.2
Projectile Motion

An object may move in both the x and y directions simultaneously.

The form of two-dimensional motion we will deal with is called projectile motion.
Assumptions of Projectile Motion
The free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion.
▪ It is directed downward.
▪ This is the same as assuming a flat Earth over the range of the motion.
▪ It is reasonable as long as the range is small compared to the radius of the
Earth.
The effect of air friction is negligible.
With these assumptions, an object in projectile motion will follow a parabolic path.
▪ This path is called the trajectory.

Section 4.3
Projectile Motion Diagram

Section 4.3
Acceleration at the Highest Point

The vertical velocity is zero at the top.

The acceleration is not zero anywhere along the trajectory.
▪ If the projectile experienced zero acceleration at the highest point, its velocity
at the point would not change.
▪ The projectile would move with a constant horizontal velocity from that point on.

Section 4.3
 Analyzing Projectile Motion
Consider the motion as the superposition of the motions in the x- and y-
directions.
The actual position at any time is given by:
r r r r
rf = ri + vi t + 1 gt 2
2

The initial velocity can be expressed in terms of its components.

▪ vxi = vi cos q and vyi = vi sin q
The x-direction has constant velocity.
▪ ax = 0
The y-direction is free fall.
▪ ay = -g

Section 4.3
Projectile Motion Vectors

r r r r 2
rf = ri + vi t + 1 gt
2

The final position is the vector sum of

the initial position, the position resulting
from the initial velocity and the position
resulting from the acceleration.

Section 4.3
Range and Maximum Height of a Projectile

When analyzing projectile motion, two

characteristics are of special interest.
The range, R, is the horizontal distance
of the projectile.
The maximum height the projectile
reaches is h.

Section 4.3
 Analyzing projectile motion

Height of a Projectile, Range of a Projectile,

equation equation
The maximum height of the The range of a projectile can be
projectile can be found in terms of expressed in terms of the initial
the initial velocity vector: velocity vector:
v i2 sin2 qi v i2 sin2qi
h= R=
2g g
This equation is valid only for This is valid only for symmetric
symmetric motion. trajectory.

Section 4.3
More About the Range of a Projectile

Section 4.3
Range of a Projectile, final

The maximum range occurs at qi = 45o .

Complementary angles will produce the same range.
▪ The maximum height will be different for the two angles.
▪ The times of the flight will be different for the two angles.

Section 4.3
Projectile Motion – Problem Solving Hints
Conceptualize
▪ Establish the mental representation of the projectile moving along its
trajectory.
Categorize
▪ Confirm air resistance is neglected.
▪ Select a coordinate system with x in the horizontal and y in the vertical
direction.
Analyze
▪ If the initial velocity is given, resolve it into x and y components.
▪ Treat the horizontal and vertical motions independently.

Section 4.3
Projectile Motion – Problem Solving Hints, cont.

Analysis, cont.
▪ Analyze the horizontal motion with the particle-under-constant-velocity
model.
▪ Analyze the vertical motion with the particle-under-constant-acceleration
model.
▪ Remember that both directions share the same time.
Finalize
▪ Check to see if your answers are consistent with the mental and pictorial
representations.
▪ Check to see if your results are realistic.

Section 4.3
Non-Symmetric Projectile Motion
Follow the general rules for projectile
motion.
Break the y-direction into parts.
▪ up and down or
▪ symmetrical back to initial height
and then the rest of the height
Apply the problem solving process to
determine and solve the necessary
equations.
May be non-symmetric in other ways

Section 4.3
Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion occurs when an object moves in a circular path with a
constant speed.
The associated analysis model is a particle in uniform circular motion.
An acceleration exists since the direction of the motion is changing .
▪ This change in velocity is related to an acceleration.
The constant-magnitude velocity vector is always tangent to the path of the
object.

Section 4.4
Changing Velocity in Uniform Circular Motion

The change in the velocity vector is due to the change in direction.

The direction of the change in velocity is toward the center of the circle.
r r r
v
The vector diagram shows f = v i + v

Section 4.4
Centripetal Acceleration

The acceleration is always perpendicular to the path of the motion.

The acceleration always points toward the center of the circle of motion.
This acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration.

Section 4.4
Centripetal Acceleration, cont

The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration vector is given by

v2
aC =
r

The direction of the centripetal acceleration vector is always changing, to stay

directed toward the center of the circle of motion.

Section 4.4
Period

The period, T, is the time required for one complete revolution.

The speed of the particle would be the circumference of the circle of motion
divided by the period.
Therefore, the period is defined as
2 r
T 
v

Section 4.4
Tangential Acceleration

The magnitude of the velocity could also be changing.

In this case, there would be a tangential acceleration.
The motion would be under the influence of both tangential and centripetal
accelerations.
▪ Note the changing acceleration vectors

Section 4.5
Total Acceleration

The tangential acceleration causes the change in the speed of the particle.
The radial acceleration comes from a change in the direction of the velocity
vector.

Section 4.5
Total Acceleration, equations
The tangential acceleration:
dv
at =
dt
The radial acceleration:
v2
ar = −aC = −
r
The total acceleration:
▪ Magnitude
a = ar2 + at2
▪ Direction
▪ Same as velocity vector if v is increasing, opposite if v is decreasing

Section 4.5