UNIT-II

AC CIRCUITS
Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to:

 Define Average and RMS values

 Analyze the angular relationship of a sine wave along with it’s equation
 Find the response of pure R, L and C for sinusoidal excitation
 Define impedance and admittance
 Illustrate the power triangle
 Contrast real, reactive and apparent powers
 Illustrate the response of RL, RC and RLC series/parallel circuits for sinusoidal
excitation
 Illustrate three balanced circuits

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
 The alternating quantity is one whose value varies with time. This alternating quantity may be
periodic and non-periodic. Periodic quantity is one whose value will be repeated for every specified
interval. Generally to represent alternating voltage or current we prefer sinusoidal wave form, because
below listed properties—

1. Derivative of sine is a sine function only.

2. Integral of sine is a sine function only.
3. It is easy to generate sine function using generators.
4. Most of the 2nd order system response is always sinusoidal.
2.2 Generation of sinusoidal AC voltage

The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. Only the
component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ie _maxcos_t induces an emf in the coil.

Hence the emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf. This will induce a sinusoidal current in the circuit
given by
 i(t)= IMsinwt
2.2.1 Representation of sinusoidal waveforms

Sine equation , voltage , v(t) = Vm sin (ωt±φ).

Where, Vm = peak value or maximum value

ω = angular frequency.
Φ= phase angle
 The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from start
to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse
Width for square waves.
 The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time
period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T ) with the unit of frequency being
the Hertz, (Hz).
 The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or
amps.

2.3 Definitions:
Peak to peak value: It is total value from positive peak to the negative peak. (2Vm)
Instantaneous value: It is the magnitude of wave form at any specified time. V (t)
2.4 Average value: It is ratio of area covered by wave form to its length.(Vd)
Vd = (1/T) ʃ V(t) dwt.
Vd = (1 / 2Π) ʃ Vm sin wt.dwt
= - Vm / 2Π. coswt---with limits of 2Π and 0
= 0.( i.e average value of sine wave over a full cycle is zero)
Hence it is defined for half cycle.
Vd = (1 / Π) ʃ Vm sin wt.dwt
= - Vm / Π . coswt---with limits of Π and 0
= 2Vm / Π
Average value of a full wave rectifier output
Average value of a half wave rectifier output

2.5 RMS value:

It is the root mean square value of the function, which given as
Vrms = √ ¿(1/T) ʃ V(t)]2 dwt.
= √ ¿(1/2Π) ʃ Vm2[ (1- cos2wt)/2]dwt.
= √ ¿(1/2Π) .Vm2[ (wt- sin2wt / 2wt)/2]
= Vm / √ 2 = effective value.

RMS value of a full wave rectifier output

RMS value of a half wave rectifier output

Peak factor:
It is the ratio of peak value to the rms value.
Pp = Vp / Vrms = √ 2

Form factor:
It is the ratio of average value to the rms value.
Fp = Vd / Vrms = 2√ 2 / Π = 1.11
Eg: Find the peak, peak to peak, average, rms, peak factor and form factor of given current function , i(t)
= 5 sin wt.

2.6 Phasor representation

2.6.1 Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

As the single vector rotates in an anti-clockwise direction, its tip at point A will rotate one
complete revolution of 360o or 2π representing one complete cycle. If the length of its moving tip is
transferred at different angular intervals in time to a graph as shown above, a sinusoidal waveform would
be drawn starting at the left with zero time. Each position along the horizontal axis indicates the time that
has elapsed since zero time, t = 0. When the vector is horizontal the tip of the vector represents the angles
at 0o, 180o and at 360o.

2.6.2 Phase Difference of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The generalised mathematical expression to define these two sinusoidal quantities will be written as:
 The current, i is lagging the voltage, v by angle Φ and in our example above this is 30o. So the
difference between the two phasors representing the two sinusoidal quantities is angle Φ and the resulting
phasor diagram will be.

2.6.3 Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the horizontal axis. The
lengths of the phasors are proportional to the values of the voltage, ( V ) and the current, ( I ) at the instant
in time that the phasor diagram is drawn. The current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the angle, Φ, as
the two phasors rotate in an anticlockwisedirection as stated earlier, therefore the angle, Φ is also
measured in the same anticlockwise direction.

If however, the waveforms are frozen at time, t = 30o, the corresponding phasor diagram would
look like the one shown on the right. Once again the current phasor lags behind the voltage phasor as the
two waveforms are of the same frequency.

However, as the current waveform is now crossing the horizontal zero axis line at this instant in
time we can use the current phasor as our new reference and correctly say that the voltage phasor is
“leading” the current phasor by angle, Φ. Either way, one phasor is designated as the reference phasor
and all the other phasors will be either leading or lagging with respect to this reference.

2.6.4 Phase Relationship of a Sinusoidal Waveform

 Firstly, lets consider that two alternating quantities such as a voltage, v and a current, ihave the
same frequency ƒ in Hertz. As the frequency of the two quantities is the same the angular
velocity, ω must also be the same. So at any instant in time we can say that the phase of voltage, v will be
the same as the phase of the current, i.

Then the angle of rotation within a particular time period will always be the same and the phase
difference between the two quantities of v and i will therefore be zero and Φ = 0. As the frequency of the
voltage, v and the current, i are the same they must both reach their maximum positive, negative and zero
values during one complete cycle at the same time (although their amplitudes may be different). Then the
two alternating quantities, v and I are said to be “in-phase”.

Two Sinusoidal Waveforms – “in-phase”

Now lets consider that the voltage, v and the current, i have a phase difference between themselves
of 30o, so (Φ = 30o or π/6 radians). As both alternating quantities rotate at the same speed, i.e. they have
the same frequency, this phase difference will remain constant for all instants in time, then the phase
difference of 30o between the two quantities is represented by phi, Φ as shown below.

2.7 AC Resistance and Impedance

Impedance, measured in Ohms, is the effective resistance to current flow around an AC circuit containing
resistances and reactances

2.7.1 AC Resistance with a Sinusoidal Supply

 When the switch is closed, an AC voltage, V will be applied to resistor, R. This voltage will
cause a current to flow which in turn will rise and fall as the applied voltage rises and falls sinusoidally.
As the load is a resistance, the current and voltage will both reach their maximum or peak values and fall
through zero at exactly the same time, i.e. they rise and fall simultaneously and are therefore said to be
“in-phase ”.

Then the electrical current that flows through an AC resistance varies sinusoidally with time and
is represented by the expression, i(t) = Imsin(ωt + θ), where Im is the maximum amplitude of the current
and θ is its phase angle. In addition we can also say that for any given current, i flowing through the
resistor the maximum or peak voltage across the terminals of R will be given by Ohm’s Law as:

and the instantaneous value of the current, i will be:

So for a purely resistive circuit the alternating current flowing through the resistor varies in
proportion to the applied voltage across it following the same sinusoidal pattern. As the supply frequency
is common to both the voltage and current, their phasors will also be common resulting in the current
being “in-phase” with the voltage, ( θ = 0 ).

2.7.2 Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Resistance

This “in-phase” effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram. In the complex domain,
resistance is a real number only meaning that there is no “j” or imaginary component. Therefore, as the
voltage and current are both in-phase with each other, there will be no phase difference ( θ = 0 ) between
them, so the vectors of each quantity are drawn super-imposed upon one another along the same reference
axis. The transformation from the sinusoidal time-domain into the phasor-domain is given as.
2.7.3 Phasor Diagram for AC Resistance

As a phasor represents the RMS values of the voltage and current quantities unlike a vector which
represents the peak or maximum values, dividing the peak value of the time-domain expressions above
by √2 the corresponding voltage-current phasor relationship is given as.

RMS Relationship

2.7.4 Phase Relationship

This shows that a pure resistance within an AC circuit produces a relationship between its voltage
and current phasors in exactly the same way as it would relate the same resistors voltage and current
relationship within a DC circuit. However, in a DC circuit this relationship is commonly
called Resistance, as defined by Ohm’s Law but in a sinusoidal AC circuit this voltage-current
relationship is now called Impedance. In other words, in an AC circuit electrical resistance is called
“Impedance”.

In both cases this voltage-current ( V-I ) relationship is always linear in a pure resistance. So
when using resistors in AC circuits the term Impedance, symbol Z is the generally used to mean its
resistance. Therefore, we can correctly say that for a resistor, DC resistance = AC impedance , or R = Z.

2.7.5 Powers

Since the phase angle between the voltage and current in a purely resistive AC circuit is zero, the power
factor must also be zero and is given as: cos 0o = 1.0 , Then the instantaneous power consumed in the
resistor is given by:
 However, as the average power in a resistive or reactive circuit depends upon the phase angle and
in a purely resistive circuit this is equal to θ = 0, the power factor is equal to one so the average power
consumed by an AC resistance can be defined simply by using Ohm’s Law as:

which are the same Ohm’s Law equations as for DC circuits. Then the effective power consumed by an
AC resistance is equal to the power consumed by the same resistor in a DC circuit.

Many AC circuits such as heating elements and lamps consist of a pure ohmic resistance only and
have negligible values of inductance or capacitance containing on impedance.

2.8 AC Inductance and Inductive Reactance:

The opposition to current flow through an AC Inductor is called Inductive Reactance and which
depends lineally on the supply frequency

Inductors and chokes are basically coils or loops of wire that are either wound around a hollow
tube former (air cored) or wound around some ferromagnetic material (iron cored) to increase their
inductive value called inductance.

Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol “X” to distinguish it
from a purely resistive “R” value and as the component in question is an inductor, the reactance of an
inductor is called Inductive Reactance, ( XL ) and is measured in Ohms. Its value can be found from the
formula.

2.8.1 Inductive Reactance

Where: XL is the Inductive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and L is the
inductance of the coil in Henries.

We can also define inductive reactance in radians, where Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.
2.8.2 AC Inductance with a Sinusoidal Supply

This simple circuit above consists of a pure inductance of L Henries ( H ), connected across a
sinusoidal voltage given by the expression: V(t) = Vmax sin ωt. When the switch is closed this sinusoidal
voltage will cause a current to flow and rise from zero to its maximum value. This rise or change in the
current will induce a magnetic field within the coil which in turn will oppose or restrict this change in the
current.

2.8.3 Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Inductance

This effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram were in a purely inductive circuit the
voltage “LEADS” the current by 90 o. But by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say that the
current “LAGS” the voltage by one quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown in the vector diagram below.

2.8.4 Phasor Diagram for AC Inductance

So for a pure loss less inductor, VL “leads” IL by 90o, or we can say that IL “lags” VL by 90o..

In an AC circuit containing pure inductance the following formula applies:

the voltage in the inductor coil is given as:

then the voltage across an AC inductance will be defined as:

Where: VL = IωL which is the voltage amplitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase difference or phase
angle between the voltage and current.

In the Phasor Domain

In the phasor domain the voltage across the coil is given as:

and in Polar Form this would be written as: XL∠90o where:

2.9 AC Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance

The opposition to current flow through an AC Capacitor is called Capacitive Reactance and
which itself is inversely proportional to the supply frequency

When an alternating sinusoidal voltage is applied to the plates of an AC capacitor, the capacitor is
charged firstly in one direction and then in the opposite direction changing polarity at the same rate as the
AC supply voltage. This instantaneous change in voltage across the capacitor is opposed by the fact that it
takes a certain amount of time to deposit (or release) this charge onto the plates and is given by V = Q/C.
Consider the circuit below.
2.9 AC Capacitance with a Sinusoidal Supply

When the switch is closed in the circuit above, a high current will start to flow into the capacitor
as there is no charge on the plates at t = 0. The sinusoidal supply voltage, V is increasing in a positive
direction at its maximum rate as it crosses the zero reference axis at an instant in time given as 0o. Since
the rate of change of the potential difference across the plates is now at its maximum value, the flow of
current into the capacitor will also be at its maximum rate as the maximum amount of electrons are
moving

During this first half cycle 0o to 180o the applied voltage reaches its maximum positive value a
quarter (1/4ƒ) of a cycle after the current reaches its maximum positive value, in other words, a voltage
applied to a purely capacitive circuit “LAGS” the current by a quarter of a cycle or 90 o as shown below.

2.9.1 Sinusoidal Waveforms for AC Capacitance

During the second half cycle 180 o to 360o, the supply voltage reverses direction and heads
towards its negative peak value at 270 o. At this point the potential difference across the plates is neither
decreasing nor increasing and the current decreases to zero.

This effect can also be represented by a phasor diagram where in a purely capacitive circuit the
voltage “LAGS” the current by 90 o. But by using the voltage as our reference, we can also say that the
current “LEADS” the voltage by one quarter of a cycle or 90o as shown in the vector diagram below.
2.9.2 Phasor Diagram for AC Capacitance

So for a pure capacitor, VC “lags” IC by 90o, or we can say that IC “leads” VC by 90o.

2.9.3 Capacitive Reactance.

Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohm’s but is given the symbol X to distinguish it from a
purely resistive R value and as the component in question is a capacitor, the reactance of a capacitor is
called Capacitive Reactance, ( XC ) which is measured in Ohms.

Where: XC is the Capacitive Reactance in Ohms, ƒ is the frequency in Hertz and C is the AC capacitance
in Farads, symbol F.

When dealing with AC capacitance, we can also define capacitive reactance in terms of radians, where
Omega, ω equals 2πƒ.

From the above formula we can see that the value of capacitive reactance and therefore its overall
impedance ( in Ohms ) decreases towards zero as the frequency increases acting like a short circuit.
Likewise, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, the capacitors reactance increases to infinity, acting
like an open circuit which is why capacitors block DC.

In an AC circuit containing pure capacitance the current (electron flow) flowing into the capacitor is
given as:
and therefore, the rms current flowing into an AC capacitance will be defined as:

Where: IC = V/(1/ωC) (or IC = V/XC) is the current magnitude and θ = + 90o which is the phase
difference or phase angle between the voltage and current. For a purely capacitive circuit, Ic leads Vc by
90o, or Vc lags Ic by 90o.

2.9.4 Phasor Domain

In the phasor domain the voltage across the plates of an AC capacitance will be:

and in Polar Form this would be written as: XC∠-90o where:

2.10 Steady state analysis of series RL Circuit

Consider a simple RL circuit in which resistor, R and inductor, L are connected in series with a voltage
supply of V volts. Let us think the current flowing in the circuit is I (amp) and current through resistor
and inductor is IR and IL respectively. Since both resistance and inductor are connected in series, so the
current in both the elements and the circuit remains the same. i.e I R = IL = I. Let VR and Vl be the voltage
drop across resistor and inductor.
Applying Kirchhoff voltage law (i.e sum of voltage drop must be equal to apply voltage) to this circuit we
get,
2.10.1 Phasor Diagram for RL Circuit
Before drawing the phasor diagram of series RL circuit, one should know the relationship between
voltage and current in case of resistor and inductor.
1. Resistor
In case of resistor, the voltage and the current are in same phase or we can say that the phase
angle difference between voltage and current is zero.

2. Inductor
In inductor, the voltage and the current are not in phase. The voltage leads that of current by
90o or in other words, voltage attains its maximum and zero value 90o before the current attains it.

RL Circuit
For drawing the phasor diagram of series RL circuit; follow the following steps:
Step- I. In case of series RL circuit, resistor and inductor are connected in series, so current flowing in
both the elements are same i.e IR = IL = I. So, take current phasor as reference and draw it on horizontal
axis as shown in diagram.
Step- II. In case of resistor, both voltage and current are in same phase. So draw the voltage phasor, V R
along same axis or direction as that of current phasor. i.e VR is in phase with I.
Step- III. We know that in inductor, voltage leads current by 90o, so draw VL (voltage drop across
inductor) perpendicular to current phasor.
Step- IV. Now we have two voltages VR and VL. Draw the resultant vector(VG) of these two voltages.
Such as,
and from right angle triangle we get, phase angle
CONCLUSION: In case of pure resistive circuit, the phase angle between voltage and current is zero and
in case of pure inductive circuit, phase angle is 90o but when we combine both resistance and inductor,
the phase angle of a series RL circuit is between 0o to 90o.

2.10.2 Impedance of Series RL Circuit

The impedance of series RL circuit opposes the flow of alternating current. The impedance of series RL
Circuit is nothing but the combine effect of resistance (R) and inductive reactance (X L) of the circuit as a
whole. The impedance Z in ohms is given by,
Z = (R2 + XL2)0.5 and from right angle triangle, phase angle θ = tan– 1(XL/R).

2.10.3 Series RL Circuit Analysis

In series RL circuit, the values of frequency f, voltage V, resistance R and inductance L are known and
there is no instrument for directly measuring the value of inductive reactance and impedance; so, for
complete analysis of series RL circuit, follow these simple steps:
Step 1.Since the value of frequency and inductor are known, so firstly calculate the value of inductive
reactance XL: XL = 2πfL ohms.
Step 2. From the value of XL and R, calculate the total impedance of the circuit which is given by
Step 3. Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit θ = tan – 1(XL/ R).
Step 4. Use Ohm’s Law and find the value of the total current: I = V/Z amp.
Step 5. Calculate the voltages across resistor R and inductor L by using Ohm’s Law. Since the resistor
and the inductor are connected in series, so current in them remains the same.

2.10.4 Power in RL Circuit

In series RL circuit, some energy is dissipated by the resistor and some energy is alternately stored and
returned by the inductor-

1. The instantaneous power deliver by voltage source V is P = VI (watts).

2. Power dissipated by the resistor in the form of heat, P = I2R (watts).
3. The rate at which energy is stored in inductor,

So, total power in series RL circuit is given by adding the power dissipated by the resistor and the power
absorbed by the inductor.

Power triangle for series RL circuit is shown below,

2.11 Analysis of Series Resistance-Capacitance Circuit

In the RC series circuit above, we can see that the current flowing into the circuit is common to both the
resistance and capacitance, while the voltage is made up of the two component voltages, VR and VC. The
resulting voltage of these two components can be found mathematically but since vectors VR and VC are
90o out-of-phase, they can be added vectorially by constructing a vector diagram.

2.11.1 Vector Diagrams for the Two Pure Components

2.11.2 Vector Diagram of the Resultant Voltage

As the current leads the voltage in a pure capacitance by 90 o the resultant phasor diagram drawn from the
individual voltage drops VR and VC represents a right angled voltage triangle shown above as OAD. Then
we can also use Pythagoras theorem to mathematically find the value of this resultant voltage across the
resistor/capacitor ( RC ) circuit.
As VR = I.R and VC = I.XC the applied voltage will be the vector sum of the two as follows.
The quantity represents the impedance, Z of the circuit.

2.11.3 The Impedance of an AC Capacitance

Impedance, Z which has the units of Ohms, Ω’s is the “TOTAL” opposition to current flowing in an AC
circuit that contains both Resistance, ( the real part ) and Reactance ( the imaginary part ). A purely
resistive impedance will have a phase angle of 0 o while a purely capacitive impedance will have a phase
angle of -90o.2.11.4
The RC Impedance Triangle

Phase Angle

AC Capacitance Example No1

A single-phase sinusoidal AC supply voltage defined as: V(t) = 240 sin(314t - 20o) is connected to a pure
AC capacitance of 200uF. Determine the value of the current flowing into the capacitor and draw the
resulting phasor diagram.
The voltage across the capacitor will be the same as the supply voltage. Converting this time domain
value into polar form gives us: VC = 240 ∠-20o (v). The capacitive reactance will be: XC = 1/( ω.200uF ).
Then the current flowing into the capacitor can be found using Ohms law as:

With the current leading the voltage by 90o in an AC capacitance circuit the phasor diagram will be.

AC Capacitance

Example No-2
A capacitor which has an internal resistance of 10Ω’s and a capacitance value of 100uF is connected to a
supply voltage given as V(t) = 100 sin (314t). Calculate the current flowing into the capacitor. Also
construct a voltage triangle showing the individual voltage drops.
The capacitive reactance and circuit impedance is calculated as:

Then the current flowing into the capacitor and the circuit is given as:

The phase angle between the current and voltage is calculated from the impedance triangle above as:

Then the individual voltage drops around the circuit are calculated as:

Then the resultant voltage triangle will be.

2.12 Series RLC Circuit

The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous current flowing through the
loop being the same for each circuit element. Since the inductive and capacitive reactance’s XL and XC are
a function of the supply frequency, the sinusoidal response of a series RLC circuit will therefore vary
with frequency, ƒ. Then the individual voltage drops across each circuit element of R, L and C element
will be “out-of-phase” with each other as defined by:
i(t) = Imax sin(ωt)
The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is “in-phase” with current
The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL “leads” the current by 90o
The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC “lags” the current by 90o
Therefore, VL and VC are 180o “out-of-phase” and in opposition to each other.
For the series RLC circuit above, this can be shown as:
2.12.1 Individual Voltage Vectors

This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the supply voltage, VS across
all three components as all three voltage vectors point in different directions with regards to the current
vector. Therefore we will have to find the supply voltage, VS as the Phasor Sum of the three component
voltages combined together vectorially.

2.12.2 Instantaneous Voltages for a Series RLC Circuit

The phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is produced by combining together the three individual
phasors above and adding these voltages vectorially. Since the current flowing through the circuit is
common to all three circuit elements we can use this as the reference vector with the three voltage vectors
drawn relative to this at their corresponding angles.

2.12.3 Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit

We can see from the phasor diagram on the right hand side above that the voltage vectors produce a
rectangular triangle, comprising of hypotenuse VS, horizontal axis VR and vertical
axis VL – VC Hopefully you will notice then, that this forms our old favourite the Voltage Triangle and
we can therefore use Pythagoras’s theorem on this voltage triangle to mathematically obtain the value
of VS as shown.

2.12.4 Voltage Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

Please note that when using the above equation, the final reactive voltage must always be positive in
value, that is the smallest voltage must always be taken away from the largest voltage we can not have a
negative voltage added to VR so it is correct to have VL – VC or VC – VL. The smallest value from the
largest otherwise the calculation of VS will be incorrect.
We know from above that the current has the same amplitude and phase in all the components of a series
RLC circuit. Then the voltage across each component can also be described mathematically according to
the current flowing through and the voltage across each element as.

By substituting these values into Pythagoras’s equation above for the voltage triangle will give us:

So we can see that the amplitude of the source voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the
current flowing through the circuit. This proportionality constant is called the Impedance of the circuit
which ultimately depends upon the resistance and the inductive and capacitive reactance’s.
Then in the series RLC circuit above, it can be seen that the opposition to current flow is made up
of three components, XL, XC and R with the reactance, XT of any series RLC circuit being defined
as: XT = XL – XC or XT = XC – XL with the total impedance of the circuit being thought of as the voltage
source required to drive a current through it.
2.12.5 The Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit
As the three vector voltages are out-of-phase with each other, XL, XC and R must also be “out-of-
phase” with each other with the relationship between R, XL and XC being the vector sum of these three
components thereby giving us the circuits overall impedance, Z. These circuit impedance’s can be drawn
and represented by an Impedance Triangle as shown below.

The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit depends upon the angular frequency, ω as do XLand XC If the
capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance, XC > XL then the overall circuit reactance is
capacitive giving a leading phase angle.

Impedance can be re-written as:

The phase angle, θ between the source voltage, VS and the current, i is the same as for the angle
between Z and R in the impedance triangle. This phase angle may be positive or negative in value
depending on whether the source voltage leads or lags the circuit current and can be calculated
mathematically from the ohmic values of the impedance triangle as:

2.13 Parallel RLC Circuit

In the above parallel RLC circuit, we can see that the supply voltage, VS is common to all three
components whilst the supply current IS consists of three parts. The current flowing through the resistor,
IR, the current flowing through the inductor, IL and the current through the capacitor, IC.
But the current flowing through each branch and therefore each component will be different to each other
and to the supply current, IS. The total current drawn from the supply will not be the mathematical sum of
the three individual branch currents but their vector sum.
2.13.1 Phasor Diagram for a Parallel RLC Circuit

2.13.2 Current Triangle for a Parallel RLC Circuit

Since the voltage across the circuit is common to all three circuit elements, the current through each
branch can be found using Kirchoff’s Current Law, (KCL). Kirchoff’s current law or junction law states
that “the total current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the current leaving that node”, so the
currents entering and leaving node “A” above are given as:

Taking the derivative, dividing through the above equation by C and rearranging gives us the following
Second-order equation for the circuit current. It becomes a second-order equation because there are two
reactive elements in the circuit, the inductor and the capacitor.
2.13.3 Impedance of a Parallel RLC Circuit

In parallel AC circuits it is more convenient to use admittance, symbol ( Y ) to solve complex branch
impedance’s especially when two or more parallel branch impedance’s are involved (helps with the
math’s). The total admittance of the circuit can simply be found by the addition of the parallel
admittances. Then the total impedance, ZT of the circuit will therefore be 1/YT Siemens as shown.
2.14 Relationship of Line and Phase Voltages and Currents in a Star Connected System
To derive the relations between line and phase currents and voltages of a star connected system, we
have first to draw a balanced star connected system.
Suppose due to load impedance the current lags the applied voltage in each phase of the system by an
angle ϕ. As we have considered that the system is perfectly balanced, the magnitude of current and
voltage of each phase is the same. Let us say, the magnitude of the voltage across the red phase i.e.
magnitude of the voltage between neutral point (N) and red phase terminal (R) is VR.
Similarly, the magnitude of the voltage across yellow phase is VY and the magnitude of the voltage
across blue phase is VB.
In the balanced star system, magnitude of phase voltage in each phase is V ph.
∴ VR = VY = VB = Vph
We know in the star connection, line current is same as phase current. The magnitude of this current is
same in all three phases and say it is IL.
∴ IR = IY = IB = IL, Where, IR is line current of R phase, IY is line current of Y phase and IB is line current
of B phase. Again, phase current, Iph of each phase is same as line current IL in star connected system.
∴ IR = IY = IB = IL = Iph.
Now, let us say the voltage across R and Y terminal of the star connected circuit is V RY.
The voltage across Y and B terminal of the star connected circuit is V YB The voltage across B and R
terminal of the star connected circuit is VBR.
From the diagram, it is found that
VRY = VR + (− VY)
Similarly, VYB = VY + (− VB)
And, VBR = VB + (− VR)
Now, as angle between VR and VY is 120o(electrical), the angle between VR and – VY is 180o – 120o =
60o(electrical).

Thus, for the star-connected system line voltage = √3 × phase voltage.

Line current = Phase current
As, the angle between voltage and current per phase is φ, the electric power per phase is

So the total power of three phase system is