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Synchrophasor Based Islanding & Open phase fault Protection in

Distribution Systems
Mansour Jalali, The University of Western Ontario

Supervisor: Tarlochan Sidhu, The University of Western Ontario

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree
in Electrical and Computer Engineering
© Mansour Jalali 2020

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Recommended Citation
Jalali, Mansour, "Synchrophasor Based Islanding & Open phase fault Protection in Distribution Systems"
(2020). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 6947.
https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/6947

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 Abstract

With the rapid growth of renewable energy resources, energy efficiency initiatives, electric
vehicles, energy storage, etc., distribution systems are becoming more complex such that
conventional protection, control, and measurement infrastructure – typically concentrated
at the main substation, with little to no access to information along the feeder – cannot
maintain the reliability of the system without some sort of additional protection, control
and measurement functionalities. As an example, a dedicated communication channel for
carrying the transfer trip signal from the substation to the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC) to prevent islanding operation of alternative resources, has been a requirement for
many utilities. In the transformation of the distribution system from a simple radial system
to a bidirectional energy flow network, integration of many intelligent devices and
applications will also be required. Thus, this situation calls for investment in
communication infrastructure, and augmentation of protection, control, and measurement
functionalities.

The value of power system communication technologies such as synchrophasor

measurement technology – which includes the Phasor Measurement Unit (measuring and
providing voltage and current phasors in the real time via communication), communication
infrastructure, and Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC) – is being recognized through large-
scale deployments around the world. However, these implementations are predominantly
limited to some monitoring-type applications and are being realized primarily in
transmission systems and bulk power systems (≥100 kV), where performance requirements
are much more stringent compared to distribution systems.

So contrary to transmission systems, the current status of synchrophasor measurement

technology can be utilized to its full extent in distribution systems, as shown in current
research for anti-islanding and open-phase faults in the distribution feeder protection
application, where the number of PMUs and performance required is somewhat lower than
the bulk of power energy. Thus, the opportunity to invest in the implementation of
synchronized measurement technology in distribution system is timely as it can be
coordinated with other investments in feeder modernization, distributed generation (DG)

ii
integration, and infrastructure enhancements that are underway, including “smart grid”
initiatives.

In the first use case of this research, the behavior of the major DG types during islanding
is studied through accurate transient modeling of utility type distribution systems using
PSCAD-EMTDC and MATLAB. The study proposes augmentation of PMU-based
solutions to the current passive islanding protection elements, such as voltage and
frequency, and improving the non-detection zone of the passive elements by adapting their
settings based on normal loading conditions at closest known instant prior to the fault or
islanding occurrence. The solution proposes a system architecture that requires one PMU
at each PCC bus and in the main substation. The communication aspect is based on the IEC
6850-90-5 report, where the PMU can subscribe directly to the data stream of the remote
PMUs such that the need for PDCs in this application is eliminated, yielding better
performance.

In the second use case, an open-phase fault – a major concern for distribution utilities from
safety of public and equipment perspective – has been studied. Clearing the open-phase
fault without identifying the type of fault could result in an attempt by the recloser to
reenergize the downed wire; conversely, an undetected open-phase fault could initiate
ferro-resonance, thereby stressing equipment and increasing the risk to public safety, both
urban and rural. This work discusses comprehensive analysis of symmetrical components
of various types of open-phase faults in the distribution feeder with the presence of
distributed generators (DGs) and proposes the use of phasor measurement data located at
substation and PCC to identify the open-phase fault. The proposed algorithm relies on the
rate of change of the various current and voltage sequence components. In the study
conducted, the utility type feeder and substation are modeled in PSCAD-EMTDC, and
different types of open-phase fault and shunt faults are studied to verify the dependability
and security of proposed algorithm.

iii
Keywords

Synchrophasor, PMU, PDC, DG, IEC 61850-90-5, Islanding, Open-phase fault, Breaking
conductor.

iv
 Summary For Lay Audience

Electricity is a form of energy, and in simple terms it is defined as the flow

of electric charges and charge is a property of matter like mass, volume, etc. We produce
electricity, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil,
nuclear power, and other natural sources such as Wind and Solar. The system which
produces, transfers, and distributes electricity in the cities and rural area is called an
electrical grid. The sections of the grid distribute electricity to the consumers is called a
distribution system. Distribution systems, historically, only distributed electricity and did
not participate in the production. However, with the global warming effect and desire of
the society to use a clean carbon free electricity many renewable sources including solar;
wind, hydro power, and geothermal are integrated into the distribution systems. Thus,
distribution systems now and in the future will have to integrate more resources which add
significant complexity and challenges for utilities and asset managers in terms of protection
of electrical assets, safety, and quality of power delivered to the consumers. The focus of
this work has been on protection of the distribution systems for two specific incidents open
phase or broken conductor and islanding operation. These two undesirable situations can
cause serious risks and damages to the distribution system. This research proposes new
methodology to deal with these types of problems and encourages utilities and regulators
to invest in the grid’s communication technology infrastructure more real time system data
to become readily available. This information can then be utilized for diagnostics and
detection of failures and thereby, lower the risk of safety to the public to the system’s
equipment.

v
I dedicate this work to my parents, my kids, Zhina and Alan

vi
 Acknowledgments

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr.

Tarlochan Singh Sidhu for his invaluable guidance and help throughout the course of this
research. His continuous support has helped me in successfully completing my doctoral
degree.

I thank my examiners Dr. Bala Venkatesh and Dr. Jing Jiang for their valuable inputs on
my work. I thank Dr. Mohammad Dadash-Zadeh for his inputs during the publication of
this research.

I thank my parents and my children for their love and affection. Their selfless love and
sacrifices have been the eternal fuel for my ambition to achieve greater heights in my
academic career. I am thankful to my brothers, sisters, and cousins for their love and
affection; it keeps me motivated to pursue higher aspirations in life.

I extend my special thanks to all my other friends and relatives for their moral support.
I am thankful to all the staff members of the electronics shop and administrative staff of
the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering for their support at various stages
of my degree programs.

I gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by Kinectrics Inc. (ex-Ontario

Hydro research department). I thank my colleague- Dr. Nafeesa Mehboob, for providing
me with an editorial review of some of the chapters.

Thank you.

vii
 Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii

Summary For Lay Audience ............................................................................................... v

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vii

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. viii

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiii

List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xv

List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... xxi

List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... xxii

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................... 1

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Power System and Technological Modernization .................................................. 1

1.2 Synchrophasor Measurement Technology .............................................................. 3

1.3 Phasor Measurement in Distribution System.......................................................... 4

1.4 Protection Philosophy ............................................................................................. 5

1.5 Thesis Motivation ................................................................................................... 7

1.6 Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 8

1.7 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 9

1.8 Thesis Outline ......................................................................................................... 9

1.9 Summary ............................................................................................................... 10

Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................... 12

Introduction to Distribution Systems ........................................................................... 12

2.1 Primary Feeder Structure ...................................................................................... 12

2.2 Under Ground Network ........................................................................................ 14

2.3 Feeder Protection in Distribution Network ........................................................... 16

viii
 2.4 Conventional Distribution System Properties ....................................................... 20

2.5 Distributed Energy Resources............................................................................... 21

2.5.1 Renewable DER Frequency and Voltage Control .................................... 23

2.5.2 Induction Machine Type 1 and 2 .............................................................. 23

2.5.3 Induction Machine Type 3 (DFIG) ........................................................... 28

2.5.4 Photo Voltaic ............................................................................................ 34

2.5.5 DER Model Developed for Islanding Application ................................... 36

2.6 Regulatory Requirements for DERs ..................................................................... 41

2.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 43

Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................... 45

Phasor Measurements .................................................................................................. 45

3.1 Fundamental of Synchrophasor Measurement...................................................... 45

3.2 Formal Phasor Definition...................................................................................... 49

3.2.1 Phasor Representation of Non-Sinusoidal Waveform .............................. 51

3.2.2 Off Nominal Frequency ............................................................................ 52

3.3 Signal Processing .................................................................................................. 54

3.3.1 Nyquist Frequency and Anti-Aliasing Filter............................................. 55

3.4 Phasor and Frequency Estimation ......................................................................... 56

3.4.1 Short Windows Phasor Estimation ........................................................... 57

3.4.2 Long Windows Phasor Estimation............................................................ 58

3.5 Frequency Estimation ........................................................................................... 59

3.6 Communication and Reporting the Data............................................................... 60

3.7 PMU Applications in Distribution Systems.......................................................... 64

3.7.1 Micro-PMU Development ........................................................................ 64

3.8 Summary ............................................................................................................... 66

ix
Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................... 68

Adaptive Islanding Scheme.......................................................................................... 68

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 68

4.2 Islanding................................................................................................................ 69

4.3 Review of Current Islanding Detection Techniques ............................................. 71

4.4 Communication Based Schemes ........................................................................... 72

4.4.1 Transfer Trip ............................................................................................. 72

4.4.2 PLC Signaling ........................................................................................... 73

4.5 Local Detection ..................................................................................................... 74

4.5.1 Passive Detection Methods ....................................................................... 74

4.6 Active Detection Method ...................................................................................... 76

4.7 Grid Tied Inverter Anti-Islanding Consideration ................................................. 76

4.8 Proposed Islanding Detection Method .................................................................. 77

4.9 Test System ........................................................................................................... 81

4.10 Simulation Scenarios ............................................................................................ 82

4.10.1 Scenario 1-Case 1-3 (Synchronous machine) ........................................... 83

4.10.2 Scenario 2 – (WT type3) ........................................................................... 85

4.10.3 Scenario 2 -Case 2 (WT type 4) ................................................................ 88

4.10.4 Scenario 2-Case3 (PV solar) ..................................................................... 91

4.10.5 Scenario 3- (Balance of power) ................................................................ 93

4.11 Conceptual Implementation Consideration........................................................... 97

4.12 Summary ............................................................................................................... 99

Chapter 5 ....................................................................................................................... 100

Open Phase Fault Detection ....................................................................................... 100

5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 100

x
 5.2 Review of Open Phase Detection Techniques .................................................... 101

5.3 Open Phase Fault Signature ................................................................................ 102

5.3.1 Single Open Phase Fault without Ground ............................................... 102

5.3.2 Single Open Phase Fault with Ground .................................................... 104

5.3.3 Double Open Phase Fault with No Ground ............................................ 108

5.4 Proposed Open Phase Fault Detection Criteria ................................................... 110

5.5 Single Open Phase Fault Between Two Sources ................................................ 114

5.5.1 Fault in a Feeder with More Than Two Sources..................................... 115

5.5.2 Open Phase Fault with the Ground Fault ................................................ 115

5.6 Open Phase Fault at the Same Side of the Sources ............................................. 117

5.6.1 Fault in a Feeder with More Than Two Sources..................................... 118

5.6.2 Open Phase Fault with Ground ............................................................... 118

5.7 Test System ......................................................................................................... 119

5.8 Test Scenarios ..................................................................................................... 119

5.8.1 Scenario 1 Case 1 .................................................................................... 120

5.8.2 Scenario 1 Case 2 .................................................................................... 123

5.8.3 Scenario 2 Case 1 .................................................................................... 126

5.8.4 Scenario 2 Case 2 .................................................................................... 129

5.8.5 Scenario 2 Case 3 .................................................................................... 132

5.8.6 Scenario 3 Sensitivity Limitation............................................................ 135

5.9 Conceptual Implementation ................................................................................ 139

5.10 Summary ............................................................................................................. 140

Chapter 6 ....................................................................................................................... 141

Summary .................................................................................................................... 141

6.1 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................... 142

xi
 6.2 Contribution of this Work ................................................................................... 143

6.3 Recommendation for Future Research Work ..................................................... 145

References ....................................................................................................................... 146

Appendix A: Network Model Information ..................................................................... 150

Appendix B: IEC61850 Communication Service Interface............................................ 157

Appendix C: Wind Turbine Model Type 3 ..................................................................... 159

Appendix D: Wind Turbine Model Type 4..................................................................... 161

Appendix E: Open Phase fault Additional Simulations .................................................. 165

Curriculum Vitae ............................................................................................................ 182

xii
 List of Tables

Table 2-1. IEEE Survey Results for Protection Schemes in Distribution Systems [7]..... 18

Table 3-1. Accuracy for Time Synchronization Methods [20] ......................................... 48

Table 3-2. PMU Reporting Rates...................................................................................... 60

Table 3-3. Typical Delay Range for PMU Application [28] ............................................ 62

Table 3-4. Expected Data Requirement for μPMU Application [39] .............................. 65

Table 4-1. Parameter and Unit for Power Mismatch Scenarios........................................ 78

Table 4-2. Parameter for Conventional Machine .............................................................. 83

Table 4-3. Frequency Rate of Change Estimation ............................................................ 85

Table 4-4. Wind Turbine Type 3 Model Data ................................................................. 85

Table 4-5. Wind Turbine Type 4 Model Data ................................................................. 89

Table 4-6. Balance of Power Case Study Results ............................................................. 95

Table 4-7. Balance of Power Case Study Results with 𝝁PMU ........................................ 96

Table 5-1. Current Rate of Change for Parallel Faults ................................................... 112

Table 5-2. Variable Used for Case Study ....................................................................... 113

Table A1. Conductor Type and Data Used in the Model ............................................... 150

Table A2. Conductor Length Used in the Model ............................................................ 151

Table A3. Distribution Feeder Installed Load ................................................................ 154

Table A4. Transformer Data ........................................................................................... 156

Table A5. Transformer Tap Changer Data ..................................................................... 156

xiii
Table E1. Rate of the Change of Current Symmetrical Components ............................. 165

xiv
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1. Typical Structure of Electrical Network........................................................... 2

Figure 1.2. Conceptual Synchrophasor Measurement System Architecture ...................... 4

Figure 2.1. Conventional Vertical Power Grid Infrastructure [6] ..................................... 13

Figure 2.2. Typical Two Primary Radial Feeders with Open Loop.................................. 14

Figure 2.3. Underground Distribution Network (Courtesy of Toronto Hydro) ................ 15

Figure 2.4. Network Vault One-line Diagram (Courtesy of Toronto Hydro) ................... 16

Figure 2.5. Typical Protection Zone in Distribution Network .......................................... 17

Figure 2.6. Typical Feeder Protection in Distribution Network ....................................... 19

Figure 2.7. Utility Type Anti-Islanding Protection [8] ..................................................... 20

Figure 2.8. DER Category Conventional and Non-conventional ..................................... 23

Figure 2.9. Induction Wind Turbine Type 1 ..................................................................... 24

Figure 2.10. Induction Wind Turbine Type 1 Short Circuit Profile ................................. 25

Figure 2.11. Induction Wind Turbine Type 2 ................................................................... 26

Figure 2.12. Induction Wind Turbine Type 2 Short Circuit Profile ................................. 27

Figure 2.13. Induction Wind Turbine Smooth Start up .................................................... 28

Figure 2.14. Induction Wind Turbine Type 3 ................................................................... 29

Figure 2.15. Wind Turbine Type 3 Reactive Power Regulation....................................... 30

Figure 2.16. Wind Turbine Type 3 Short Circuit Profile .................................................. 31

Figure 2.17. Typical Wind Turbine Type 4 ...................................................................... 32

xv
Figure 2.18. Wind Turbine Type 4 Reactive Power Contribution .................................... 33

Figure 2.19. Wind Turbine Type 4 Short Circuit Profile.................................................. 34

Figure 2.20. Typical Solar Farm Block Diagram ............................................................. 35

Figure 2.21. Grid Connected PV Model ........................................................................... 35

Figure 2.22. Grid Connected Solar Farm Short Circuit Profile ........................................ 36

Figure 2.23. Representation of Space Phasor in dq Frame .............................................. 38

Figure 2.24. Phase Looked Loop Block Diagram............................................................. 39

Figure 2.25. Real and Reactive- Power Control of Grid Imposed VSC ........................... 40

Figure 2.26. Phase Looked Loop Simulation.................................................................... 41

Figure 2.27. IEEE 1547 Grid Support Function History [Courtesy of IEEE 1547 WG] . 42

Figure 3.1. Phase Angle Reference in Interconnected Grid.............................................. 45

Figure 3.2. PMU History Time Line [18] ......................................................................... 46

Figure 3.3. Convention for Synchrophasor Representation .............................................. 50

Figure 3.4. Fourier Transformation of Squared Waveform .............................................. 52

Figure 3.5. Waveform with Positive Δf >0 (f > f0) .......................................................... 53

Figure 3.6. Off Nominal Power Frequency Sampling ...................................................... 53

Figure 3.7. Typical PMU Configuration ........................................................................... 54

Figure 3.8. Impact of Signal Sampling Rate On A/D Conversion.................................... 56

Figure 3.9. Phasor Estimation Windows........................................................................... 57

Figure 3.10. Phasor Estimation ......................................................................................... 58

xvi
Figure 3.11. Conventional Phasor Measurement Communication Architecture [29] ...... 61

Figure 3.12. Communication Example C37.118-2 Frame ................................................ 61

Figure 3.13. Synchrophasor IEC61850-90-5 Based System Architecture ....................... 63

Figure 4.1. Typical Primary Distribution Feeder Topology in North America ................ 69

Figure 4.2. Classification of Islanding Detection Scheme [42] ........................................ 71

Figure 4.3. Transfer Trip Concept [45] ............................................................................. 73

Figure 4.4. Power Line Signal Islanding .......................................................................... 73

Figure 4.5. None Detection Zone Based Daily Profile Variation ..................................... 75

Figure 4.6. Conceptual PMU Based Islanding Detection Architecture ............................ 78

Figure 4.7. Simplified One Line Diagram of System Under Study .................................. 82

Figure 4.8. Islanding Scenario of Synchronous Machine ................................................. 84

Figure 4.9. Wind Turbine Type 3 Islanding Event with Balance of Power Case 1 .......... 86

Figure 4.10. Wind Turbine Type 3 Islanding Event with Balance of Power Case 2 ........ 87

Figure 4.11. Type 4 Wind Turbine Model Block Diagram .............................................. 88

Figure 4.12. Wind Turbine Type 4 Islanding Case 1 ........................................................ 90

Figure 4.13. Type 4 Islanding Case 2 ............................................................................... 91

Figure 4.14. PV Islanding Scenario Case1 ....................................................................... 92

Figure 4.15. PV Islanding Scenario Case 2 ...................................................................... 93

Figure 4.16. Islanding Simulation with Balance of Power ............................................... 94

Figure 4.17. Adjacent Feeder Fault................................................................................... 97

xvii
Figure 5.1. Conceptual System Architecture of the Proposed Solution ......................... 101

Figure 5.2. Open Phase Fault in Phase “a” at P-Q ......................................................... 103

Figure 5.3. Symmetrical Component Circuit of Open Phase Fault ............................... 104

Figure 5.4. Open Phase Fault with Downed Wire .......................................................... 104

Figure 5.5. Symmetrical Component Circuit of Open Phase with Ground .................... 106

Figure 5.6. Open Phase Fault with Ground at the Source Side....................................... 107

Figure 5.7. Symmetrical Component Circuit of Double Open Phase Fault.................... 108

Figure 5.8. Double open phase fault equivalent circuit .................................................. 109

Figure 5.9. Typical Distribution Feeder with DG ........................................................... 111

Figure 5.10. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 1-Power & Voltage ............................ 121

Figure 5.11. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 1-Current ............................................ 122

Figure 5.12. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 2 .......................................................... 124

Figure 5.13. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 2 .......................................................... 125

Figure 5.14. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current .............................................. 127

Figure 5.15. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current ............................................. 128

Figure 5.16. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current .............................................. 130

Figure 5.17. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current .............................................. 131

Figure 5.18. Single Open Phase Fault with Solid Ground .............................................. 133

Figure 5.19. Single Open Phase Fault with Solid Ground .............................................. 134

Figure 5.20. Single Open Phase at the End of Feeder with 4% Load ............................. 136

xviii
Figure 5.21. Single Open Phase at the End of Feeder with 4% Load ............................. 137

Figure 5.22. Single Open Phase at the End of Feeder with 4% Load ............................. 138

Figure A1. One-line Diagram of Modeled Distribution Feeder ..................................... 150

Figure B1. Abstract Communication Services Interface in IEC61850 (Courtesy of ABB

Substation Automation) .................................................................................................. 157

Figure C1. Wind Turbine Model Type 3 Used in this Study ......................................... 159

Figure C2. Machine Side Converter Control “dq” Value Transformation .................... 160

Figure D1. Wind Turbine Model Type 4 Used in this Study.......................................... 161

Figure D2. Converters, DC link, Grid, and Machine Side Control I/O .......................... 162

Figure D3. Grid Side control, Identification of Current and Voltage Component ........ 162

Figure D4. Grid side Control, Calculation of Id, and Iq Current .................................... 163

Figure D5. Grid side, Decoupled Control ....................................................................... 163

Figure D6. Grid Side, Transformation of Grid Side Voltage ......................................... 164

Figure E1. Three phase Fault (ABCG) Power and Voltage............................................ 166

Figure E2. Three Phase Fault (ABC) Current ................................................................. 167

Figure E3. Two Phase Fault (BC) Power and Voltage ................................................... 168

Figure E4. Two Phase Fault (BC) Current...................................................................... 169

Figure E5. Two Phase to Ground Fault (BCG) Power and Voltage ............................... 170

Figure E6. Two Phase to Ground fault (BCG) Current .................................................. 171

Figure E7. Ground Fault (BG) Power and Voltage ........................................................ 172

xix
Figure E8. Ground Fault (BG) Current ........................................................................... 173

Figure E9. Energizing Unbalance Load Power and Voltage .......................................... 174

Figure E10. Energizing Unbalance Load Current........................................................... 175

Figure E11. De-energizing Unbalance Load Power and Voltage ................................... 176

Figure E12. De-energizing Unbalance Load Current ..................................................... 177

Figure E13. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Power and Voltage (point 2)......................... 178

Figure E14.Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Current (point 2) ............................................ 179

Figure E15. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Power and Voltage (point 1)......................... 180

Figure E16. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Current (point 1) ........................................... 181

xx
 List of Appendices

Appendix A: Network Model Information ..................................................................... 150

Appendix B: IEC61850 Communication Service Interface............................................ 157

Appendix C: Wind Turbine Model Type 3 ..................................................................... 159

Appendix D: Wind Turbine Model Type 4..................................................................... 161

Appendix E: Open Phase fault Additional Simulations .................................................. 165

xxi
 List of Abbreviations

ACSI Abstract Communication Service Interface

ARPA-A Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy

BTMG Behind the Meter Generation

DER Distributed Energy Resources

DFIG Doubly Feed Induction Generator

DFT Discrete Fourier Transform

DG Distributed Generation

DoD Department of Defense (US)

EMT Electro Magnetic Transient

EMTP Electro Magnetic Transient Program

EPS Electrical Power System

ES Energy Storage

FFT Fast Fourier Transform

GOOSE General Object-Oriented Substation Event

GPS Global Positioning System

GSE General Substation Event

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

IED Intelligent Electronic Device

xxii
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IRIG-B Inter Range Instrumentation Group Time Code B

LAN Local Area Network

LVRT Low Voltage Ride Through

MG Microgrid

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

NASPI N North American Synchro-Phasor Initiative

NDZ Non-Detection Zone

NERC North American Electric Reliability Corporation

NSPP Negative Sequence Pilot Protection

NTP Network Time Protocol

OPD Open Phase Detection

OSI The Open Systems Interconnection (model)

PCC Point of Common Coupling

PDC Phasor Data Concentrator

PLL Phase Locked Loop

PMU Phasor Measurement Unit

PPS Pulse Per Second

PSRC Power System Relaying Committee (IEEE)

xxiii
PTP Precision Time Protocol

PU Per Unit

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SOC Second-Of-Century

SPS Standard Positioning Service

SV Sampled Value

TC57 Technical Committee 57 (IEC)

THD Total Harmonic Distortion

UG Under Ground

UTC Universal Time Clock

VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator

VSC Voltage Source Converter

WAMS Wide-Area Measurement System

WAN Wide Area Network).

WT Wind Turbine

xxiv
 1

Chapter 1
1 Introduction
In this chapter the needs for the modernization of power systems are briefly reviewed.
Specific challenges in the forefront of this modernization in distribution systems is
discussed. The research, objective, motivation and structure of this work is presented.

1.1 Power System and Technological Modernization

Electrical power system networks are one of the largest man-made systems in the world.
A typical system represents a sizable capital investment that consists of generators, power
transformers, substations, overhead lines, along with underground cable, control,
measuring, and protection infrastructure. The power system asset oversees the production,
transmission, and distribution of the electricity to consumers as per their demand. The
electricity must be produced and delivered reliably within the applicable constraints of
security. A typical electrical network is shown in Figure 1.1 where generation,
transmission, and distribution are well segregated. The past couple of decades have seen
a rapid advancement in policies, technology, and standards focused on modernizing the
power system network. The most important advancement, however, may well be how the
power industry’s is thinking has evolved. Today holistic views of the desired goal of grid
modernization and how to achieve them are taking a hold. The need to modernize the power
grid arises from multiple factors including economic, political, environmental and
technical such as aging infrastructure, integration of multiple DER (Distributed Energy
Resources), other new technologies, security concern and more influence of the end
consumer to the local legislation. In the past power industry investment has favorited the
generation and transmission sectors because of their criticality and large amounts of power
being transferred. Therefore, it can be observed among many utilities that the generation
and transmission systems respectively are much better instrumented for monitoring and
control compared to the distribution systems however, the smart grid concept and grid
modernization includes the entire grid including distribution system. Utilities and policy
makers are recognizing that the distribution system is less prepared for this task and
therefore, now is largely focusing on modernization of distribution systems [1].
 2

Traditionally, distribution systems were a simple interface between the end users and rest
of the grid with one-way power flow outward system architecture.

Figure 1.1. Typical Structure of Electrical Network

Distribution feeders were not interconnected and despite this simplistic blueprint yet today
this system is facing the following challenges:

1) Need to develop a communication infrastructure

2) Need for the integration of many DERs
3) Need for greater visibility and monitoring of the feeders
 3

4) Need for more automation processes

5) Need for reliable protection and control
6) Need for the renovation of aging infrastructure

Many research studies in the area of communication technology, integration, and

application should be completed in order to prepare for the transformation of distribution
systems successfully. In fact, this work is motivated to contribute to the required study for
the advancement of distribution systems and the integration of communication technology
in distribution system protection applications using synchrophasor measurement data.

1.2 Synchrophasor Measurement Technology

Among the many advancements in communication technology used in power systems,
synchrophasor measurement technology specifically can be noted for being at the forefront
of focus within industries where technology and new standards and applications came
together to respond to the needs of those industries. Since the North American blackout of
August 2003, phasor measurement technology development has been in high demand by
utilities and the US government. The US government supported the North American
Synchro-Phasor Initiative (NASPI) that was established to coordinate the research effort in
this area in order to improve power system reliability and visibility throughout the grid by
fostering the greater use and capability of synchrophasor technology. The synchrophasor
measurement uses digital processing of current and voltage waveforms, synchronized to a
universal time source GPS (Global Positioning System), to record system conditions at
high speeds and provide real-time situational awareness of the electrical grid as shown in
Figure 1.2. PMUs (Phasor Measurement Unit) that are installed in the application interested
nodes works as a sensor to measure and capture data which can then be reported in real
time by as many as 60 measurements per second, which is typically 100 times faster than
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition). This real-time monitoring can detect
and record events that SCADA misses, enabling much better visibility into the grid
conditions for control as well as protection purposes.
 4

Figure 1.2. Conceptual Synchrophasor Measurement System Architecture

With the publication of various sections of IEC61850 standard starting from 2011 and
onward the specification of utilities type protection applications based on communication
technology have been formalized and the journey of transformation of the conventional
application and prospective of new solutions have been the focus of many researchers and
application specialists around the globe. Furthermore, the integration of synchrophasor
data to substation automation domain and possibility of PMU using fast peer-to-peer
communication services to transfer the data provides more possibility to utilize the PMU
data in protection and time critical applications [2]. Background and the state of the art
regarding the phasor measurement technology is provided in chapter 3 of this work.

1.3 Phasor Measurement in Distribution System

Traditionally, PMU data is used in transmission applications and it must be noted that the
measurable results have been published by NASPI in implementing this technology in
transmission grid [3]. As highlighted earlier in this chapter with the shift of focus of power
industry and utilities to the concept of smart and modern distribution system the use of
 5

synchrophasor data in this sector have been studied and investigated. Distribution systems
are installed in a much smaller geographical area compared to the transmission systems
thus, smaller angle differences between the voltage phasors measured by PMUs and much
rapid system impedance changes could be expected [4]. In this regard the U.S. Department
of Energy’s Advanced Research Project Agency funded a US$4 million project to build
one of the most precise synchrophasor instruments ever made, with 100 times the
resolution of traditional transmission‐type PMU’s. The µPMU is ideal for research projects
that need ultra‐precise synchrophasor measurements for investigating stability and
impedance questions on distribution grids and microgrids. The current work however
proposes the use of synchrophasor data in protection scheme, the open phase fault detection
and islanding detection. Further information about background of synchrophasor
technology and accuracy required for this work is provided in chapter 3, 4 and 5 of this
work

1.4 Protection Philosophy

Some of the constant challenges that electrical networks face are component failure,
operation error, and extreme weather conditions such as lightning, wind, and storms. These
events directly or indirectly can cause an interruption of the production, transmission, or
delivery of electricity in part or entirely. A failure often causes an abnormal operational
condition, such as very high short circuit current, extreme high voltage, or abnormal
frequency. The impact of these events goes beyond the failed components and can damage
other healthy equipment within the network while also posing a safety risk to the personal
and public. Therefore, in order to protect the equipment, utility personnel, the general
public, and to safeguard the capital invested in the electrical network, utilities deploy
protection relays. These devices work to identify the abnormal condition, faulty equipment,
and remove it from service as quickly as possible while the balance of the network remains
in service as much as possible. Protection relays conventionally rely on local measurement,
however, with the significant advancement that has occurred in communication technology
over the past decade, they are starting to receive information from remote devices via
communication. Thus, communication technology became an essential part of protection
functionality. Utilizing measurement data from a synchrophasor in real time for a
 6

protection functionality has started. This is a journey, which will transform the landscape
and allow for protection devices to respond to more complex abnormal situations and shift
their focus from traditionally protecting network components alone to protecting the
network status and operation.

The following properties are defining the different aspects of the protection system
performance.

1) Selectivity: The concept of protection selectivity refers to the capability of the protection
scheme to detect faults on a power system and initiate the opening of switchgear in order
to isolate only the faulty part of the system. Good selectivity will maximize service
continuity and minimize system outages. The protection must thus be discriminative.
2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity refers to the minimum operating level (current, voltage, power,
etc.) of protective devices. A relay designed to operate sensitively will be able to detect a
fault with a very low value. For example, a sensitive ground fault relay can detect a very
small ground fault current.
3) Reliability (Security and Dependability): Security and dependability must be evaluated
when assessing the reliability of a protection scheme. Dependability refers to the ability of
a protection scheme to operate and isolate a fault condition when it is required. Security
refers to the ability of the protection system not to operate during any tolerable conditions
such as overloading, switching actions, recoverable power swings and faults on other parts
of the power system, etc. Failure to operate (loss of dependability) can be extremely
damaging and disruptive. False tripping or over-tripping (loss of security) can result in
multiple contingencies, unnecessarily disconnecting the healthy power apparatus out of
service, and possibly cascading into a widespread blackout. The protection scheme should
offer secure and sensitive operation. It should be secure from false operation, not causing
de-energization of circuits due to load unbalances, inrush currents, cold load pickup,
harmonics, and other transient or steady-state conditions not normally harmful to system
components. The equipment in the protection scheme should exhibit enough sensitivity to
be able to detect all recognized fault conditions.
4) Speed: The function of protection is to isolate faults from the rest of the power system in
a very short time. The time in which the fault should be isolated it is an important property
of the protection system that is considered for power system stability, relay coordination,
and minimization of the damage.
 7

More faults occur on the distribution system than in either the transmission system or in the
generating facilities. Distribution systems are widespread and have a relatively high degree of
exposure to the environment. Improvements in distribution circuit performance can be achieved
by design and by minimizing the number and extent of faults with overcurrent protection systems.
Knowledge of the characteristics, i.e., magnitude, duration, and waveform, of distribution faults is
essential when applying protection. Fault current calculation methods are fundamental tools for
the protection designer. Protection applications require computation of three-phase, line-to-
ground, and line-to-line short-circuit currents that are possible within the area of operation of the
device.

1.5 Thesis Motivation

This research has focused on the utilization of synchrophasor measurement data in
distribution system protection and control application. The research has been developed
around two use cases, namely, islanding and open-phase faults. The motivation behind
these selections is briefly described here:

a) Why Synchrophasor? Since the blackout of August 2003 in North America, there
has been much focus on synchrophasor measurement application by utilities, power
system regulators, manufacturers, and researchers. IEEE synchrophasor standards
C37.118-1 and C37.118-2 are being updated by specifying the communication
requirements and dynamic performance of the synchrophasor measurement unit
(PMU). IEC 61850 is a standard that facilitates the implementation of
communication technology in protection, control, and measurement in power
system application, and integrates the synchrophasor data stream into its data model
and communication services. This integration provides the possibility to use the
functional and communication infrastructure of substation automation systems to
support and reduce the cost of PMU based applications, especially in a smaller area
such as a distribution system.

b) The rapid growth of alternative sources of energy in distribution systems is

changing the historical role of distribution system as being only a distributor of
energy to also being the provider of local generation and manager of small
independent grids. This new reality requires modernization of the distribution
 8

system, which most likely will be a very capital-intensive transformation because

of its massive size, simplicity of its current core design, and lack of communication
infrastructure. With the integration of more alternative resources, many real-time
electrical measurements along the feeder will be required for the system to be up to
speed for reliable operation.

Installation of synchrophasor units in the distribution system can serve many new
and old challenges that this system is encountering and requires much more
research in this area.

c) In distribution systems, many overhead lines are built right along roads, streets, and
alleys. Because of equipment aging, and more recently extreme weather condition,
and car accidents involving the distribution overhead pole, the phase conductor(s)
can break and hit the ground creating a hazardous situation for the public. The high
impedance ground fault created by this event cannot be detected by any ground
fault protection element selectively and hence, the protection in the substation may
operate well after its time delay. The uncleared open phase conductor, if the created
ground fault is insignificant, can evolve into ferro-resonance which is another
added risk to the public and equipment. For many years, utilities and protection
manufacturers have worked to develop methods for tripping these hazardous
ground faults as quickly as possible. The method proposed in this work describes a
new way to identify the open phase conductor selectively with and without DG
using the synchrophasor measurement data.

Two use cases in this research are being investigated in a distribution system and with use
of synchrophasor data: Islanding detection use case and open phase fault use case.

1.6 Research Objectives

The objective of this research is to investigate the application of synchrophasor
measurement data in distribution systems to address some of the challenges related to
distribution system protection and control. The research work is divided into three stages:
 9

Stage I – Islanding Detection Scheme: The first objective of the research is to provide a
synchrophasor-based islanding detection scheme that can improve the current anti-
islanding protection scheme practiced by utilities. In this stage, an Electro-Magnetics
Transient (EMT)-based model has been developed for a utility type system, and major
types of distribution generators have been studied as individual and aggregated machines
using PSCAD/EMTDC, supported through an extensive MATLAB simulation study to
formulate and validate the proposed solution.

Stage II – Open-phase fault detection: The scope was to develop a solution that can
selectively identify an open-phase and falling conductor fault in a primary distribution
system based on the minimum data required from different locations. Customized models
in PSCAD/EMTDC have been developed to study this fault and formulate, examine, and
validate the proposed solution.

1.7 Methodology
With these motivations, exhaustive research work was conducted to investigate the
application of synchrophasor measurement in distribution systems, including islanding
detection and open-phase faults. A few alternative models based on utility field data were
used to develop a reliable EMT-based model in PSCAD-EMTDC to validate the solution.
MATLAB was used for mathematical calculations, result validation or circuit analysis -
e.g., load flow for EMT model.

1.8 Thesis Outline

In the first chapter, an introduction to the research objectives, the thesis outline is presented
along with the importance and motivation of research in the area of distribution systems,
phasor measurement systems, and the need for more research work in the specific
application that has been targeted in this work.
 10

In Chapter 2, fundamentals of the distribution feeder related to this work are studied. The
integration of distributed energy resources (DER), including the history of different types
of distributed generation (DG), is reviewed and discussed. The modeling aspect of the DGs
is studied. The history of IEEE 1547 in DG operation requirement and unintentional
islanding is reviewed.

In Chapter 3, fundamentals of synchrophasor phasor measurement, history, phasor and

frequency estimation, standard application, system architecture, performance, and state-of-
the-art technology is studied and reviewed. The use of alternative communication standard
IEC61850 and its advantage to the conventional C37.118 communication is proposed and
reviewed. The cost-effective system architecture adequate for the studied applications is
proposed.

In Chapter 4, background of unintentional islanding operation in distribution feeder with

integrated DG is reviewed and major islanding detection is categorically reviewed. A new
proposed solution is formulated. EMT modeling of utility-based distribution system is
described in PSCAD/EMTDC. A new solution with mathematical formulation is proposed.
EMT modeling in PSCAD/EMTDC is presented. The number of cases studied, and the
simulation results obtained, are presented and discussed in this chapter.

In Chapter 5, the background of open-phase faults, single-phase, double-phase with and

without ground in power system distribution feeder is studied. Existing detection methods
are reviewed. The new solution with the mathematical formulation is proposed, and EMT
modeling in PSCAD/EMTDC is presented. The number of cases studied, and the
simulation results obtained, are also discussed in this chapter.

In Chapter 6, the conclusion and summary are provided, and further research topics are
suggested. The reference document list is provided, and appendices contain additional
model parameterization to enable reproduction of this work and further simulation.

1.9 Summary
A brief introduction to the research and its importance to the area of power system
protection is provided in this chapter. The challenges and need to modernize the power
 11

system and distribution systems is reviewed. The application of phasor measurement

technology and the driver behind the need for the implementation of this technology in
transmission and distribution is reviewed and discussed. The fundamental characteristics
of distribution power system protection are described. The research objectives and a
detailed outline of the organization of the thesis is presented. The research motivation to
focus on phasor measurement applications in distribution systems is discussed. The
specific use cases that have been studied in this work is also introduced. And the
fundamentals of distribution feeder structure, plus an introduction to the Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) and thire EMTP modeling, will be discussed in the next chapter.
 12

Chapter 2
Introduction to Distribution Systems
Historically, electrical distribution networks have been the consumer interfaces with the
power plants and transmission systems where electricity, which is normally produced far
away from the center of load, is being transferred, delivered, and consumed. Although
interruption in the distribution services or failure in the distribution equipment directly
affects the end user, and the reliability and quality of the service, compared to the other
sector of energy distribution system it has been less technologically advanced. However,
in recent years with the rapid growth of alternative energy resources and the necessity for
the integration of many new devices such as Distributed Generations (DG), microgrids,
electric vehicles, etc., the distribution system is transforming to be at the forefront of the
renovation of electrical grids. It is very important to note that because of the massive
infrastructure of distribution systems, it is very capital and labor intensive [5], and
therefore, simplification and cost awareness have to be considered as chief characteristics
that will be demanded from researchers and solution providers. In this chapter, the
background of distribution system, with focus on the North American grid and some of the
challenges it is facing relevant to the current work, is presented.

2.1 Primary Feeder Structure

From a structural point of view, the distribution system can be considered a connection of
substation, primary, and secondary feeders. The topology and configuration of the system
can vary depending on the location where the distribution system is serving its customer;
as an example, downtown core, urban, rural, industrial, or a commercial area. The major
voltage classes used in the primary network are typically in the following range 4-5 KV;
7-8 KV;15-27.6 KV; and 35-44 KV. The most prevalent voltages in Ontario are 4.16, 13.8,
27.6 and 44 KV. Figure 2.1 shows typical voltage ranges for a vertically integrated
electrical power system. The secondary network voltage range at which electricity is
delivered to the meter is in the range of 120-600 V.
 13

Figure 2.1. Conventional Vertical Power Grid Infrastructure [6]

The most common primary feeder configuration used by north American utilities is the
four-wire three-phase power multi-grounded neutral system. There are other types of
feeder configurations as well but generally, radial characteristics are very common between
primaries and secondaries. A distribution primary feeder can come in a variety of shapes
and forms, depending on the geometry of the area that a feeder is covering. For example,
the shape of the area and the layout of the streets will heavily impact the number and size
of the branches and overall form of the feeder. Figure 2.2 shows an arbitrary overhead line
primary feeder with a number of single-phase and three-phase laterals taped off from the
main circuit. As shown in this circuit here, the radial distribution feeder is normally
provided with the possibility to be connected to one or more adjacent feeders through the
open tie. This will improve the reliability of the circuit to be able to supply whole or part
of feeder load by closing the tie with the adjacent feeders. The distribution feeder can be
subjected to accommodate an integration with the DER(s) at one or more Point of Common
Coupling (PCC) which will be determined by utilities along the main circuits. The
 14

integration of DGs imposes a new set of functionalities that should be provided by both the
utility and DG owner to maintain the safe operation of the feeder with the new
generation(s).

Figure 2.2. Typical Two Primary Radial Feeders with Open Loop

2.2 Under Ground Network

Often, in locations, such as urban area or downtown cores, underground networks are
replacing the overhead lines. Under Ground (UG) feeders normally daisy-chain all the
distribution transformers that are feeding secondary networks; these transformers are
known as a network transformer that are intended to supply the secondary network. The
secondary of underground UG network in the urban areas are interconnected. The
transformer, primary switch, and, network protector is in the underground vault across the
streets. Figure 2.3 illustrates the simplified one-line diagram of three UG feeders with their
 15

connection to the secondary grid. The network protector provides the following
functionality:

a. It prevents back feeding of the primary circuit by secondary grid during a primary
fault by tripping the circuit. Network protector is equipped with reverse power
protection element.
b. It trips the circuit and disconnects from the secondary grid when primary feeder is
deenergized.
c. It closes the circuit automatically when the primary feeder is energized.

Figure 2.3. Underground Distribution Network (Courtesy of Toronto Hydro)

The schematic of a network vault with two network transformers is presented in Figure 2.4.
The primary switch is used to connect the transformer to the primary feeder as well as
provides the ground at the location of the vault for the primary circuit. The meters are also
located at the secondary of the network transformer.
 16

Figure 2.4. Network Vault One-line Diagram (Courtesy of Toronto Hydro)

2.3 Feeder Protection in Distribution Network

The objective of protection for generation, transmission, and distribution systems are
similar. The main requirement of reliable system protection is that all points in the system
fall within one or more protected zones, so that there are no blind spots in the overall
protected system as shown in Figure 2.5 In distribution system several natural zones that
require a dedicated protection can be identified.
a. Transformers,
b. Buses,
c. Lines/feeders (transmission, subtransmission, distribution),
d. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.),
e. Capacitor and/or reactor banks
f. DER

Protection with a boundary defined by measuring devices such as current transformers is

referred to as closed-zone Protection. Differential relaying is a typical example of closed-
 17

zone protection that can detect a fault within the protected zone with high selectivity and
security. Protective relays with the protected zone defined by their “reach” are referred to
as an open zone. The open zone is not bonded by the measuring devices and operates when
the measured quantity exceeds the pre-set threshold. Correct operation of open-zone
protection heavily relies on the protective element setting. Performance of an open-zone
protection scheme is usually a trade-off between security and dependability.

Bus zone
Bus zone

Transformer
zone

Auto recloser or
sectionalizers zone
Station Feeder
Protection zone

Under Ground
Cable Zone Lateral Zone
Transformer
zone

Figure 2.5. Typical Protection Zone in Distribution Network

Reach in protection literatures refers to the locus of the most remote prospective fault
locations for which a specific protective device is capable to detect and clear. All points
electrically inside this frontier are considered to be within the zone of that protection
device. Typical example of protective devices with the clear reach are Distance and over
current relays. Distance relay can provide directional impedance measurement based on
the current and voltage of the network at the relay location. The reach in this relay relatively
stable and immune to the system condition. Overcurrent relay reach however, is a highly
 18

variable and the ability of the relay to detect the fault within its reach will expand and
contract with variations in fault types and system conditions.
Table 2-1 presents the result of IEEE Power System Relay committee (PSRC) survey for
the practices on distribution system feeder protection. The results of the survey show by
far the over current relay phase and ground are the main protection schemes implemented
in distribution primary feeders.

Table 2-1. IEEE Survey Results for Protection Schemes in Distribution Systems [7]
Number of
Type of Protection utilities Percentage
responded implemented
Circuit recloser (79) 31 73%
Phase overcurrent (50,51) 42 100%
Ground overcurrent (50N,51N) 41 97%
Negative sequence over current 4 5%
(46)
High impedance Detection device 2 0.05%
(Broken conductor)
Distance (21) 4 5%
Directional over current (67, 67N) 1 0.02%

Figure 2.6 presents the most common protection schemes that have been used in
distribution feeders across the North American grid. The circuit recloser (79) that is
frequently used is another over current based protection that is capable to clear the fault in
its downstream location and is utilized to isolate the transient fault and reenergize the
circuit without the permanent outage. The circuit recloser can provide a very fast or a slow
response to the fault. The number of closing attempts and fast or slow tripping can be
programmed. It is common practice for utilities to use the circuit recloser in the fuse saving
or fuse blown schemes which are intended to save or blown the fuse respectively during
the transient faults. It can be noted that the high impedance ground fault protection which
is used to detect the broken conductor when it comes in touch with the ground is used less
 19

than 0.05 % among the utilities that responded to survey. The feeders with integrated DER
are often equipped with protection transfer trip when the main is lost in order to prevent
the DER to supply the feeder consumers when the feeder circuit breaker is open.

Figure 2.6. Typical Feeder Protection in Distribution Network

Figure 2.7 shows a typical interface protection requirement for the DER owner. The anti-
islanding protection as shown here often is a point to point transfer trip (block 3) plus the
frequency and voltage protection elements (27, 59, and 81) that are installed at the PCC.
The anti- islanding protection can be further equipped with frequency rate of change (81R)
and loss of synchronism or out of step (78) protection elements.
 20

Figure 2.7. Utility Type Anti-Islanding Protection [8]

2.4 Conventional Distribution System Properties

Some of the important design characteristic of the existing primary distribution system that
is a focus of this work and is common among different types of networks (overhead and
underground) and feeder configurations can be summarized as follows:

a. The feeder is designed based on one-way load flow.

b. Measuring devices are mainly installed at the substation and often no sensors are
available along the feeder.
c. For the main primary circuit, the main protection is mainly over current element(s)
located at the substation, and alongside of the main circuit there may be other over
current elements, such as recloser, especially for overhead type feeder, that
provides sectionalized protection.
 21

d. In the overhead circuit, the laterals tapped off from the main circuit through the
fuses to protect laterals selectively, as shown in Figure 2.2.
e. The simplicity of the design is the main property of the existing system that ties to
the fact that distribution system, because of its size, is a very capital-intensive
business.
f. The anti- islanding protection that is shown in Figure 2.7 often is a point to point
transfer trip.
g. Often, no dedicated protection for an open phase fault is implemented.

Considering the status quo and backbone of electrical distribution system as some of the
properties summarized above, with the direction that has been taken by utilities and
government for production of clean energy, distribution grids with minimum hardware
preparation, is at the forefront of transformation to a new and smart gird. Integration of
rapid growth of DER, new solutions such as Microgrids, and energy storage etc. to support
reliability of system [9], [10] [11] from one side and advancement of communication
technology has provided an opportunity to many researchers and solution providers to
work towards addressing many of distribution system issue as a whole and facilitate the
transformation [12]. In the current work, the use of phasor measurement unit is proposed
to provide an advanced solution for addressing legacy issues, such as open phase fault, and
looking into the detection of DER operation in an unintended islanding operation.

2.5 Distributed Energy Resources

Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) are small scale electricity-producing resources that
contrary to the centralized conventional plant are distributed and directly connected to a
local distribution system. NERC (North American Electric Reliability Corporation)
considers any resource on the distribution system that produces electricity and is not
otherwise included in the formal NERC definition of the Bulk Electric System (BES) as
DER. BES from NERC’s point of view includes all Transmission Elements operated at 100
kV or higher and Real Power and Reactive Power resources connected at 100 kV or higher
[13].Therefore, DER includes the following [14]:
 22

Distributed Generation (DG): Any single or multiple generating units at a single location
owned and/or operated by the distribution utility a merchant entity. This includes Solar and
Wind Turbine generation.

Behind the Meter Generation (BTMG): A generating unit or multiple generating units
at a single location (regardless of ownership), of any nameplate size, on the customer's side
of the retail meter that serve all or part of the customer's retail load with electric energy.

Energy Storage Facility (ES): An energy storage device or multiple devices at a single
location (regardless of ownership), on either the utility side or the customer’s side of the
retail meter. This may include various technologies, including electric vehicle (EV)
charging stations.

Microgrid (MG): An aggregation of multiple DER types behind the customer meter at a
single point of interconnection that has the capability to island.

Cogeneration: Production of electricity from steam, heat, or other forms of energy

produced as a byproduct of another process.

Figure 2.8 presents major DER categories that have been integrated into the distribution
system so far. Among the different type of DERs, the renewable devices, such as wind and
solar, are the most frequently installed and integrated into the distribution system. In the
current study, wind and solar DGs are considered in the modeling wherever DER presence
has been required.
 23

Figure 2.8. DER Category Conventional and Non-conventional

2.5.1 Renewable DER Frequency and Voltage Control

Renewable DGs even in the same category as an example Wind Turbines it may have
different features as a result of their constructions. The prime mover is a mechanism that
produces energy and determines if the DG is dispatchable, i.e., if the production of
electricity can be scheduled as per the utility’s needs. The grid interface; however, have a
direct impact on how the voltage and reactive power could be controlled (for example,
generator versus inverter). IEEE PES [15] recognizes a few types of wind turbine
configurations, which will be reviewed briefly in this subsection and are differentiated
based on their network interfaces.

2.5.2 Induction Machine Type 1 and 2

Figure 2.9 presents the block diagram of the wind turbine type 1. The grid interface in this
type of system is an induction generator with squirrel cage rotor. During the operation, this
machine will be connected directly to the grid. The speed of this machine is almost fixed
and is around the frequency of the grid. In contrary to any synchronous machine, induction
machine used in type 1 does not have an independent excitation system and therefore, is
not capable of producing energy without presence of the grid. An independent source of
voltage will be required to provide the reactive power needed to generate and maintain the
 24

magnetizing field of this machine. This is also the reason why capacitor banks are often
required to support the economical operation of this type of machine. From islanding
operation perspective, type 1 machine cannot support the unintentional islanding and
supply the load alone. The type 1 belongs to the early generation of wind turbine; the size
of this machine is in the range of 10 to 100 KW, and lack of speed regulation makes this
type of machine undesirable with today’s available technology.

Figure 2.9. Induction Wind Turbine Type 1

Figure 2.10 presents the result of different fault type for wind turbine machine type 1
developed in PSCAD EMTDC. Prior to the short circuit instance at t= 4 sec machines were
supplying 1 per unit load. The time of the fault is an arbitrary one and the asymmetrical
current is not maximized based on the moment of the fault. The generator is shorted at the
collector prior to the point of common coupling transformer. It can be observed that the
type 1 machines are able to contribute a significant fault current to the grid depending on
the time of the short circuit. The contribution of the initial cycle of the fault (asymmetrical
current) can be as high as seven times the rated current and more. As the fault persists, the
contribution decreases in magnitude. By its nature, an induction machines consumes
reactive power both in the generating and motoring operation. The reactive power
consumption increases significantly as the output power increases.
 25

LLL

LLG

LL

LG

Sec

Figure 2.10. Induction Wind Turbine Type 1 Short Circuit Profile

In the type 2 wind turbine, shown in Figure 2.11, the induction generator used is a wound
rotor. There are no major differences between type 1 and type 2 turbines. They both have
almost fixed speed control. Type 2 has a better possibility for speed regulation by adding
resistance to the rotor circuit, and the real power curve can be “stretched” to the higher slip
and higher speed ranges. That is to say that the turbine will have to spin faster to create the
same output power, for an added rotor resistance.
 26

Figure 2.11. Induction Wind Turbine Type 2

The short circuit characteristics of a wind turbine type 2 is similar to a type 1. When the
external rotor resistance is not added to the rotor or shorted, the short circuit current is not
different with the squirrel-cage induction generator. Figure 2.12 shows the short circuit
simulation carried out in PSCAD EMTDC for the type 2 wind turbine for different types
of fault. The simulation is carried out with one external rotor resistance. The external
resistance in the rotor circuit will affect the value of the short circuit contribution
negatively. Prior to the short circuit instance at t=4 sec the machine is suppling a rating
value. The moment of short circuit is arbitrary and asymmetrical current is not maximize
based on the instance of the short circuit. It can be noted in this simulation that the type 2
machine can contribute significantly to the short circuit in the grid 4 to 5 per unit in the
initial cycle.
 27

W T Turbine Type 2 Short Circuit Profile

IA IB IC
4.0
2.0
PU [KA] 0.0 LLL
-2.0
-4.0

IA IB IC
4.0
2.0
PU [KA]

0.0 LLG
-2.0
-4.0

IA IB IC
4.0
2.0
PU [KA]

0.0
LL
-2.0
-4.0

IA IB IC
4.0
2.0
PU [KA]

0.0 LG
-2.0
-4.0

Sec 3.94 3.96 3.98 4.00 4.02 4.04 4.06 4.08 4.10 4.12 ...
...
...

Figure 2.12. Induction Wind Turbine Type 2 Short Circuit Profile

Type 1 and type 2 are often equipped with a smooth starter where the induction machine
is supplied with variable frequency and reduced voltage and to run the machine until bring
the machine up to the rating voltage and speed.

Figure 2.13 shows a simple simulation of induction machine start up in PSCAD. The
recorded graphs are active power, reactive power, speed, and generator terminal voltage.
At the start, the voltage and frequency are gradually increased, and the machine absorbs
active and reactive power. When speed and voltage reach the value of network, the smooth
starter is bypassed, and the wind turbine is directly connected to the grid. From this moment
onward, as shown in this simulation, the induction machine generates real power (P) when
the turbine shaft rotates faster than the grid frequency.
 28

Figure 2.13. Induction Wind Turbine Smooth Start up

2.5.3 Induction Machine Type 3 (DFIG)

Variable-speed generator drives enable the wind turbine control system to adapt the
rotational speed of the rotor to the instantaneous wind speed over a relatively wide range.
The electrical system has a fixed frequency though. A generator drive connecting a
variable-speed mechanical system to a fixed frequency electrical system must, therefore,
 29

contain some kind of a slip or decoupling mechanism between the two systems. In variable-
speed wind turbine Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG), the rotor circuit is fed from a
converter with variable frequency, as shown in Figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14. Induction Wind Turbine Type 3

Thus, the angular velocity of stator rotary field can be written as follows:

s r
=  mech 
ps pr
(2.1)

𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑟
𝑠= ,
𝑛𝑠

Where ps and pr denote the number of stator and rotor poles respectively, s is the power
system frequency which is equal to the sum of the angular velocity of mechanical rotation
(mech), and rotor current frequency (r). Depending on the direction of the supply
frequency, this machine can operate in over or under synchronous speed and has much
more flexibility to work over a wider range of wind speeds. For the simplification of power
and torque equations, assuming Ps = Pr = 1, then the following can be stated from the
basic asynchronous machine model:

ωm = (1 − S)ωs

1−s
Pmech = 3|ir |2 ( ) Rr (2.2)
2
 30

1−s R′r
Tmech = 3|i′r |2 ( ) =3Ψm |i′r | (2.3)
s ωm

Where Ψ𝑚 stator core magnetizing flux and prim indicates reflection of current and rotor
value to the stator side.

Vs
Ψm = Lm im =
ωs

Unlike type 1 and type 2 wind turbine machines, type 3 can provide reactive power to
participate in voltage regulation and when is connected to the grid. Figure 2.15 shows a
simulation that was carried out with the normal loading condition at t around 1.4 seconds;
the grid voltage is reduced by 6%, and thus, instantly the wind turbine in the absorbing
reactive power condition of (-0.4 PU) is changed to generating plus 0.4 PU to compensate
for loss of reactive power and reduction of voltage.

Figure 2.15. Wind Turbine Type 3 Reactive Power Regulation

 31

Similar to what is presented for the earlier wind turbine in this chapter, Figure 2.16 shows
the short circuit simulation for the type 3 machine carried out in PSCAD EMTDS. The
short circuit contribution for three-phase fault is shown to have the shortest decay time
with the peak current around 4 per unit. The phase to-phase -to-ground fault gives about
the same short circuit magnitude as the three-phase faults, but the decay time is longer. The
single line-to-ground fault produces the lowest peak current of about 5 per unit and it also
decays longer than the three-phase fault. From the short circuit waveforms, it can be
recognized that the symmetrical component analysis for the unbalanced short circuit is not
producing the same result as a conventional machine.

LLL

LLG

LL

LG

Figure 2.16. Wind Turbine Type 3 Short Circuit Profile

 32

The complete active power, reactive power, and frequency control of DFIG for this work
is developed and customized in “dq” control using PSCAD. The overview of the PSCAD
model is reported in the Appendix C.

Figure 2.17 shows a type 4 full-fledged back-to-back inverter-based machine. The grid
interface can be an induction or synchronous generator. This type of wind turbine is most
frequently implemented around the world. Type 4 can provide an independent active and
reactive power control loop and therefore, it can participate effectively in the grid feeder
voltage regulation. This type of configuration offers a great deal of flexibility in operation

Figure 2.17. Typical Wind Turbine Type 4

since there is no direct connection between the generator and the grid. The turbine is
allowed to rotate at its optimal aerodynamic speed, and the power output can still be
adjusted to the grid frequency. The dq control model customized for this study and its
parametrization is reported in the Wind Turbine Model Type 4.

Similar to type 3 this machine is capable of providing reactive power to participate in

voltage regulation when it is connected to the grid. Figure 2.18 shows the simulation that
was carried out with the normal loading condition at t around 3 seconds. The grid voltage
is reduced by 10%, thus, instantly the wind turbine in the absorbing reactive power
condition of (-0.1 PU) is changed to generating plus 0.3 PU to compensate for the loss of
reactive power and the reduction of voltage.
 33

Figure 2.18. Wind Turbine Type 4 Reactive Power Contribution

Figure 2.19 presents the short circuit contribution of wind turbine type 4 for a different
type of fault. It can be noted that a short circuit current even for a three-phase fault is
limited to the rated current or a little above the machine rated current. The type 4 machine,
depending on the design of inverter it can support some 10% to 20%. The generator in this
type of machine is not connected directly to the grid therefore, during the fault in the grid
the generator can still be running with the connection to the machine side converter and
power will be delivered by the grid side converter with reduced amount of voltage and
current.
 34

Wind Turbine Type 4 Short Circuit Profile

IA IB IC
1.5
1.0
0.5
LLL

PU (KA)
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
IA IB IC
1.5
1.0
0.5
LLG
PU(KA)

0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
IA IB IC
1.5
1.0
0.5
LL
PU(KA)

0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
IA IB IC
1.5
1.0
0.5
LG
PU(KA)

0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
Time 2.36 2.38 2.40 2.42 2.44 2.46 2.48 2.50 ...
...
...

Figure 2.19. Wind Turbine Type 4 Short Circuit Profile

2.5.4 Photo Voltaic

In distribution systems, because of the limitation of renewal capacity that can be integrated
into the primary feeder, the connection of solar farms is the most prevalent compared to
other types of DER. Figure 2.20 presents a conceptual block diagram of a utility grade solar
farm. At the DC side, the number of PV panels are normally in series and parallel to make
up for the current and power that is required to be connected to the DC/AC grid-connected
type of inverter. The AC voltage in the output of inverter will then be raised to the collector
voltage level which is often in the range of distribution class voltage and may integrate
more similar units to the main substation and common point of coupling (PCC) through
another transformer or directly.
 35

Figure 2.20. Typical Solar Farm Block Diagram

For the purpose of this work and study of unintended islanding, an integrated model of the
PV solar in PSCAD presented in Figure 2.21 is considered.

Figure 2.21. Grid Connected PV Model

The amount of power that can be taken from a solar cell depends on the operating point of
I_V cure which is maximum at the keen point of this curve as shown in the model. MPPT
(Maximum Power Point Tracking) is a power electronic DC-DC converter implemented to
 36

ensure that the PV cell operated at maximum power point. Figure 2.22 presents the short
circuit contribution of PV array for a different type of fault. The contribution of the short
circuit current even for the three-phase fault is limited and in the instance of the fault is
very close to the load. However, the short circuit current if the fault persisted in the next
cycles could reach to 2 PU to 3 PU. The PV similar to type 3 and 4 wind turbines can
supply the grid with reactive power.

Grid Connected PV short Circuit Profile

IA IB IC
3.0
2.0
1.0
PU [KA]

0.0 LLL
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
IA IB IC
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
PU [KA]

0.0 LLG
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
IA IB IC
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
PU [KA]

0.0
-1.0 LL
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
IA IB IC
2.5
PU [KA]

LG

-2.5
Sec 4.00 4.10 4.20 ...
...
...

Figure 2.22. Grid Connected Solar Farm Short Circuit Profile

2.5.5 DER Model Developed for Islanding Application

Three EMT models including wind turbine type 3, type 4, and PV, are developed and
customized for studying the islanding application in this work. The islanding application
 37

background and state-of-the-art solutions will be discussed in chapter four. In this

section, the overview and principle of the models used for DER modeling are presented.

The models developed for DER are based on the space phasor on αβ, and dq frames. A
three-phase positive rotation system can be shown as a single space phasor →f(t).

Fa (t) = fmax cos(ωt + Ɵ0 )

2π
Fb (t) = fmax cos (ωt + Ɵ0 − ) (2.4)
3

2π
Fc (t) = fmax cos (ωt + Ɵ0 + )
3

2π 4π
2
→(t)
F = [ej0 fa (t) + ej 3 fb (t) + ej 3 fc (t)] (2.5)
3

Where Ɵ0 , is the arbitrary initial angle of the three-phase system with the time origin.

Knowing,

2π 4π
Ej0 + ej 3 + ej 3 = 0

1
Cos θ = (ejθ + e−jθ )
2

Therefore,

→
f(t) = (fmax ejθ0 )ejωt

Figure 2.23 presents the space phasor representation of a 3 phase AC system in the
αβ and dq frame.

→(t)
F = fα + jfβ = (fd + jfq )e−jωt =(fd + jfq )ejρt
 38

Figure 2.23. Representation of Space Phasor in dq Frame

While 𝛼𝛽 frame is static and is not rotating, 𝑑𝑞 frame is locked with the rotation of space
→(𝑡)
phasor 𝑓 and therefore, the component in these frames is similar to the DC type
quantity. In (2.6) and (2.7), the 𝑑𝑞 quantities from three phase “abc” and vice versa are
calculated respectively. These calculations are known as the Park’s transformation.

2𝜋 2𝜋
cos 𝜃 cos (𝜃 − ) cos (𝜃 + )
𝑓𝑑 3 3 𝑓𝑎
2 2𝜋 2𝜋
[𝑓𝑞 ] = 3 sin 𝜃 sin (𝜃 − ) sin (𝜃 + ) [𝑓𝑏 ] (2.6)
3 3
0 1 1 1 𝑓𝑐
[ 2 2 2 ]

cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1
𝑓𝑎 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑓𝑑
[𝑓𝑏 ] = [ cos (𝜃 − 3 ) sin (𝜃 − ) 1] [ ]
3 𝑓𝑞 (2.7)
𝑓𝑐 2𝜋 2𝜋
cos (𝜃 + ) sin (𝜃 + ) 1 0
3 3

The angle Ɵ(t) in the above transformation is estimated based on the angular velocity of
the grid by Phase Locked Loop (PLL) function. The function block diagram of PLL is
shown in Figure 2.24. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) in this diagram works as a
resettable integrator between 0 and 360 degrees. It will reset the value of Ɵ(t) when it
reaches 360 degree. In Figure 2.23, if PLL forces 𝑓𝑞 to zero at any given time, the “d”
axis in the “dq” frame will be in the same position of f(t) and therefore, the “dq” frame
 39

will be locked to the space phasor rotation which generally represents the desired frequency
that should be measured.

Figure 2.24. Phase Looked Loop Block Diagram

Figure 2.25 shows the conceptual control block diagram of grid-imposed Voltage Source
Converter (VSC) illustrating the basic concept of the control of power models. The DC
source (VDC) in the case of type 3 and type 4 wind turbines is a simplified representation
of machine side convertor and in the case of a solar farm, represents a PV panel. The control
based on the 𝑑𝑞 frame is decoupled, i.e., there is a separate control loop for active and
reactive power. The estimation of grid frequency is an essential part of the conversion of
three phase AC system to the “dq0” stationary axis rotating with the angular frequency of
the grid source voltage Ɵ(t). In addition to “dq0“conversion, Ɵ(t) is used to adjust the
frequency of the grid side converter output. In simple terms, for the type 3 type 4 wind
turbines, and the PV solar farm, if there are no provisions for the islanding operation where
DER can supply the load in an islanded feeder, for the grid-imposed voltage source
converter without presence of an active source, the islanding mode cannot be sustained.
 40

Figure 2.25. Real and Reactive- Power Control of Grid Imposed VSC

Figure 2.26 shows the simulations carried out for the generic PLL grid used for this study.
The first graph Ɵ(t) in degrees is the output of VCO, and the second graph is a derivative
𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
of the first graph ( ) without any limitation on the output value. The grid frequency at
𝑑𝑡

𝑡 = 1.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 changes gradually to 58 Hz and at 𝑡 = 1.6 𝑠𝑒𝑐, the frequency is restored to its
original value of 60 Hz. The simulation is carried out for the grid side PLL used for type 4
machine.

The information related to the actual EMT models for DER used in this study are presented
in the Appendix C and Appendix D.
 41

Figure 2.26. Phase Looked Loop Simulation

2.6 Regulatory Requirements for DERs

Since the publication of IEEE 1547 “DER interconnection standard” in 2003, this standard
has gone through a major rework and revision which in a way reflects the state-of-the-art
in DER technology. Figure 2.27 presents the revision history of IEEE 1547 with highlights
of the major changes in the DER power network support.

The contributions of DER in the regulation of voltage, reactive power; frequency, and
network inertia are the major changes that can been seen from the earlier version of the
standard. In the early generations of DERs, they were mostly unable to support islanding
operation since there was no capacity to generate var and to regulate the voltage and
frequency without an additional control circuit that supports this operation. With DER
getting the functionality that can support grid operation, IEEE 1547 scope has changed
from focusing only on a distribution network to covering both distribution and bulk energy
systems.
 42

Figure 2.27. IEEE 1547 Grid Support Function History [Courtesy of IEEE 1547 WG]

In this regard, the standard has defined DER categories (Cat A, B) for the voltage
capabilities based on reactive power generation as a percentage of the power capacity of
DER for individual as well as aggregated units. The performance of the DER for an
abnormal operating condition have also been categorized (cat I, II, III), where Cat III is
specifically indented for bulk power systems.

DER Islanding in IEEE 1547-2018 standard

Following are the main highlights related to islanding in the latest version of the standard
and have taken into consideration the following:

• An island condition is defined as an operation in which a portion of an Area

Electrical Power System (EPS) is energized solely by one or more DER alone and
utility source is disconnected.
• AN unintentional island is one that is not planned and the DER must detect, trip,
and clear within 2 seconds –same as IEEE 1547-2003. Area EPS Operator
(utility) can extend this to 5 seconds.
 43

• Intentional island: one that is planned such that DER can carry a specific load
(e.g., microgrid, emergency/standby power supply). 1547-2018 now addresses
intentional islands.

2.7 Summary
A brief review of the conventional role of a distribution system as a power system interface
to the load center is discussed. It was shown that because of distribution system size, which
makes it a very capital- and labor-intensive business, and simplified functionality, which
was expected from this redial system, the technological disadvantage of the distribution
system infrastructure in comparison to the other sector of power systems was ignored by
utilities and system owners. Communication technology typically has not been part of the
solutions and research that have been offered. It is also discussed that distribution system
became the forefront of the green energy and smart grid initiative around the globe which
is transforming this system to be more technologically advanced, and hence, requires more
research and solutions similar to this work.

In this chapter, a background of distribution systems from a structural point of view is

studied with focus on the North American network. The voltage class, primary feeder
topology, distribution in urban and rural areas, and underground network in the city core
is discussed. A background and fundamental and main characteristic of feeder protection
in distribution systems more specifically related to the islanding and open phase fault which
is a focus of this work is reviewed and the summary of conventional distribution system
properties is developed.

A brief introduction to DER and their classification, as applicable to the distribution

system, is reviewed. The schematics and control model of the main type of DER that is
used in this work is studied. The short circuit contribution of different DER is model and
simulated. The contribution of DER into voltage and reactive power generation is verified
and studied. The summary of changes in IEEE standard for DER integration are outlined.
The generic control concept based on the space phasor and “dq” frame is studied. The
control frequency for the grid-imposed voltage source converter and Phase locked loop
(PLL) functionality is studied and the generic PLL model developed for this study is
 44

presented. The detailed EMT models DERs used in this work are presented in Appendix
D. In the next chapter, synchronized phasor measurement technique, signal processing,
phasor and frequency estimation, possible applications, and optimized system architecture
for the use cases studied in this work are presented.
 45

Chapter 3
Phasor Measurements
With the many advancements in communication, hardware processors, and information
technology in the industry, these technologies are finding their way into power system
applications. Although reliability and performance remain the leading requirement for
power system applications for any new technology, in recent years, it can be observed that
the phasor measurement system has become a technique of choice for electric power
system utilities. The phasor measurement is a hardware of choice for this work which is
discussed in this chapter.

3.1 Fundamental of Synchrophasor Measurement

The idea of computing synchronized measurement of the power system network in
different remote locations has been around even before the technology was able to support
it. Understanding the behavior of interconnected electrical grids with the objective of
controlling and protecting such a network created the need for simultaneous measurement
of voltage and current with the common time references to meaningfully compare both
magnitude and phase angle of the measurements. Figure 3.1 shows a simple structure of
synchrophasor network consisting of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) and Phasor Data
Concentrator (PDC).

Figure 3.1. Phase Angle Reference in Interconnected Grid

 46

The minimum structure that is required for preparing the synchrophasor data for specific
applications consist of the following:
Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU): PMUs is a function or logical device that provides
synchrophasor and system frequency estimates, as well as other optional information such
as calculated megawatts (MW) and megavars (MVAR), sampled measurements, and
Boolean status words. The PMU can provide synchrophasor estimates from one or more
voltage or current waveforms [16]. The PMU can be realized as a stand-alone physical
device or as part of a multifunctional device, such as a protective relay, DFR, or meter. The
number of PMUs and locations where the PMU measures the electrical signal can vary
depending on the application requirement.

The introduction of PMU, which nowadays is heavily standardized in the industry, goes
back to the mid-1980s [17]. Since then, with the advancement in hardware computation
power, communication media, and availability of GPS around the globe (see Figure 3.2),
it became possible to use PMU as a standalone device or as a low-cost integrated function
in protection and control of Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) by utilities in many
control, supervisory, and backup protection applications.

Figure 3.2. PMU History Time Line [18]

Time reference: The samples obtained by the PMU must be synchronized to a common
timing reference, so the angles of the phasors computed at different locations will be
comparable. As such, the electrical phasor which represents the analogue waveform of
current or voltage at different locations of the power system are synchronized by means of
Global Positioning System (GPS) to the Universal Time Clock (UTC) through
communication.
 47

Synchronized clocks, providing precise timestamps for events, and data acquisition
applications on electric power systems. One way to provide precise time values is to use a
dedicated GPS receiver for every single device. But this is a costly solution. Alternatively,
time distribution mechanisms via dedicated buses or, for newer IEDs using Ethernet
connectivity can be implemented in practice. Each time synchronization method has its
own advantages and disadvantages and not all of them are optimal for use in substation
applications. Table 3-1 below, the most common time synchronization methods available
in the industry are compared for typical accuracy, data indication capability, dedicated
cabling requirements, cost effective implementation, and scalability. The methods are
briefly described here:

IRG-B- Inter Range Instrumentation Group time codes, also known as IRIG time codes,
are standard formats for transmitting time information. The original code formats were
described in IRIG document 104-60, and later revised several times over the years, with
the latest version being the IRIG Standard 200-04. IRIG codes B (IRIG-B time-codes) is
the industry standard for distributing synchronized time signals to IEDs. For time code
transmission, IRIG-B requires an external time source, such as a GPS receiver and a
dedicated twisted pair, coaxial cable or - fiber links. Therefore, this is not a low-cost
solution for time synchronization.

Pulse-Per-Second (1PPS): The 1 Pulse –per-Second waveform, which is a digital-bit

transmitted every second, with a pulse width of 10 milliseconds. A one pulse per second
(1PPS) signal provides better accuracy than the 100 ns (on-time mark), but does not provide
any indication of the date or time of day. 1 PPS is sent to every IED over separate lines and
is typically used in a substation application in conjunction with other synchronization
methods, such as IRIG-B. Because of this limitation, and the fact that the hardware
requirements and performance are similar to those for an unmodulated IRIG-B code, IRIG-
B has generally supplanted 1 PPS for substation use.
Network Time Protocol (NTP): NTP represents a software mechanism for transferring
the time between computers using a communication network, such as the Internet, and is
defined in RFC-1305. It generally provides moderate accuracy (1-10ms) depending on how
the NTP clients and server are interconnected and also on the performance of the
 48

communication software. NTP is very robust, widely deployed throughout the Internet, and
well tested over the years and is generally regarded as state of the art in distributed time
synchronization protocols for unreliable networks. It can reduce synchronization offsets to
a few milliseconds over the public Internet and sub-millisecond levels over local area
networks. For best accuracy, the logical connection between the clients and servers should
be as short as possible.

IEEE 1588 V2: The IEEE 1588 Standard defines the Precision Time Protocol (PTP) for
packet-based networked systems. The time synchronization of IEEE 1588 protocol is
achieved by send message between master and slave docks. The clocks in the network are
divided into master and slave. Version 1 of the protocol was initially released in 2002 and
in 2008, was revised as Version 2. The first version does not support transparent clocks or
industry profiles and has larger packets that generate more traffic than the second version.
These two versions are not compatible. [19]

Table 3-1. Accuracy for Time Synchronization Methods [20]

Typical Provides Dedicated Fulfills IEEE

Accuracy date and cabling not C37.118
in time of day required Synchrophasor
Method
substation indication Data
with given requirements
method

IRIG-B 100 µs x

1PPS 1µs x

Built in 1µs x x
GPS

NTP 1-10 ms x x

IEEE 1588 1µs x x x

 49

Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC): The phasor measurements are real time measurements
streamed by PMUs to the other devices, conventionally to the PDC, that work as a node in
a communication network where synchrophasor data from a few PMUs or other PDCs is
correlated and fed out as a single stream to the higher level PDCs and/or applications. The
PDC correlates synchrophasor data using a time tag to create a system wide measurement
set.

Communication Media: The Synchrophasor measurement system requires a

communication media where PMU, GPS, and PDC data steam from different location can
be exchanged or send to the higher-level application hierarchy devices. The performance
of communication media from reliability, speed and security has at most impact on the
application functionality.

GPS Timing: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based, radio-navigation

system that enables extremely accurate positioning, navigation and timing. Originally
designed as a 24-satellite constellation, GPS is currently comprised of 31 satellites (Oct
2018). The system is owned and operated by the U.S. Government as a national
resource. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) is the "steward" of GPS and responsible
for operating the system in accordance with the IS-GPS-200H system specification and, by
U.S. law, the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Precise Positioning System (PPS)
Performance Standards. The PMUs are required to be synchronized tot eh GPS timing so
any data analysis and comparison between measurement of PMUs in different location will
be possible.

3.2 Formal Phasor Definition

In short, the synchrophasor representation of the time domain signal x(t) in equation (3.1)
is the value X in (3.3), where φ is the instantaneous phase angle relative to a cosine function
at the nominal system frequency synchronized to UTC.

𝐱(𝐭) = 𝐗 𝐦 (𝐭) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 + ∅) (3.1)

 50

Equation (3.1) can be written also as (3.2) in the exponential format.

𝐱(t) = Re{(Xm (t))ej(ωt+∅) } = Re[{ej(ωt) }Xm ej∅ ] (3.2)

The term ej(ωt) will be suppressed knowing that ω is the frequency of the power system
and therefore, the sinusoidal is commonly shown as the phasor equation of:

Xm Xm
X=( ) eJ∅ = ( ) [Cos∅ + Jsin∅] (3.3)
√2 √2

Under this definition, φ is the offset from a cosine function at the nominal system frequency
synchronized to UTC. A cosine has a maximum at t = 0, so the synchrophasor angle is 0
degrees when the maximum of x(t) occurs at the UTC second rollover (1 PPS time signal),
and –90 degrees when the positive zero crossing occurs at the UTC second rollover (sine
waveform). Figure 3.3 shows the phase angle/UTC time relationship.

Figure 3.3. Convention for Synchrophasor Representation

In the real world, however, the power system frequency will vary in time, and the current
and voltage are not an ideal sinusoidal waveform. Therefore, a more comprehensive
transformation from a pure sinusoidal signal to phasor representation, as the one discussed
 51

earlier from frequency, amplitude, and waveform point of view will be discussed in this
chapter briefly.

3.2.1 Phasor Representation of Non-Sinusoidal Waveform

In power systems, the current and voltage often have other frequency components, and in
order to represent them in the phasor form, it is necessary to extract the single frequency
component (fundamental frequency component) from the measured signal. The Fourier
Transformation or filter is conventionally used to extract the main frequency component
from the corrupted sinusoidal signal.

Fourier transformation is used to break the measured signal into an alternate representation
characterized by summation of series sine and cosine. Equation (3.4) illustrates how an
arbitrary signal or measurement f(t) can be split into sine and cosine components using
Fourier transformation [21]:

a0 2πkt 2πkt
f(t) = + ∑∞
k=1[(a k cos ( ) + bk sin ( ))] (3.4)
2 T T

where ak and bk are constant given by

T
2 + 2πkt
2
ak = ∫ T f(t) cos ( ) dt, K = 0,1,2, , … (3.5)
T −2 T

T
2 + 2πkt
2
bk = ∫ T f(t) sin ( ) dt, K = 0,1,2, , … (3.6)
T −2 T

Figure 3.4 illustrates the same concept where the squared waveform signal with variable
frequency is transformed into Fourier components. The main components with
fundamental frequency in this transformation, i.e., the red color signal will be considered
if representation of such a signal into the phasor form is required.
 52

Figure 3.4. Fourier Transformation of Squared Waveform

3.2.2 Off Nominal Frequency

In synchrophasor application the current and voltage of power system must be represented
in the real time with the consideration of frequency variation. (3.7) and (3.8) in which the
corresponding phasor will rotate at the uniform rate of Δf, i.e., is illustrating the difference
between the actual and nominal frequency .

x(t) = Xm (t) cos(ωt + ∅) = Xm (t) cos(2π(f0 + ∆f )t + ∅) (3.7)

x(t) = Re{(Xm (t))ej(ωt+∅) } = Re[{ej(ωt) }Xm ej∅ ] (3.8)

This concept is illustrated in Figure 3.5 where the analogue waveform has been shown in
real time at intervals {0, T0, 2T0, 3T0,..,nT0, …}, where T0= 1/ f0 (the nominal power
system period) and the sequence corresponding phasor of these measurement are {X0,
X1, X2, X3, … Xn, …}.
 53

Figure 3.5. Waveform with Positive Δf >0 (f > f0)

If the phasor magnitude is constant, the phase angles of the sequence of phasors {X0, X1,
X2, X3, … Xn, …} will change at a constant angular velocity proportional to 2πΔf/T0.
Assuming these values are reported in real time, the phase angle will increase continuously
until it reaches 180 degrees where these would wrap around to –180 degrees, and continue
to increase, as shown in Figure 3.6. It should be noted that in synchrophasors, the angles
commonly reported are from –180 degrees to +180 degrees rather than 0 to 360 degrees.

Figure 3.6. Off Nominal Power Frequency Sampling

 54

3.3 Signal Processing

Figure 3.7 shows a simplified functional block diagram of a typical PMU. Before the
phasor to be computed, the analog signal must go through the conversion. In the numerical
process, the analogue signal is measured though several sampled values per cycle of the
original signal. This part of PMU functionality is like any IED or digital fault recorder
device where the analog signal must be measured based on sequential samples over the
time.

Figure 3.7. Typical PMU Configuration

The phasor of the main frequency component is estimated by use of Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) or Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).

The DFT is the equivalent of the continuous Fourier transform for signals known by only
N instants separated by sample time of ∆T. If f(t) is an arbitrary analog (continuous) input
signal which is the source of the data and f[0], f[2], …,f[N-1] are the N samples. The
Fourier transform of signal f(t) can be written as follows:

∞
F(jω) = ∫−∞ f(t)e−jωt dt (3.9)

If we regard each sample as an impulse having area f[k] which is f(k)*∆T, then, (3.9) can
exist only at the sample points:

F(jω) = f[0]e−j0 + f[1]e−jω∆T + ⋯ + f[N − 1]e−jω(N−1)∆T

F(jω) = ∑N−1
K=0 f[K]e
−jωK∆T
(3.10)
 55

For fundamental frequency and its harmonic (including the DC components (𝝎=0) of the
original signal),

2π 2π 2π
Ω = 0, ,2 … , (N − 1)
NT NT NT

2π
−j nK
F(n) = ∑N−1
K=0 f[K]e N (n = 0 ∶ N − 1)

In principle, (3.10) can be used for any 𝝎 with only N samples. Sampling data from the
input signal is the start of the process to estimate the phasor. Over the years, several
considerations and techniques have been developed to digitalize the analog signal for
precise representation, which is described briefly in this section.

3.3.1 Nyquist Frequency and Anti-Aliasing Filter

An analog signal is acquired by PMU or any IED through the Analog to Digital conversion
where the analog signal sample is taken based on a sampling rate. The aliasing concept is
totally dependent on this sampling rate. If the sampling rate is not sufficient, aliasing
problems occur during the reconstruction of the sampled signal while converting the digital
signal into the analog signal. According to Nyquist’s sampling theorem, the sampling rate
must be at least twice the bandwidth of the analog signal at the beginning of the sampling
procedure to be able to reconstruct the sampled signal. In other words, if the analog signal
is a periodic signal, at least two points must be sampled in one period. Figure 3.8 shows
the impact of the sampling rate in capturing the information of the input signal. As shown,
the sample rate must be greater than or equal to two times of highest frequency component
in the input signal. The limit where the maximum frequency component in a sampled data
system can accurately be handled is known as the Nyquist limit.
 56

Figure 3.8. Impact of Signal Sampling Rate On A/D Conversion

In the actual devices the high frequency components of the input signal that are not within
the Nyquist limit will be cut off during the signal processing by anti-aliasing filter.

3.4 Phasor and Frequency Estimation

As presented earlier, phasor “V” is a representation of sine waves whose amplitude (A),
phase (φ), and angular frequency (𝝎) is time variable.

V(t) = A. cos(ω t + φ) = A. Re{ej(ωt+φ) } (3.11)

𝑉 = 𝐴∡ φ

In power systems, however, amplitude (A), phase (φ), and angular frequency (𝝎) are time-
based variables. Therefore, the phasors for power systems should be estimated in time-
based processed signals, such as voltage and current, which will be estimated for a window
in a time-based manner and the estimation will be updated, as shown in Figure 3.9.
 57

Figure 3.9. Phasor Estimation Windows

A few numbers of techniques have been developed over the years related to real time
phasor estimation. The short and long windows for phasor estimation are the main
categories that are known in this area. The short windows algorithm, such as Miki and
Mikano, Mann and Morrison, Rockefeller and Urden, and long windows algorithm, such
as DFT, LES, can be noted.

3.4.1 Short Windows Phasor Estimation

Short windows-based estimation has a fast-transient response and fewer computations;
however, when the input signal contains harmonics, DC, and noise, it tends to impact the
performance of the short windows-based estimation. Figure 3.10 illustrates Miki and
Mikano short-window phasor data windows with two samples.
 58

Figure 3.10. Phasor Estimation

At time t= 0 and t= -1, the following can be formulated:

V0 = Vp cos(∅) (3.12)

V−1 = Vp cos(−ω∆T + ∅)

V−1 = Vp {cos(ω∆T) cos (∅) − sin(ω∆T) sin (∅)}

[V−1 −V0 cos(ω∆T)]

Vp sin(∅) = (3.13)
sin(ω∆T)

From equation (3.12) and (3.13), real and imaginary parts of the phasor can be calculated,
and accordingly, their magnitude and angle :

V−1 −V0 cos(−ω∆T) 2

Vp = √V02 + [ ] (3.14)
sin(−ω∆T)

sin(ω∆T)
∅ = tan−1 (3.15)
𝑉0

3.4.2 Long Windows Phasor Estimation

For the long window-based estimation using DFT, the phasor can be formulated based on
sample data measured from the input signal for any sampled value using (3.17) or
fundamental frequency using (3.19) which is of prime interest in phasor measurement.
 59

j2π
2 kn
Xk = ∑N−1
n=0 X[n]e N k = 0, . . , N − 1 (3.16)
N

j2π
kn
X[n] = ∑N−1
n=0 X k e N n = 0, . . , N − 1

Ak = Xk = √Re(Xk )2 + Im(Xk )2 k = 0, . . , N − 1 (3.17)

Φk = tan−1 (Xk )

And phasor for fundamental frequency can be simplified as follows:

j2π
2 n
X1 = ∑N−1
n=0 X n e N k = 0, . . , N − 1 (3.18)
N
1 2π 1 2π
X1 = ∑N−1
n=0 X n cos ( n) + j ∑N−1
0 Xn sin ( n) n = 0, . . , N − 1
N N N N

1 2π 2 1 2π 2
A1 = √{ ∑N−1
n=0 X n cos ( n)} + {j ∑N−1
n=0 X n sin ( n)} n = 0, . . , N − 1 (3.19)
N N N N

2π 2π
∅1 = tan−1 (∑N−1
n=0 X n cos ( n) + j ∑N−1
0 Xn sin ( n)) n = 0, . . , N − 1
N N

In recent years, much research has been done to improve phasor estimation and how the
estimation should be updated for the real time application. The windows of data acquisition
must move forward with the objective of using phasor-based measurement for transient
study, fast power system phenomenon, such as protection. In [22], the authors propose an
improved DFT to immunize the accuracy of DFT phasor estimation from the presence of
DC component (short circuits scenarios). In [23], a dynamic current phasor measurement
is presented to deal with the noise in current signals. In [24], a method to estimate the
phasor for off-frequency based on Taylor series is proposed. In [25], [26], and [27] more
studies have been done to present phasor estimation for protection and time critical
application.

3.5 Frequency Estimation

The PMU is required to measure instantaneous voltage, current, and estimate phase angle
frequency and rate of change of frequency of voltage & current signals. One of the main
 60

reasons behind the estimation of frequency is the fact that if the frequency is not known,
the phasor estimation itself is not accurate.

LES-based Frequency Estimation: The Least Square Frequency Estimation technique is

an accurate when the deviation of the frequency is small from the rated frequency;
however, it is sensitive to harmonic components.

Zero Crossing: This method monitors timing between the wave from zero crossing in the
negative and positive half wave in order to estimate the frequency of the phasor in the
predetermined time interval.

3.6 Communication and Reporting the Data

PMUs are capable of reporting phasor data from nominal and off-nominal frequency by
providing single-phase and multi-phase data at multiples and submultiples of rated
frequency, which must be supported by the PMU. The rate will be selected by user, and
higher and lower rate will also be permitted depending on the need of the application.
Table 3-2 presents the reporting rate that is identified by the standard [28] that must be
supported by the PMU. The rate will be selected by the user, and higher and lower rates
will also be permitted depending on the need of the application.

Table 3-2. PMU Reporting Rates

System Frequency 50 Hz 60Hz

Reporting rates (Fs—Frame per second) 10 25 50 10 12 15 20 30 60

The essence of synchrophasor measurements is to gather PMU information from different

nodes in the power system that are far from each other and to be able compare the
information. Figure 3.11 presents the conventional communication system architecture for
wide area application. IEEE C37.118.2 standard specifies a method that a synchronized
phasor measurement data between PMU and PDC with any suitable protocol for real-time
communication can be used. It also defines the message types, contents, and data formats,
as well as communication options and requirements.
 61

Figure 3.11. Conventional Phasor Measurement Communication Architecture [29]

All message frames start with a 2-byte SYNC word followed by a 2-byte FRAMESIZE
word, a 2-byte IDCODE, a time stamp consisting of a 4-byte Second-Of-Century (SOC),
and 4-byte FRACSEC, which includes a 24-bit FRACSEC integer and an 8-bit Time
Quality flag. All frames are transmitted exactly as described with no delimiters. Figure
3.12 illustrates this frame transmission order. The SYNC word is transmitted first and
CHECK word last.

Figure 3.12. Communication Example C37.118-2 Frame

For time critical applications, time delay and device performance are important.

Table 3-3 presents the typical range of time delay in processing and communication that
can be expected for typical PMU based applications.
 62

Table 3-3. Typical Delay Range for PMU Application [28]

Cause of delay Typical range of

delay

Sampling window (delay of ½ windows) 17 ms to 100 ms

Measuring filtering 8 ms to 100 ms

PMU processing 0.02ms to 30 ms

PDC processing and alignment 2 ms to2 sec

Serializing output 0.05 ms to 20 ms

Communication system I/O 0.05 ms to 30 ms

μs μs
Communication distance 3.4 to 6
km km

Communication system buffering and error 0.05 ms to 8 sec

correction

Application input 0.05 ms to 5 ms

In line with hardware advancements that have been made in the last couple of decades in
terms of how the PMU and PDC perform, the communication media, such as LAN (Local
Area Network), Ethernet-based communication with speed of 1.00GB/sec or faster, have
replaced serial type communication in utilities-based applications. In this regard
compliance of Phasor measurement data with IEC IEC61850-90-5 standard created the
possibility of using time critical communication services, such as GOOSE message
(General Object-Oriented Substation Event) and Sample Value (SV), that is defined by this
standard series and managed IEC Technical Committee 57 (TC57) to be available for time
critical application such as protection in substation . IEC/TR 61850-90-5 [30] provides a
way of exchanging synchrophasor data between PMUs, PDCs WAMPAC (Wide Area
Monitoring, Protection, and Control), and between control center applications. The data,
 63

to the extent covered in IEEE C37.118-2005, is transported in a way that is compliant with
the concepts of IEC 61850. However, given the primary scope and use cases, this document
also provides routable profiles for IEC 61850-8-1 GOOSE [31] and IEC 61850-9-2 SV
[32] packets which can be used to transfer synchrophasor data using GOOSE (General
Object-Oriented Substation Event) message over WAN (Wide Area Network). To
summarize the rule and relation of IEC and IEEE standard in the context of synchrophasor
measurement and application IEEE C37.118.1 remains the global standard for defining the
measurement technology for synchrophasor while IEEE C37.118.2 is the IEEE protocol to
address current system requirements enabling IEC TR 61850-90-5 to be the basis for a
more scalable, and secure, protocol to meet application requirements.

Figure 3.13 shows the synchrophasor communication architecture based on IEC61850-90-

5. As shown here, the communication relation between PMUs and PDC is based on
publishing and subscribing relationship over the Wide Area Network. The first advantage
of being able to use time critical communication services of IEC61850, such as SV or
GOOSE, is the availability of PMU data streams in the entire network when it is published,
with no requirement for intermediate devices. This design especially benefits the
performance and elimination of PDC for small applications which is proposed by the
current research.

Figure 3.13. Synchrophasor IEC61850-90-5 Based System Architecture

 64

In Appendix B more information related to the peer to peer communication services in

IEC61850 standard is described.

3.7 PMU Applications in Distribution Systems

Historically, synchrophasor measurements were implemented in bulk power applications
in transmission system with conventional generation. In recent years, and shortly after
August 2003 North American blackout [33] and some more in Europe [34], more attention
and research work was drawn to the field of Wide-Area Measurement System (WAMS)
with the objective of serving and improving monitoring, protection, and control of power
networks [35]. Primarily, PMU is used for power system state estimation [36]; however, a
lot of research is still expected for the large-scale systems and accurate estimation. Most
research has been focused in the area of time critical applications, such as protection. [37].
Use of synchrophasor measurement in some of the distribution applications, which is the
focus of this work is gradually getting more attention from researchers and technology
providers

Conventionally, the distribution systems were assumed to be simple and posed little need
to be observed with granularity in space and time. The measuring sensors implemented in
the feeder almost uniquely were limited to the substation location only. Most of the control
and protection applications have been developed based on the accessibility of
measurements only back at the substation. However, with the transformation of the energy
sector and rapid growth in deployment of distributed energy resources, bi-directional
electricity flows, and new devices, such as electric vehicles, there is a growing interest and
requirement for observation tools along the feeder for significantly impacted distribution
feeders. Therefore, PMU, as an integrated function in IED, can play an important role in
redefining many distribution management system functionalities which were based on
limited data. In the current work, islanding, and open phase fault in the distribution
overhead line are targeted and developed.

3.7.1 Micro-PMU Development

PMUs specifically designed for use in distribution systems are sometimes referred to as D-
PMUs, or as micro-PMUs (μPMUs) [38]. It should be noted that the term μPMU is not a
 65

trademark and is originated by Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) led

by the University of California Berkeley and funded by the US Department of Energy. The
μPMU is a generic term used for extremely high precision power disturbance recorder
adapted for making voltage phase angle or synchrophasor measurements, capable of
storing, analyzing and communicating data live. The resolution of this device is roughly
100 times more than the IEEE PMU and the phase angle accuracy is 0.01 degrees versus 1
degree. The motivation for developing such a device can be summarize as follows:
1) In distribution systems, because of the direct interface to loads, there are many
more branches, short lines, and a high density of electronics have a more
elevated noise-to-signal ratio compared to the transmission system. Thus,
higher resolution measurement will be useful in distribution systems.
2) To determine the small power flow in distribution systems, more precise angle
measurement will be required.
3) Unlike the transmission grid, where reactance value (X) is dominated the
impedance, in distribution feeders resistance (R) value is significant and in
some parts even the parallel capacitance due to underground cables cannot be
neglected, therefore, a more complex representation of the impedance will be
required to have a visibility over the network.
4) Generally, the change of voltage angle along the distribution system is small
thus, being able to measure tenth of degree can support some applications.
Not all the applications in distribution system required the high-performance PMU
application. In this work islanding and open phase is studied in chapter 4 and chapter 5.
The proposed islanding method has considered the limitation of IEEE PMU. While the
proposed open phase is not requiring the voltage or current phase angle measurement the
minimum requirement phase angle measurement for islanding for the stable measurement
is considered to be one degree. Table 3-4 presents some application class for distribution
PMU with the high accuracy and resolution.

Table 3-4. Expected Data Requirement for μPMU Application [39]

Application Measurement Time resolution Accuracy Note
quantity
 66

Voltage Voltage 1 sec 0.5 % Voltage phase

Magnitude magnitude angle useful for
profile understanding
tap changes
Real time load Current 1 cycle 0.5 %
awareness magnitude
Outgas Voltage and 1 sec 1%
management current
magnitude
State Voltage phasor Time Very high
estimation synchronization accuracy
is critical required
0.00001
PU
Micro-grid Voltage phase 1 cycle 0.01
islanding angle degree
Model Voltage and Time 0.5 %
validation current phasor synchronization
is critical

The availability of PMU data with the higher resolution can potentially increase the
sensitivity of the proposed solutions however, the amount of data that must be transferred
cannot be handled by the current available market devices and communication
infrastructure. The islanding application in this work is intended to be used by utilities as
backup for the local islanding protection scheme and to replace the transfer trip. Therefor
this application is not intended for Microgrid or small size DG applications (2MW and
above) and as such the high-resolution PMU will not provide its full benefit.

3.8 Summary
The fundamentals of synchronized phasor measurement system architecture were
presented in this chapter. The functionality of phasor measurement unit (PMU), data
 67

concentrator, and GPS were discussed, and the history of the early PMU and advancement
of phasor measurement technology was presented. It was shown that along with IEEE
C37.118 restructuring in recent years, the technology as well as the standard, are more
prepared to support the real time application of control and protection.

The flow of analogue signal and its process in PMU hardware was also studied in this
chapter. Various phasor and frequency estimation techniques were looked. The
communication aspect of synchronized phasor measurement unit and phasor data
concentrator was studied. The new communication standard of IEC61850-90-5 and the
possibility of the integration of the synchrophasor data stream with the substation
automation data was presented. The implication of using of IEC61850-90-5 and GOOSE
messages in peer to peer communication between the PMUs and the elimination of PDC,
especially in the distribution systems, was discussed. Measurement was discussed in this
chapter as well. The motivation behind the call for use of synchrophasor data (by this work)
in the distribution protection application using substation automation infrastructure was
presented.

The development of μPMU with high accuracy and high resolution was reviewed, along
with the difficulty of measurement in distribution systems and the accuracy required for
them. The possible conceptual application of high performance synchrophasor is reviewed.
In the next chapter, the islanding detection use case for distribution feeder, including the
background, critical review of the state of the art, issue formulation, development of a
solution, and modeling and test system will be discussed.
 68

Chapter 4
Adaptive Islanding Scheme
In this chapter, the proposed islanding detection method for distribution system is
presented.

4.1 Introduction
Utilities’ main concern behind islanding operations in the distribution network is safety
and the lack of adequate infrastructure that can monitor and control the operation of DGs
within the islands in a reliable manner. Thus, in the current stage of distribution
modernization, it is broadly taken for granted that the island is an unregulated power system
that has behaves unpredictably. Voltage and frequency in the islanded area can
significantly deviate from the acceptable range since utilities have no means to curb the
power mismatch between the DG production capacity and the load(s) connected to the
island.

One of the most commonly used passive islanding methods consists of detection of under-
, over-, and rate of frequency variations. The primary concerns and limitations of the local
passive detection methods are that these methods cause an operating region where, in that
specific region, islanding conditions cannot be found or detected in a timely manner. This
region is known as the Non-Detection Zone (NDZ). Similar NDZ regions can be identified
among many passive detection techniques which have been the topic of much research.
There is no single passive method that can be effective in all scenarios and the Power
Systems Community is undecided on what type of islanding detection should be used. For
example, IEEE standards 1547-2003 and 929-2000 specify the performance characteristics
of the islanding detection methods with detailed test circuits that can be used to validate
the method considered. Issues related to the passive islanding techniques can be
summarized as follows:

1) The Non-Detection Zone is a major concern in deploying a passive scheme; there

is no single passive method which can work in all scenarios. Hence, evaluation of
the NDZ region and the probability of island occurrence need to be verified.
 69

2) Broadly speaking, the performance of passive islanding methods shows a

dependency on the type of DG installed in the distribution network. Therefore,
dependability and the security of an island detection scheme may vary from one
application to another.

3) Most of the work in this area has been conducted around low DG penetration or
single DG island detection cases, while higher DG penetration cases can further
enlarge the NDZ and affect the security and dependability of the schemes.

4.2 Islanding
Prior to reviewing islanding detection techniques and their significance, it is appropriate to
define the term islanding. Islanding is a generic term used to describe a scenario in which
a section of a transmission, or distribution network (which contains DG) is separated from
the rest of the grid. This separation is often caused by the action of the protective relays to
clear and isolate the electrical fault. Subsequent to this separation, the DG restarts or
continues to power the loads trapped within the island [40]. Figure 4.1 illustrates a typical
North American distribution feeder with a few DGs, a step-down substation with several
outgoing distribution feeders, and one of the outgoing distribution feeders shown in detail.

Figure 4.1. Typical Primary Distribution Feeder Topology in North America

 70

An islanding situation occurs, for instance, when recloser C opens while DG1 is still
feeding the load and an island is created as a result of the recloser operation. The utility's
main concern behind the islanding operation in the distribution network is safety and the
lack of adequate infrastructure which can monitor and control the operation of DGs within
the islands in a reliable manner. Thus, in the current stage of distribution modernization, it
is broadly taken for granted that the island is an unregulated power system. Its behavior is
unpredictable and voltage and frequency in the islanded area can significantly deviate from
the acceptable range, since utilities have no means to curb the power mismatch between
DG production capacity and load connected to the island. The main concern for such an
operation among utilities can be listed as follows [41]:

1) The quality of power fed to an islanding portion of feeder may be lower compared
to when the power is supplied by the utility. The range of voltage and frequency in
the islanded portion of the feeder is a main concern since the supply utility is no
longer controlling the voltage and frequency delivered to their customers and any
excursion from expected boundaries of voltage and frequency can cause
considerable damage to customers’ equipment within the island.
2) An islanding operation may also create a hazard for line-workers or the public by
causing a line to remain energized that may have been assumed to be disconnected
from all energy sources.
3) The likelihood of the islanded portion not being in phase with the network voltage
and phases, at the instant when the islanded portion is reconnected through
reclosing or an automation, is a real concern. This can damage the generating
equipment and DGs in the island. Ultimately, such an attempt of restoration may
fail.
4) Islanding may interfere with the manual or automatic restoration of feeder or cause
issues for neighboring customers and can complicate loop operation of feeders.
 71

4.3 Review of Current Islanding Detection Techniques

As depicted in Figure 4.2, islanding detection techniques developed so far can be
fundamentally split into two categories according to their working principles. The first type
consists of communication-based schemes and the second type consists of non-
communication-based schemes, which also is known as a local based scheme.

Figure 4.2. Classification of Islanding Detection Scheme [42]

The PMU based islanding proposed by this work is a hybrid solution which does not fit in
one category since it uses combination of techniques, as follows:

• The measurement in this solution is a passive type and active power and
frequency are monitored.
• The measurement process relies on the local PCCs and remote communication
therefore communication is an important part of this solution.
 72

4.4 Communication Based Schemes

Communication based schemes rely on telecommunication data transfer in order to detect
the islanding and trip DGs when islands are formed. The performance of these methods is
generally independent of the type of distributed generators integrated into the feeder.

4.4.1 Transfer Trip

The transfer trip scheme is very simple in concept and is considered a utility preferred
choice for simple feeder topology and a large farm. This method requires all circuit
breakers and reclosers (which can island the DG) to be monitored and linked to the central
unit, as shown in Figure 4.3. When disconnection (CB open status) is detected, the central
algorithm determines the islanded area and sends a trip signal to the appropriate DG to shut
down the unintended island. Issues related to this method are reported in a few papers [41],
[43], [44] and can be summarized as follows:
1) The method requires an extensive communication network in the distribution
system. Traditionally, such an infrastructure does not exist and therefore, the cost
factor needs to be considered.
2) The method is based on feeder topology and determining the islanded area by
monitoring all the switching points, which can get very complicated, especially if
loop operation along with neighboring feeders is permitted. On the other hand,
flexible operation of the feeder, which will most likely be a future requirement of
the smart grid and advanced distribution network, will be very hard to achieve with
this method.
 73

Figure 4.3. Transfer Trip Concept [45]

4.4.2 PLC Signaling

As presented in Figure 4.4, the signal generator located at the utility substation is
continuously broadcasting a patterned signal to the signal detectors of all distributed
generators. When islanding occurs, the signal will no longer be available to DGs and
subsequently, a local trip will be issued to shut down the generator.

Figure 4.4. Power Line Signal Islanding

 74

Issues related to this method are reported in various literature and can be summarized as
follows:
1) Cost is the major concern here, as the Power Line signal must be transmitted in all
three phases in order to detect single phase islanding.
2) The transmitted signal must be re-attenuated along the way if the distances from
the station to the DG or Point of Common Coupling (PCC), are longer than 15 Km
[46].
3) The reliability of this method, with the presence of inter-circuit harmonic pollution,
is another concern which is solicited in different research work.

4.5 Local Detection

Local refers to the DG and PCC side, and local detection schemes detect the occurrence of
islanding based on frequency, power, and current signals available from the DG. As shown
earlier in Figure 4.2, the local detection group is further split into two sub-groups. One is
known as a passive detection method, which arrives at decisions based on electrical signals
measurements (V, I, F, etc.). The second group is known as the active detection method.
These methods inject an electrical signal into the supply system and detect islanding
conditions based on system responses measured locally at the PCC.

4.5.1 Passive Detection Methods

The passive method detects islanding based on monitoring the current, voltage, or other
properties of the electrical signal such as frequency, harmonic, etc. available on the DG
side. One of the most commonly used passive islanding methods consists of under-, over-
and rate of alteration of frequency-based detection. The primary concern and limitation
with the local passive detection methods is that these methods cause an operating region
where, in that region, an islanding condition cannot be found or cannot be detected in a
timely manner. This region is known as the Non-Detection Zone (NDZ). As an example,
Figure 4.5 shows the area where if the power mismatch between an arbitrary synchronous
type DG and the load is not greater than a certain value, the frequency-based islanding
scheme will not work.
 75

Figure 4.5. None Detection Zone Based Daily Profile Variation

The generation profile of the DG varies during the day and in many operational instances,
the islanding scheme will not work. Besides frequency, other power quantities can also be
used to help detect island situations such as:
1) Voltage based detection
2) Power factor (P/Q)
3) Change of active power
4) Change of reactive power
5) Change of total harmonic distortion (THD)
6) Built in inverter-based islanding techniques

Reference [47] proposes the use of reactive power rate of change to detect the islanding.
The method can be useful for relatively when a large amount of DG is integrated to grid
and issue of NDZ has not much of importance. In recent years many hybrid methods based
on combination of the passive techniques mostly integrated into the inverter-based devices
are developed. [48] proposes monitoring of voltage and current magnitude together with
current and voltage THD at PCC.

Among the above-mentioned schemes, the voltage-based detection method is most

commonly used in the industry. The relay operates on the principle of reactive power
mismatch in an island. Excessive reactive power will drive up the system voltage and
deficit reactive power will result in voltage decline. By determining the change or rate of
change of the voltage at the DG terminal, it is possible to detect islanding conditions that
cannot be detected by frequency-based relays.
 76

4.6 Active Detection Method

Active detection schemes rely on injecting disturbances into the supply system to detect
the islanding situation. The mainstream active methods studied in the industry can be listed
as follows:
a) Impedance measurement
b) Impedance measurement at specific frequency
c) Frequency ship mode
d) Frequency bias or AFD
e) Sandia frequency and voltage shift
f) Current injection methods

Many technical problems need to be solved before one can use them with confidence. Some
of the issues related to active methods are reported in various literature [40], [46], and are
as follows:
1) One of the main problems of the active methods is the interference of disturbances
introduced by multiple DGs. Not much research has been conducted on such issues.
2) The type of active islanding detection method which can be deployed is very much
dependent on the type of DG installed in the network. The design of a universal
active method solution which can cover a range of installations is very difficult if
not impossible. Therefore, this scheme generally has low adaptability.
3) Generally active methods can have a negative impact on the grid power quality
compare to the passive methods.

4.7 Grid Tied Inverter Anti-Islanding Consideration

With the many advancements in the design and manufacturing of the grid tied inverters,
state of the art technology today comes with anti-islanding, Low Voltage Ride Through
(LVRT), and Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) embedded functionalities. Some of
the techniques that are used to develop anti-islanding are public information. As an
example, [49] suggests that islanding can be detected, if the inverter output voltage or
inverter output frequency is driven outside of the normal range. In [50], frequency profile
of non-islanding events is identified as an oscillating event in nature, whereas islanding
 77

event frequency profile is monotonically increasing or decreasing. This particular property

is used to develop anti-islanding protection scheme. In [51], the rate of frequency is used
to detect the islanding event. It should be noted that inverters are part of the DER system
and they are mainly the property of the market participants (DER owner), The focus of this
work, however, is to provide the utility based solution that can be used as main or back up
protection in order to assure that utility costumer and assets will be protected by the system
owned and maintained by them.

4.8 Proposed Islanding Detection Method

The proposed method in this paper relies on measuring the active power (P), reactive power
(Q), bus voltages (Vrms), voltage phase angle (phi), and frequency measurement from any
Point of Common Coupling (PCC) where distributed generation is installed along the
feeder and station bus which is supplying the feeder from the grid, as shown in Figure 4.6.
The PMU functions as a standalone device or as a function incorporated in the protection
or control Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED). The PMU will be used to provide a data
stream of above-mentioned values that will serve to calculate a required setting sensitivity
for the 81, 59, and 27 protection elements and the voltage phase angle rate of change to
detect an islanding event. The measurement and calculation are performed prior to the
islanding event and the IED’s protection setting can be adapted to the new setting if it is
required.
 78

DG2
P2,Q2
PM
U
PG,QG

Grid
DG1
P1,Q1 PM
U
PM
U

PD
C

Figure 4.6. Conceptual PMU Based Islanding Detection Architecture

The islanding event is modeled as a small power perturbation where the primary feeder
losses the grid supply and the feeders are then supplied power by the DGs.

Table 4-1. Parameter and Unit for Power Mismatch Scenarios

Symbol Quantity UNIT [SI]

D Damping constant expressed as PU

percentage change in load for
typical value 1-2%
one percent change in frequency

f Power system frequency PU (Hz)

∆fss steady state frequency deviation PU (Hz)

H machine Inertia constant sec

PDG DG active power PU (MW)

 79

PGrid Grid active power PU (MW)

QDG DG reactive power PU (MVar))

QGRID Grid reactive power PU (MVar)

T Electrical torque PU (MW/rpm)

Tm Mechanical torque Pu (MW/rpm)

tss Settling time sec

w Angular velocity PU (rpm)

S Laplace operator

The proposed method uses continuous measurement of active and reactive power at the
substation (supply by grid) and the distributed generation (supply by DGs) prior to the
islanding event to determine the power mismatch between the load of the feeder and
generation located at the feeder. Based on this information, the sensitivity of the
aforementioned protection elements that detect the islanding will be adapted accordingly.
If we consider the power loss as a part of the feeder load change, the following can be
stated at the instance of islanding event, 𝐏𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 = 𝟎 considering the generator response to
speed change equation (4.1) as follows:

1
∆Tm − ∆Te = ω (4.1)
2HS

PDG = PLoad − PGrid (4.2)

PDG = ∆PLoad − ∆PGrid (4.3)
PDG = PDG0 + ∆PDG = (ω0 + Δω)(T0 + ∆T) (4.4)
∆PDG ≈ (ω0 ∆T + Δω)(T0 + ∆T) (4.5)
∆PmDG − ∆PDG = ω0 (ΔTm − ∆Te ) + ω(ΔTm0 − ∆Te0 ) (4.6)

In the steady state, ω0 = 1 pu , Tm = Te , and in the absence of speed governor ∆𝐏𝐦𝐃𝐆 =

𝟎 and it is assumed that the feeder load is constant during the islanding event ∆𝐏𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 = 𝟎.
 80

Therefore, the system response to load change ( 𝐏𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 = 𝟎 ) is determined by the machine
inertia constant.

∆PmDG − ∆PDG = ∆PLoad − ∆PGrid (4.7)

−∆PDG = (∆PLoad − ∆PGrid ) + DΔω (4.8)

For the load step load change equal to equal to −ΔPGrid and from (4.1) and (4.8)

1
-(-ΔPGrid ) = ( ) Δω (4.9)
2HS+D

ΔPGrid 2H
∆𝜔ss = , τ= (4.10)
D D

df ∆fss
≈≥ 0.632 (4.11)
dt τ

From (4.10) and (4.11), the final frequency deviation and time of the transient and the
transient change during the islanding event can be estimated. For a group of DGs, the same
can be concluded, except that H must represent the total feeder inertia. For the inverter-
based type DGs, such as type 3, type 4, and PV, where no inertia is connected to the grid,
the voltage and reactive power mismatch must be taken into consideration. Similarly, for
reactive power, following can be stated:

Q Grid + Q DG1 + Q DG2 + ⋯ + Q DGn + Q Load = 0 (4.12)

∆P = 0 (4.13)
∑ni=1 Q DGi + Q Load = ∆Q (4.14)
Δ VPcc ≅ f(∆Q) (4.15)

For completely balanced islanding, where prior to the islanding event no power mismatch
is measured, the sensitive change of voltage angle differences with some security measures
are considered. The phase angle differences are used to shrink the NDZ where the
sensitivity of the 27, 59, and 81 elements are not adequate to detect the separation of the
primary feeder when there is no power mismatch.
 81

∆φ ∆(∡Vpcc −∡VGrid )
= (4.16)
∆t ∆t

∆P ≈ 0,

∆Q ≈ 0 (4.17)

In addition to the initial static conditions, mentioned in (4.10) and (4.11), to enable the
phase angle supervision, the dynamic conditions of such a supervision must also be taken
into consideration. It is important to note that any electrical fault, load, or capacitor bank
switching may trigger a sensitive phase angle supervision; therefore, at the instance of
islanding detection, the feeder must be mostly free of any switching and changes.

∆I2
≅0 (4.18)
∆t

Where I2 is the negative sequence component for both grid and DGs.

4.9 Test System

Figure 4.7 presents the simplified one-line diagram of the utility type distribution feeder
with a nominal voltage of 27.6 kV which has been used for this case study. The feeder and
115 kV upstream substation are modeled using PSCAD EMTC. The primary feeder and all
the laterals are modeled as an overhead line pi model. In the primary feeder, two locations
were examined as Point of Common Couplings (PCCs) with the connection of different
type of DGs that are most relevant to this study. The complex time domain model of
PSCAD EMTC is used for type 3 DG, type 4 DG, and conventional machine with a
modified Hydro governor. The parameterizations of each case are reported with the
calculation results of each case study. The detailed one-line diagram of the system with the
its equipment data is reported in the Appendix A.
 82

Figure 4.7. Simplified One Line Diagram of System Under Study

4.10 Simulation Scenarios

Although the islanding condition is defined independent of the type of installed DGs in the
feeder, the responses and the behavior of the different types of DG vary after the islanding
event. Hence, in this work, to examine the performance and generalize the concept of the
proposed approach, many cases, with the most relevant DGs, are considered to verify the
performance of the proposed islanding detection technique. It should be noted that
distribution systems are not interconnected networks therefore; utility feeder is the full-
scale system for this work to be considered for testing. This has been the motivation behind
developing the model for 27.6 KV 50 MW utility type feeder. The cases that have been
studied are the following:

a) Scenario 1: In this scenario, a constant speed type DG and generator, which

includes conventional synchronous machine, wind turbine type 1, and wind turbine
type 2, are studied. These units are connected to the grid directly without inverter
 83

interface and they add to the inertia of the system. It should also be noted that a
mixed generation (inverter based and synchronous machines) is considered in this
category. Inverter-based machines will follow the synchronous machine frequency
response during the islanding. Three cases in this scenario is reported.
b) Scenario 2: In this scenario, the variable speed (inverter based) DGs are being
studied. These units are connected to the grid through the inverter, wind turbine as
follow:
a) Wind turbine type 3: case 1 and case 2
b) Wind turbine type 4: case 1 and case 2
c) PV solar: case 1 and case 2
c) Scenario 3: In this scenario, the effectiveness of proposed solutions in non-
detection zone where the power mismatch is almost zero is considered.

4.10.1 Scenario 1-Case 1-3 (Synchronous machine)

In this scenario, the connected DGs are aggregated at one point and generators are
participating in the total generation inertia mass. Three cases are simulated with the
parameters shown in Table 4-2:

Table 4-2. Parameter for Conventional Machine

No Symbol Description Unit
1 SDG Installed DG Power 30 MVA
2 H Total Inertia 5.83 sec
3 D Load damping constant 1.126%
4 Mechanical loss 0.001 PU

Figure 4-8 presents the results of three cases where islanding is performed with the
different active power mismatch at t=40 sec. It is assumed that for any given simulation
that the generator cannot deliver more power than what it is already providing. The
governor gate valve is set to the maximum of its opening to limit the reaction of frequency
load compensation. The plot presents DG frequency (fDG), DG active power (PDG), grid
active power (PGRID), DG reactive, power (QDG), and grid reactive power (QGrid).
Feeder load is the same for all the three cases simulated while contribution of DGs in
supplying active and reactive power are different.
 84

Graphs
case3.inf::Main\Freq_B... case4.inf::Main\Freq_B... case2.inf::Main\Freq_B...

1.05
1.00
HZ [PU] 0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
case3.inf::Main\PDG case4.inf::Main\PDG case2.inf::Main\PDG

1.10
MW [PU]

1.00

0.90

0.80
case3.inf::Main\PGrid case4.inf::Main\PGrid case2.inf::Main\PGrid

0.20
MW[pu]

0.10

0.00

-0.10
x 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 110.00 120.00 130.00 ...
...
...
Figure 4.8. Islanding Scenario of Synchronous Machine

Table 4-3 presents the on-line estimation of ∆𝐟𝐬𝐬 and 𝛕 based on (4.11) and power mismatch
𝐝𝐟𝐆
measured during the simulation. The frequency rate of change can be directly calculated
𝐝𝐭

from the value estimated for each simulation and linearization of the change during the
interval of one time constant.

𝐝𝐟𝐆 𝟎.𝟔𝟑𝟐 ∆𝐟𝐆𝐬𝐬

≅ (4.19)
𝐝𝐭 𝛕

where the ∆fGss is a steady state value of frequency deviation. It should be noted that online
estimation is only valid prior to the islanding event. If the D value is known or estimated
correctly, online estimation will generate an accurate result that can serve to set the
frequency element(s) of islanding detection system. Table 4-3 shows the results of the
frequency deviation and time constant of the frequency settlement for the cases that have
 85

been simulated based on the concept of the active power mismatch presented earlier. The
dfG
ratio of estimated based on the power mismatch prior to the islanding and can be
dt
dfG
compared with the actual average values of measured. The results in all the cases shows
dt

that estimation value is more conservative than the actual rate of the change and protection
frequency element which adapted to this estimation, can trip for such a rate of the change
in all the cases.

Table 4-3. Frequency Rate of Change Estimation

Case Symbol Estimated Actual Error
∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 -5.34 Hz -5.28 Hz 1.1%
2 τ 22.20 sec 23.4 s 5.4%
𝑑𝑓 -0.15 Hz/s -0.14 Hz/s 6.6%
𝑑𝑡
∆𝑓𝑠𝑠 -8.74 Hz -8.64 Hz 1.1%
3 τ 22.20 Sec 23.4 sec 5.4%
𝑑𝑓 -0.248 Hz/s -0.233 Hz/s 6.04%
𝑑𝑡
∆𝑓𝐺 -22.8 Hz -23.01 Hz 1.03%
4 τ 22.2 sec 23.4 sec 5.4%
𝑑𝑓 -0.331 Hz/s -0.317 Hz/s 4.04%
𝑑𝑡

In any protection adaptive setting, the setting should be changed only within the predefined
limitation that has to be set up based on the actual application data.

4.10.2 Scenario 2 – (WT type3)

Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10 present the results of simulations of two islanding cases (case1
and case 2) of a group of 10 type 3 wind turbines connected to the feeder at one location.
Table 4-4 presents the data of machine sued in these cases.

Table 4-4. Wind Turbine Type 3 Model Data

Parameter Description Value

S [MVA] Apparent power 2.5

Pt [MW] Turbine power 2

H [sec] Inertia 3
 86

For the purpose of simulation, it was assumed that pitch control was at its optimal position
and remained unmoved after the initial model activation, that maximum power was
obtained from the wind, and that the wind speed remained constant during the simulations.
Prior to the islanding instant at t =2 sec, the load active power is totally compensated by
the wind turbine and the contribution of the grid for the active load is almost zero. This
should have created a most favorable situation to sustain the islanding operation by wind
turbine. In case 1, the wind turbines are in under-excitation mode and are consuming
reactive power while in case 2 the wind turbine is in over-excitation mode and is generating
the reactive power.

Figure 4.9. Wind Turbine Type 3 Islanding Event with Balance of Power Case 1
 87

Figure 4.10. Wind Turbine Type 3 Islanding Event with Balance of Power Case 2

The simulation results show that with the loss of a self-regulated power frequency source
(grid), the phase locked loop control that controls the DG frequency by following the grid
frequency becomes unstable and enters to a self-excited and unstable loop resulting in a
major deviation from the grid frequency. The study also reveals that even a zero-power
 88

mismatch can lead to significant power frequency deviation (∆𝑓). A greater power
mismatch than the balance of power also cannot be sustained by a type 3 machine and the
island will be detected up by voltage and frequency elements at PCC or by the machine’s
internal protection.

4.10.3 Scenario 2 -Case 2 (WT type 4)

Among the variable speed wind turbine, the type 4 wind turbine, also known as a full back-
to-back inverter, is used as a representative for this type of machine in this work. The
simplified one-line diagram of this model is presented earlier in Figure 2.17. Figure 4.11
shows the actual one-line diagram of the machine and grid source inverter used for this
study. Generally, the DC link in this type of machine plays an important role between the
machine and the grid source converter in understanding the dynamic of type 4. In this
model, we have used both an aggregated model where the group of machines is shown with
one model and the output of a single machine is linearly matched with the number of units
involved in the study, as well as an individual model that is used to study the dynamics
between the individual machines in one site.

Figure 4.11. Type 4 Wind Turbine Model Block Diagram

Among that many cases which have been studied, the following two cases in Figure 4.12
and Figure 4.13 serving as the representative cases. Table 4-5 shows machine data for the
type 4 wind turbine used in this study.
 89

Table 4-5. Wind Turbine Type 4 Model Data

Parameter Description Value

S [MVA] Apparent power 2.5

Pt [MW] Turbine power 2

H [sec] Inertia 2

For the purposes of simulation, it was assumed that pitch control was at its optimal position
and remained unmoved after initial model activation, that maximum power was obtained
from the wind, and that the wind speed remained constant during the simulations. Figure
4.12 and Figure 4.13 present the results of the simulations for a group of 10 type 4 wind
turbines connected to the feeder at one location. The islanding occurs at t= 2 sec. The power
mismatch in both cases is very small and wind turbines were able to sustain the load after
islanding provided that the Phase Locked Loop (PLL) was designed for islanding
operation. The simulation results show that with the loss of a self-regulated power
frequency source (grid), the phase locked loop control that controls the DG frequency by
following the grid frequency becomes unstable and enters into a self-excited and unstable
loop resulting in a major deviation from the grid frequency. The study also reveals that
even a small or no power mismatch can lead to significant power frequency deviations
(∆𝑓). A greater power mismatches cannot be sustained by a type 4 machine and island it
will be picked up by voltage and frequency elements at PCC or by the machine’s internal
protection. In case 1, the wind turbines were in under-excitation mode, while in case 2 they
are in over-excitation mode. In both cases, the active power mismatch is near zero. The
deviation from the rating frequency is very large and in a few cycles after the instant of
islanding takes place.
 90

Figure 4.12. Wind Turbine Type 4 Islanding Case 1

 91

Figure 4.13. Type 4 Islanding Case 2

4.10.4 Scenario 2-Case3 (PV solar)

The solar farm has been modeled with the number of parallel and series PV arrays. The
results of 2 simulated cases with different reactive power mismatches are presented in
Figure 4.14. and Figure 4.15. For both cases, it was assumed that the temperature of the
cells and sun radiation remained constant. The islanding event occurs at t=5 sec. The results
show that PV generation does not provide any frequency response to the islanding active
power mismatch. The frequency collapses even for a small power mismatch. The cases are
 92

very similar with very small differences in power mismatches prior to the islanding event.
When solar PV is not prepared for the islanding operation as discussed earlier, in the case
of wind turbine Type 3 and Type 4, the PLL does not sense any independent frequency
after unintentional islanding, and frequency becomes unstable.

Figure 4.14. PV Islanding Scenario Case1

 93

Figure 4.15. PV Islanding Scenario Case 2

4.10.5 Scenario 3- (Balance of power)

Balance power islanding refers to scenarios where nearly no power mismatches are
measured prior to the islanding detection, as shown in Figure 4.16. The DG is supplying
all the load of the feeder and islanding event, which in this case occurs at t=4 sec. For all
three simulations, it occurs smoothly with no significant impact on the frequency and
power of the load. As described earlier, the angle of voltage supervision between the PCC
and substation is used to detect the separation of the feeder from the grid.
 94

∆φ = ∡VGrid − ∡VPCC

This supervision can shrink the NDZ which commonly exists for all passive islanding
detection methods. The high sensitivity of this function is the essence of utilizing this
supervision in NDZ. Cases 1 to 3 are highly balanced scenarios where the voltage angles
differences 2 seconds after the islanding events, change by a very small value.

Figure 4.16. Islanding Simulation with Balance of Power

The simulation results are shown in Table 4-6. The power mismatch is expressed as a
percentage of feeder real time load. The negative value of power mismatch means that the
DG, in addition to supplying the feeder load, is also exporting small amount of power to
 95

the grid. With the setting of 2 degrees for the voltage angle supervision between PCC and
substation, the time required to detect the islanding for each case are shown. The results of
this study show that NDZ area, with the given supervision setting, can be reduced to
maximum 1.5% (case 2) of the feeder load. The islanding for case 3, is detected after 2
seconds which does not meet the IEEE 1547 requirement. The phase angle supervision,
like any other sensitive function in the field of protection, may provide good dependability;
however, it always lacks good security performance. The reliable scheme, however, is a
right balance of two properties dependability and security. Therefore, (4.22) and (4.23) are
the security condition that must be considered to activate the supervision function to ensure
that during the transient (fault, switching, etc.) where the phase angle can change this
function is disabled. The following can be formulated as the sensitivity limit in terms of
frequency for the proposed solution and the cases studied:

∆φ = ∡VGrid − ∡VPCC = 2° (4.20)

2
∆f = = 2.78 mHz (4.21)
360

dv2DG
≅0 (4.22)
dt
dI2DG
≅0 (4.23)
dt

Table 4-6. Balance of Power Case Study Results

Case PDG PGrid QGrid ∆∅set Detection ∆P%

(MW) (MW) (Mvar) (degree) time PGrid
=
PDG + PDG

1 13.56 -0.38 8.5 2 1.0 sec -2.8%

2 13.38 -0.21 8.5 2 1.50 sec -1.5%

3 13.27 -0.19 8.5 2 2.2 sec -1.4%

It is important to highlight that the sensitive islanding detection solution proposed in this
section relies on IEEE PMU with a 1-degree phase angle resolution. Thus, if we assume
𝜇PMU or high resolution PMU is used, the limit, proposed in (4.20) and (4.21) can
 96

theoretically be reduced. For example, considering 0.01° phase angle resolution and
hypotheses of selecting 0.5 degree as angle supervisions setting, the results of the previous
cases will change to what is shown in

Table 4-7. The more sensitive phase angle measurement and threshold theoretically can
improve the sensitivity bottom line. As an example, case 3 which was not detectable in
previous evaluation within 2 seconds (IEEE 1547 requirement) now it can be detected
within 1.363 seconds.

Table 4-7. Balance of Power Case Study Results with 𝝁PMU

Case PDG PGrid QGrid ∆∅set Detection ∆P%

(MW) (MW) (Mvar) (degree) time PGrid
=
PDG + PDG

1 13.56 -0.38 8.5 0.5 0.426 sec -2.8%

2 13.38 -0.21 8.5 0.5 0.750 sec -1.5%

3 13.27 -0.19 8.5 0.5 1.363 sec -1.4%

With lower and more sensitive setting for phase angle measurement, supervision to
maintain the security of the proposed solution will be much harder to maintain if it is not
impossible. It should be noted that (4.20) and (4.21) are not the only precondition for the
activation of phase angle supervision. This condition should be maintained during the
entire islanding detection process. Figure 4.17 shows the impact of the transient three-
phase short circuit on the voltage phase angle measurement at the adjacent feeder at t= 30
sec. As suggested in (4.22) and (4.23) and shown here, negative sequence component of
the DG current and voltage can be used to inhibit the phase islanding detection based on
voltage phase angle. Therefore, it must point out that the sensitive islanding detection
method cannot be reliably used without a period of stabilizing where no fault and switching
operation in the feeder is detected. Furthermore, this condition must be present during the
entire islanding detection process. The phase angle supervisions setting, it may differ from
on feeder to another depend the load minimum feeder and DG size.
 97

Figure 4.17. Adjacent Feeder Fault

4.11 Conceptual Implementation Consideration

The major studies using PMU so far have been focused on the wide area of the power
transmission network and bulk energy power system. Although the proposed solution
focuses on islanding in a distribution network, the same principle can be applied in any
network by taking advantage of the PMU data stream phasor measurements that make sets
of current and voltage phasors available on a real time basis at any PCC. The availability
of PMU functionality in mainstream IEDs from protection and control manufacturers does
not impose any significant additional cost except for the communication medium. The main
goal of the system is to estimate a more sensitive setting for the conventional anti-islanding
protection as described in various simulations. The base settings must remain unchanged
 98

when a more sensitive set of settings cannot be calculated. The communication system
architecture for the proposed solution is illustrated in Figure 4.6. The utilization of PDC,
particularly for the size of suggested application, using IEC61850-90-5 where the PMUs
can directly use the data stream from each other with GOOSE PDU can be eliminated. This
can further improve the time performance of the proposed solution. This paper presented
some comprehensive islanding scenarios with their relevant analysis of active and reactive
power mismatches and a smooth balance power islanding in the distribution type feeder.
The EMT-based detailed modeling using PSCAD of PV, type 4, and synchronous machine
is used to study the transient of this phenomenon in an actual utility type feeder, load, and
network.

It is important to note that the proposed solution works in conjunction with passive local
islanding detection, i.e., protection elements such as 81 and 27 located at PCC (local anti-
islanding elements). The proposed solution will adapt the setting of frequency elements
from a base setting, considered to be the utility standard setting, to the more sensitive one
based on the power measured during the operation. The power measurement will only be
considered if it has been measured during a no-fault situation. For this reason, the moving
average of the power mismatch between the grid and summation of all the DGs within a
selected time interval must be measured and continuously updated until the fault is
detected. During the fault, the moving average must not be updated and if this fault results
in an islanding event, then the last moving average of the power mismatch must be used
for this solution.

The PMU communication protocol is based either on IEEE C37.118-2 or IEC61850-90-5

standards that support binary data transfer, which means that the transfer trip based on
substation trip beaker status can be directly transferred to the PCCs. This feature can always
be used as a backup for the solution provided here, which is intended to be response-based
solution and not event-based solution (transfer trip).
 99

4.12 Summary
In this chapter, the first use case for detecting unintentional islanding operation in
distribution systems with DER using the synchrophasor data was studied.

The issue related to the islanding operation was discussed, and the state-of-the-art detection
methods were critically reviewed. Then, an adaptive detection solution was proposed to
augment the exiting anti islanding protection scheme. The solution was formulated and
presented. The concept of the proposed solution is based on measuring the power mismatch
between the grid and DG in non-critical time and prepare the setting or response in real
time.

The provision of the solution for zero power mismatch and non-detection zone was
analyzed and proposed. The proposed method was further developed to include a feeder
with multiple integrated PCCs.

The mathematical formulation was developed and presented. The test system was
developed by detailed modeling of the utility type distribution feeder and the complex
modeling of aggerated DG type 3, type 4, and PV in EMT using PSCAD/EMTDC software.

The test scenario to examine the reliability of the proposed solution was developed with
emphasis on dependability and security. From the many simulations that were carried out,
selected representative cases were reported and analyzed.

The conceptual implementation for the proposed solution with consideration of the marked
available hardware and software was also proposed.

The next chapter will study the second use case using the synchrophasor data to detect the
open phase fault in the distribution feeder.
 100

Chapter 5
Open Phase Fault Detection
In this chapter, the summary of research and analysis leading to the proposal of selective
detection of the open phase fault as well as the results of EMT modeling and simulation
are presented.

5.1 Introduction
With the prospect of integration of many Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) into the
electrical grid, especially in the distribution network, coupled with the concept of smart
grid, there is a necessity for more investment in communication infrastructure to operate
such a system while maintaining the safety and reliability of the grid. Even though the use
of Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) enhances the reliability of protection and control
by improving dependability, i.e., the ability to detect the fault, security, and differentiate a
normal situation from the fault.

A typical distribution network has many miles of overhead lines, still protected by fuses.
The protection relays are installed in the substation and their algorithm and performance
relies mainly on local measurements. In this chapter, in line with the distribution network
transformation and requirement of grid modernization for communication infrastructure,
open phase fault detection method based on phasor measurement data from the substation
and every Point of Common Coupling (PCC) in the feeder (where the DER is connected to
the distribution feeder) is presented.

The open-phase or broken conductor fault is a challenging fault for utilities to detect, as
there is no dedicated protection element to identify this fault. Open phase fault often
coincides with a broken and downed conductor to earth, which is a public safety risk. If
this event develops into a ground fault, (a high impedance fault with a very low current), it
becomes hard to detect. Most importantly, for the distribution feeder with an auto-recloser,
without identifying this type of fault as an open phase, and therefore, blocking the recloser
attempts, the feeder may get reenergized and intensify the risk of electrification to the
public.
 101

The undetected open phase during a light load condition can cause ferro resonance and an
increase in transient voltage in the feeder. Figure 5.1 presents a conceptual architecture of
proposed solution which shows a set of three-phase current and voltage phasor data from
a feeder breaker at a substation and point of common couplings (PCC1 and PCC2) obtained
from PMU 1 to PMU3 (Phasor Measurement Unit), respectively.

Primary
Feeder

V, I
Substation
PCC1
Grid
V, I

V ,I
PCC2

Figure 5.1. Conceptual System Architecture of the Proposed Solution

The data from the PMUs can be processed in Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC) as shown
here, assuming a conventional C37.118 communication is used. Here, the PMU data stream
needs to be aligned in the PDC before being used by application.

5.2 Review of Open Phase Detection Techniques

Detecting and clearing the open phase fault in the distribution network has not been the
subject of much research in recent years. In this section, the most relevant research to this
work is reviewed. In [52], the open phase fault and fallen conductor are recognized as a
major public safety issue and a problem for cases of open phase conductor, and when a
downed wire is addressed by adding a mechanical accessory to the line pole. The
applicability, however, may be limited. In [53], a good conceptual idea is published with
the suggestion to use the voltage phasor data in the modern substation environment to catch
the open phase before touching the ground. Use of current phasor data, especially when
 102

there is no other voltage source in the feeder, is essential for any algorithm development.
In [54], [55], and [56], the impact of open phase fault in distribution and sub-transmission
network, Temporary Over Voltage (TOV) and possibility of resonance circuit in resonantly
grounding system is verified. The open phase fault can be very detrimental to the health of
the equipment. In [57], the vulnerability of a Negative Sequence Pilot Protection (NSPP)
scheme for a very long transmission line is verified and a compensation method based on
the open phase symmetrical component analysis is introduced. In [58], it is proposed that
the zero-sequence voltage be measured by electric field sensors alongside of feeder. The
criteria for detection are relying on the fact that unbalanced voltage after the fault will be
much higher than the normal unbalanced operation of the feeder. This model has been
verified in the field; however, open phase detection in the presence of DG will not have
the same signature, and therefore, a decision-making algorithm may not apply to a feeder
with DG. In [59], the focus is on detecting the high impedance fault in distribution feeder
caused by a broken or downed conductor. The characteristic of this fault with consideration
to the harmonic content and the current waveform is verified. In [60], the rule-based fault
detection method, including the open phase fault, is compared with the Artificial Neural
Network (ANN). In [61] and, [62], the use of computer-based modeling of open phase and
fault analysis has been reported.

5.3 Open Phase Fault Signature

5.3.1 Single Open Phase Fault without Ground
Figure 5.2 shows the open phase fault in phase “a” between the P (bus side) and Q (line
side). The voltage and current relationship can be summarized as follows:

PQ Q
Va = VaP − Va ≠ 0

PQ Q
Vb = VbP − Vb = 0
PQ Q
Vc = VcP − Vc = 0

Ia = 0, Ib ≠ 0, Ic ≠ 0
 103

PQ
Where Va , Ib , and Ic ,represent the voltage across the P and Q and phase currents
respectively.

P Q
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c

Figure 5.2. Open Phase Fault in Phase “a” at P-Q

The symmetrical component of the above circuit and group equation can be summarized
as follows:
PQ PQ PQ PQ
V1 = 1/3(Va + aVb + a2 Vc ) (5.1)
PQ PQ PQ PQ
V2 = 1/3(Va + a2 Vb + aVc ) (5.2)
PQ PQ PQ PQ
V0 = 1/3(Va + Vb + Vc )

Therefore,

PQ PQ PQ 1
V1 = V2 = V0 = PQ (5.3)
3Va

Similarly, the symmetrical component of the current can be summarized as:

Ia = 0, Ib ≠ 0, Ic ≠ 0
I1 = 1⁄3 [Ia + aIb + a2 Ic ] = 1⁄3 (aIb + a2 Ic )
I2 = 1⁄3 [Ia + a2 Ib + aIc ] = 1⁄3 (a2 Ib + aIc )
I0 = 1⁄3 [Ia + Ib + Ic ] = 1⁄3 (Ib + Ic )

(1 + a + a2 ) = 0

I1 = I2 + I0 (5.4)

Considering (5.1) to (5.4) , the equivalent circuit for the open phase fault is shown in
 104

Figure 5.3.

P1 P2 P0

Z1
Z2 Z0

Q1 Q2 Q0

Figure 5.3. Symmetrical Component Circuit of Open Phase Fault

5.3.2 Single Open Phase Fault with Ground

Similar to the analysis described in the previous section, the open phase with the downed
wire on the “Q” side of the circuit, as shown in Figure 5.4, is considered. In order to
generalize the case for the ground fault, it has been assumed that the system is not radial,
and a ground fault can be supplied by either side of the line. The P side is where the phase
is opened, and Q is the side where the phase wire is down, and the ground fault occurs.

P
P Q Q
Ia Ia =Ifg
a
Ib P
Rfg Ib
Q

b
Ic P Ic
Q

Figure 5.4. Open Phase Fault with Downed Wire

The following can be stated for voltage and current in P and Q side.
 105

Ia = 0

Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 = 0

PQ Q
Vb = VbP − Vb = 0

PQ Q
Vc = VcP − Vc = 0

The following symmetrical component can be stated for P and Q

VbP = a2 Va1
P P
+ aVa2 P
+ Va0

Q Q Q Q
Vb = a2 Va1 + aVa2 + Va0

P P P
VcP = aVa1 + a2 Va2 + Va0

Q Q Q Q
Vc = aVa1 + a2 Va2 + Va0

PQ Q Q Q Q
Vb = VbP − Vb = a2 (Va1
P P
− Va1 ) + a(Va2 P
− Va2 ) + (Va0 − Va0 ) = 0 (5.5)

PQ Q P Q P Q P Q
Vc = VcP − Vc = a(Va1 − Va1 ) + a2 (Va2 − Va2 ) + (Va0 − Va0 ) = 0 (5.6)

We know that

a2 + a + 1 = 0 (5.7)

Therefore, from (5.17), (5.6) and (5.7), the following can be concluded:

P Q P Q P Q
(Va1 − Va1 ) = (Va2 − Va2 ) = (Va0 − Va0 ) (5.8)

Eq. (5.8) can be also developed for the healthy phases “b” and “c”:

PQ Q
Ib = IbP − Ib = 0

PQ Q
Ic = IcP − Ic = 0

PQ Q Q Q Q
Ib = IbP − Ib = a2 (Ia1
P P
− Ia1 ) + a(Ia2 P
− Ia2 ) + (Ia0 − Ia0 ) = 0 (5.9)
 106

PQ Q P Q P PQ Q
Ic = IcP − Ic = a(Ia1 − Ia1 ) + a2 (Ia2 − Ia2 ) + (Ia0 − Ia0 ) = 0 (5.10)

Eq. (5.11) similar to (5.16) can be extracted from (5.9) and (5.10).

P Q P Q P Q 1
(Ia1 − Ia1 ) = (Ia2 − Ia2 ) = (Ia0 − Ia0 )= Ifg (5.11)
3

Based on (4.20) and (5.11), the equivalent circuit of the single open phase fault with a
downed wire to ground in the interconnected network (source in both side of the fault) is
shown in Figure 5.5. The zero-sequence component of current caused by the ground fault
at Q is shown by use of an ideal 1:1 ratio interpose transformer connecting the sequence
component circuits together. The ground fault resistance (R fg ) in real cases most likely will
be a high impedance. Eq. (5.11) is representing the ground fault zero sequence component.

I1P
I1P
Q
P1 I1P +I1 1/1
Q1

Z1P Z1
Q

~ V1P V1
Q
Q
~
I1
I2P
I2P Q
I2P +I2
P2 Q2 1/1
Ig0
Z2P Q
Q
Z2
V2P V2 Q
I2 I0P
I0P
Q
I0P +I0
Q0 1/1
P0 3Rfg

Z0P Q Z0
Q
V0P V0 Q
I0

Figure 5.5. Symmetrical Component Circuit of Open Phase with Ground

 107

The circuit can be simplified further if we consider the radial system presented in Figure
5.2. Such cases can frequently occur in the distribution feeder and thus, it is worthwhile
that the summary of the analysis is presented as an equivalent circuit with the ground fault
at the source side (bus side), as shown in Figure 5.6.

Q
I1
I1P
Ig Q1
P1

1/1 Q
Z1P Z1

Q
~ V1P V1

I1
Ig
I2P I2
Q

Ig Q2
P2

1/1 Z2P Q
Z2
Q
V2P V2
I2
Q
I0P I0

Ig Q0
P0
3Rfg

Q
1/1 Z0P Z0
V0P Q
V0
I0

Figure 5.6. Open Phase Fault with Ground at the Source Side

A similar relationship between current and voltage can be developed for an open phase and
the downed wire at “Q” side (load side) of the circuit. In this case, the 1/1 ratio interpose
transformer, which is used to represent the zero-sequence current caused by the ground
fault, must be moved to the load side (Q side) of the circuit.
 108

5.3.3 Double Open Phase Fault with No Ground

Figure 5.7 shows the open phase fault circuit for two phases - b and c. The current and
voltage equation can be written as follows:

P Q
Ia
a
Ib
b
Ic
c

Figure 5.7. Symmetrical Component Circuit of Double Open Phase Fault

Updating (5.1), (5.3), (5.4) and (5.11) from single open phase to double open phase, the
following can be stated for voltage, current, and sequence components:

PQ Q
V𝑎 = V𝑎P − V𝑎 = 0

PQ Q
Vb = VbP − Vb ≠ 0 (5.12)

PQ Q
Vc = VcP − Vc ≠ 0
PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ
V1 = 1/3(Va + aVb + a2 Vc ) = 1/3(aVb + a2 Vc ) (5.13)
PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ
V2 = 1/3(Va + a2 Vb + aVc ) = 1/3(a2 Vb + aVc ) (5.14)
PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ PQ
V0 = 1/3(Va + Vb + Vc ) = 1/3(Vb + Vc ) (5.15)

Adding both sides of (5.13), (5.14), and

(5.15), we get:

PQ PQ PQ 1
V1 + V2 + V0 = (1 + a + a2 )(VbPQ + VbPQ )
3

We know (1 + a + a2 ) = 0 thus, (5.16) can be concluded.

PQ PQ PQ
V1 + V2 + V0 =0 (5.16)
 109

Eq. (5.17) shows the similar relation between the current sequence components presented
on (5.16) for the fault of broken wire in two phases.

PQ PQ PQ
Ia ≠ 0 , Ib = 0, Ic = 0

PQ PQ PQ PQ 1 PQ
I1 = 1/3(Ia + aIb + a2 Ic ) = I𝑎
3

PQ PQ PQ PQ 1 PQ
I2 = 1/3(Ia + a2 Ib + aIc ) = I𝑎
3

PQ PQ PQ PQ 1 PQ
I0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic ) = I𝑎
3

PQ PQ PQ
I1 = I2 = I0 = (5.17)

Eq. (5.16) and (5.17) shows that the sequence component circuit of double open phase are
in series as shown in Figure 5.8.

P1 P2 P0

Z1 Z2 Z0

~
Q1 Q2 Q0

Figure 5.8. Double open phase fault equivalent circuit

The double open phase fault with downed wire(s) most likely will extend to a phase-to-
phase short circuit fault, which will be detected with the conventional protection scheme.
 110

5.4 Proposed Open Phase Fault Detection Criteria

As shown in the previous section, the symmetrical component analysis of an open phase
fault around faulty point provides a set of discriminative criteria to detect an open phase
incident. However, these criteria are not applicable to any distribution feeder where the
current and voltage along the feeder are different from the measurement available to
protection and control devices, located at substation and point of common coupling. The
proposed solution detects an open phase by analyzing the dynamic characteristics of the
current sequence components of power sources during the fault transition. It depends on
the number of PCCs where DGs are connected to the distribution feeder the proposed
solution considering the use of PMU in substation and PCCs. For conventional feeders
where no DGs are integrated in the feeder, one point of measurement at substation without
PMU will be enough. The available data in substation and PCC partially contains the open
phase signature. To overcome this issue, the average rate of changes of the current
component in the phasor data, which shows significant similarity with the open phase fault
characteristics measured at the fault location, is considered. Therefore, (5.4) is developed
based on the information of the location of the fault and can be restated for other measuring
points, such as substation or PCC, where PMUs are located as a group of inequality
equations which must be considered all together.

(∆I𝑖 = I𝑖af − I𝑖bf ) , 𝑖 = 0,1,2

∆I1 ∆I2 ∆I0

< 0 ,( ) > 0, ( )>0 (5.18)
∆t ∆t ∆t

∆I1 ∆I2 ∆I0

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

Max (I1 , I2 , I0 ) << Isc ∆V1 ≃ 0

Where I𝑖af and I𝑖bf represents the sequence current component before and after the fault.
The inequality of the short circuit and (∆V1 ≃ 0 ) shows that the open phase fault is not
generating any short circuit current that can be compared with any type of the parallel
faults and therefore the positive voltage at the PCC and the substation almost remain intact.
It also should be noted the inequality (5.18) has no threshold to control the sensitivity of
 111

the detection logic thus, in order to immunize the detection logic against fuse failure or
feeder unbalance, zero and negative sequence components must be greater than user
defined threshold (Min set1, Min set2 or Min set3 ) in order to activate the detection
logic.

∆I1 ∆I2 ∆I0

≥ Min set1 , ≥ Min set2 , ≥ Min set3 (5.19)
∆t ∆t ∆t

Not all the three thresholds in (5.19) is required to control the sensitivity of the open phase
fault detection logic. The voltage at the substation and PCC will have no significant change
for an open phase fault contrary to a parallel type of fault in the feeder. Thus, ∆V1 ≃ 0 is
added to the above-mentioned conditions. When there is more than one source in the
feeder, the inequality equations of (5.19) must be considered for the sources that feeding
the load behind the fault point. In the following section, this concept will be developed
adequately. In this regard, an arbitrary distribution feeder with DG is shown in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9. Typical Distribution Feeder with DG

 112

In order to formulate the detection criterion for the open phase fault, two locations of the
faults at point 1 (fault1) and at point 2 (fault 2) is considered that represent an open fault
between the two sources and a fault on the same side of the sources, respectively. The
location of the fault, with respect to the power sources, is required to develop different set
of conditions that must be recognized at the early stage of the fault detection process. It
must be noted that the proposed criteria (5.18) and (5.19) are current based and therefore,
in order for this algorithm to work, the open phase fault should expose minimum load of
the feeder to the fault. This means a minimum load required to go through the fault point
which can be as low as 2% of the feeder load. The sensitivity detection will be determined
by greater value of (5.19) or the minimum required load being exposed to open phase fault.
Table 5-1, the rate of change of the current symmetrical components for different type of
faults and switching operations is compared with the proposed solution for the open phase
fault. The “↑” sign represents the positive rate of the change and the ↓ sign shoes the
negative rate of the change. The results of many simulations shows that dependability
criteria introduced in (5.18) and (5.19) presents a unique characteristic which can be
discriminated with the open phase fault from all other type of the faults. The representative
simulation for each fault or operation is shown in Appendix E.

Table 5-1. Current Rate of Change for Parallel Faults

No. Fault or switching type ∆I1 ∆I2 ∆I0 ∆V1 Figure No.
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

1 Three phase fault ↑ NA NA - Figure E2

2 Two phase fault ↑ ↑ NA - Figure E4

3 Two phase to ground ↑ ↑ ↑ - Figure E6

4 Ground fault ↑ ↑ ↑ - Figure E8

5 Energizing unbalance ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ NA Figure E9

load
 113

6 De-energizing ↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ NA Figure E12

unbalance load

The case 6 of in the above table “de-energizing the unbalance load” in some cases when
the load of the feeder is balanced can leave the same signature as the open phase fault
formulated in (5.18). The constrained introduced in (5.19) must be used to desensitized the
proposed open phase algorithm against the unbalanced load that could occur in normal
operation. This case will be further discussed in the sensitivity section in this chapter.

Table 5-2 presents the variables and their units which is used to analyze cases with more
power sources.

Table 5-2. Variable Used for Case Study

Symbol DESCRIPTION UNIT [SI]

ViG i=1,2,0 Substation voltage KV (rms)

ViDG i=1,2,0 PCC voltage KV (rms)

IiG i=1,2,0 Substation current KA (rms)

IiDG i=1,2,0 PCC current KA (rms)

PG Active power station MW (ave)

PDG Active power PCC MW (ave)

QG Reactive power station MVar (ave)

QDG Reactive power PCC MVar (ave)

I0 Zero sequence current KA

ground fault

Rfg Grong fault resistance Ω

 114

5.5 Single Open Phase Fault Between Two Sources

The single open phase fault at point 1 in Figure 5.9 is considered. This fault is located
between the two sources of DG and the distribution grid. Therefore, in the instance of an
open phase fault, active power for the two sources changes in direction at the station and
at the PCC. It is assumed that if load distribution fault PDG ↑ increases to compensate for
the portion of the load which is no longer being supplied from the grid PGrid ↓ decreases.
For simplicity, it is assumed that losses are part of the load, and redistribution of the open
phase load after the fault does not cause a significant change in the losses. If the grid and
DG supply K% , (1 − K)% of the load, respectively, and “N” represents the portion of the
load in the open phase (phase “b” in this case), which will be discontinued from the grid
after the fault. The index Zero (0) in the equations represents the power before the fault,
and ∆Px represents the change in power after the fault.

0 < K <1, and, N ≤ K

PDG0 + PGrid0 = Pload0 = PlA0 + PlB0 + PlC0 (5.20)

Pload0 ≈ Pload

PGrid0 = K Pload = K(PlA + PlB + KPlC ) (5.21)

PDG0 = (1 − K)Pload = (1 − K)((PlA + PlB + KPlC ) (5.22)

PGrid = K Pload = KPlA + (K − N)PlB + KPlC =K(PlA +PlB +PlC ) − N𝑃𝑙𝐵

PDG = (1 − K)Pload = (1 − K)(PlA + PlB + PlC ) + NPlB

∆PGrid = PGrid0 − PGrid = −NKPlB

∆PDG= PDG0 − PDG = NPlB

∆PGrid
≤ −1 (5.23)
∆PDG

When the grid is supplying the load behind the open phase, (5.19) is considered as follows:
 115

∆I1G ∆I2G ∆I0G

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

5.5.1 Fault in a Feeder with More Than Two Sources

The open phase detection criteria can be extended for the feeder with more than two sources
of energy. Psource1 and Psource2 represent the group of generation, including the grid,
located on the both sides of the fault

Psource1 = PGrid + ∑m
i=1 DGi

Psource2 = ∑zi=m DGi

Psource10 + Psource20 = Pload0 = PlA0 + PlB0 + PlC0

Psource10 = K Pload = K(PlA + PlB + KPlC ) (5.24)

Psource20 = (1 − K)Pload = (1 − K)((PlA + PlB + KPlC ) (5.25)

∆Psource1 = Psource10 − Psource1 = −NKPlB

∆Psource2 = ∆Psource20 − ∆Psource2 = NPlB

∆Psource1
≤ −1 (5.26)
∆Psource2

∑ ∆I1Source1 ∑ ∆I2Source1 ∑ ∆I0Source1

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

5.5.2 Open Phase Fault with the Ground Fault

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, when an overhead electric power distribution
circuit conductor breaks—for example, when a car strikes a pole, or a splice or clamp
fails—the energized conductor falls to the ground. The resulting high-impedance
ground fault and its impact on the open phase fault is shown in Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5
and the following can be concluded:

▪ High impedance ground fault caused by broken conductor and downed wire, i.e., from
an overhead tower to the ground, takes some time (in the order of seconds). This
 116

sequence is recognizable by PMU measurement. Therefore, the signature of an open

phase fault, which is the backbone of the proposed algorithm, remains intact, and an
open phase fault prior to becoming a ground fault can be identified. This is also a very
desirable response to prevent any public hazards caused by energized wires at the
ground level.
▪ High impedance ground fault constitutes a very small portion of the current fault which
most likely is not a measurable at the station level but, nonetheless, the positive rate of
change can be measured, if the ground fault occurs after the open phase in the sequence
described previously. From (5.10), (5.11), and (5.19), the ground fault current can be
calculated. It is assumed that at 𝑡1, the open phase fault occurs and at 𝑡2, the ground
wire touching ground occurs, and I0 is a high impedance ground fault.

Ia1 − Ia′ 1 = Ia2 − Ia′ 2 = Ia0 − Ia′ 0 = I0

[(∆IxG)t2 − (∆IxG)t1 ] > 0 (x=0,1,2) (5.27)

[(∆IxDG)t2 − (∆IxDG)t1 ] > 0 (x=0,1,2) (5.28)

The above equations, developed for the point in time that an open phase fault occurs, are
valid when the ground fault is at the grid or DG side, respectively. Similar to what was
described for the open phase fault criteria, the PMUs measuring devices are at the
substation and PCCs. Hence, the above equation cannot be directly verified since the
location of the fault also unknown. However, for the high impedance ground fault which
is expected to be less than 50 A on the primary, reduces the unbalance of the system caused
by interruption of one phase load and thus, the following behavior can be measured by
PMUs at the instant the high impedance ground fault develops from an open phase fault.

∆I1G
( )>0
∆t
∆I2G
( )<0 (5.29)
∆t
∆I0G
[( ∆t
) < 0]

Similar inequality equations can be verified by grid side PMU, if the high impedance
ground fault is supplied from the grid.
 117

5.6 Open Phase Fault at the Same Side of the Sources

In this section, an open phase fault recognition criterion at point 2 in Figure 5.9 is
considered. This fault is located on the same side of the two sources of DG and distribution
grid. In the instance of a fault, active power for the two sources changes in the same
direction at the station and at the PCC. In contrary to the previous case, for a fault on the
same side of the sources, in the instant the fault occurs, active power for the two sources
changes in the same direction at the station and at the DG. Both PDG ↓ and PGrid ↓
decrease due to the loss of portion of the load in phase “b”. For simplicity, we have assumed
that the losses are part of the load. The grid and DG supply K% , (1 − K)% of the load in
all three phases (PlA , PlB , PlC ), and “N” is representing the portion of the load in phase “b”
which is deenergized after fault occurs. The index Zero (0) in the equations represents the
power before the fault and ∆𝑃𝑥 represents the change of power due to the fault.

0 < K <1, and, N ≤ K

PDG + PGrid = Pload = PlA + PlB + PlC (5.30)

PGrid0 = K Pload = K(PlA + PlB + KPlC ) (5.31)

PDG0 = (1 − K)Pload = (1 − K)((PlA + PlB + KPlC ) (5.32)

PGrid = K Pload = K(PlA +PlB +PlC − NPlB )

PDG = (1 − K)Pload = (1 − K)((PlA + PlB + KPlC − NPlB )

∆PGrid = PGrid0 − PGrid = −NKKPlB

∆PDG= PDG0 − PDG = −N(1 − K)PlB

∆PGrid K
0≤ ≅ (5.33)
∆PDG 1−K

In this case, both grid and DG are supplying the load behind the open phase and therefore,
the inequality equations (5.18) can be considered for both power sources.
 118

∆I1G ∆I2G ∆I0G

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

∆I1DG ∆I2DG ∆I0DG

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

5.6.1 Fault in a Feeder with More Than Two Sources

The open phase detection criteria in this case can also be extended to the feeder with more
than two sources of energy. Psource1 and Psource2 represent the group of generation sources,
including the grid that is integrated to the feeder.

Psource1 = PGrid + ∑m
i=1 DGi

Psource2 = ∑zi=m DGi

Psource10 + Psource20 = Pload0 = PlA0 + PlB0 + PlC0

Psource10 = K Pload = K(PlA + PlB + KPlC )

Psource20 = (1 − K)Pload = (1 − K)((PlA + PlB + KPlC )

∆Psource1 = Psource10 − Psource1 = −KNKPlB

∆Psource2 = ∆Psource20 − ∆Psource2 = −(1 + K))NPlB

∆Psource1 K
0≤ ≅ (5.34)
∆Psource2 1−K

∑ ∆I1Source1 ∑ ∆I2Source1 ∑ ∆I0Source1

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

∑ ∆I1Source2 ∑ ∆I2Source2 ∑ ∆I0Source2

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

5.6.2 Open Phase Fault with Ground

The ground fault impact on the open phase fault between the two sources is verified in
5.5.2. The only notable difference with the current case is a ground fault will be supplied
 119

by both sources rather than one of them, therefore (5.27) and are
to be updated as follows:

[(∆IxG)t2 − (∆IxG)t1 ] + [(∆IxDG)t2 − (∆IxDG)t1 ] > 0 (x=0,1,2) (5.35)

However, as discussed in 5.5.2, the high impedance ground fault reduces the load
unbalance of the system caused by interruption of one phase and thus, the following
behavior can be measured by PMUs at the instant of a high impedance ground fault
develops from an open phase fault.

∆I1G
( )>0
∆t
∆I2G
( )<0 (5.36)
∆t
∆I0G
[( ∆t
) < 0]

∆I1DG
( )>0
∆t
∆I2DG
( )<0 (5.37)
∆t
∆I0DG
[( ∆t
) < 0]

5.7 Test System

The base of this case study relies on 27.6 KV grounded utility distribution feeder with
integrated wind machine type 4. Figure 5.9 shows the simplified one-line diagram of the
feeder modeled using PSCAD/EMTDC Electromagnetic Transient-based software. The
feeder contains single- and three- phase laterals and therefore, will have some degree of
voltage and current imbalances. The detailed feeder is presented in Appendix A.

5.8 Test Scenarios

The two representative scenarios of a single open phase fault with the following cases are
studied:

1) Scenario 1: fault located between the DG and the grid (point 1)

a. Case 1: Single open phase fault with no ground

 120

b. Case 2: single open phase with downed wire (high impedance ground)

2) Scenario 2: fault between the same side of DG and grid (point 2)

a. Case 1: single open phase with no ground

b. Case 2: single open phase with the downed wire (high impedance ground)

c. Case 3: single open phase with the solid ground fault

3) Scenario 3: Sensitivity & security limitation

5.8.1 Scenario 1 Case 1

The single open phase fault without ground is simulated at point 1, and at t=2.5, second
(phase “b” is opened) of the feeder is shown in Figure 5.9. The results of simulation are
shown in Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11. In Figure 5.10, active power, reactive power, and
magnitude of symmetrical component voltage of DG and grid are shown. In Figure 5.11,
the magnitude of the symmetrical component currents is shown. It is assumed that the
measurement is performed by two PMUs located at the PCC and the substation. In Figure
5.10, the opposite rate of change in power of the two sources reveals that the fault is located
between the DG and the grid. Since after the fault, PGrid ↓ decreases PDG ↑ increases, and
the direction of power flow is from the grid to the faulty point, the following equations will
identify the fault:

∆PGrid −2.20
= = −1.46 ≤ −1
∆PDG 1.5

The above result reveals that the fault is between the two sources and is being fed by the
grid.

∆I1G ∆I0G
( )<0 >0
∆t ∆t

∆I1G ∆I2G ∆I0G

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

The validity of the above inequality reveals that the fault is an open phase fed by the grid.
 121

∆V1G= ∆V1DG ≃ 0

The rate of positive sequence voltage change shows that no parallel fault is detected
during the simulation.

Figure 5.10. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 1-Power & Voltage
 122

Figure 5.11. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 1-Current

 123

5.8.2 Scenario 1 Case 2

The single open phase fault with ground is simulated at point 1 and at t=2.5 second (phase
“b” is opened) of the feeder, as shown earlier in Figure 5.9. The fault extended to an open
phase fault with high impedance ground at t=4 sec at the grid side of the open phase. The
results of simulation are shown in Figure 5.12 and Figure 5.13. In Figure 5.12 active power,
reactive power, and magnitude of symmetrical component voltage of DG and grid are
shown. In Figure 5.13, the magnitude of the symmetrical component currents is shown. It
is assumed that the measurement is performed by two PMUs located at the PCC and the
substation. For the time between 2.5 ≤ t ≤ 3, is very similar to sequence that has shown
in the previous case (scenario 1- case 1).

∆PGrid
≤ −1
∆PDG

The above result shows that the fault is between the two sources and is fed by the grid.

∆I1G
( )<0
∆t

∆I2G
( )>0
∆t

∆I0G
>0
∆t

∆I1G ∆I2G ∆I0G

( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t

The validity of the above inequality reveals that the fault is an open phase type and confirms
that it is being fed by the grid. At t = 3.00 sec, the high impedance ground fault with a
resistance of 200 ohms has been added to the circuit. The changes in the signature of the
open phase fault with high impedance ground fault is negligible, as expected.

∆V1G= ∆V1DG ≃ 0

The rate of change of positive sequence impedance shows that no parallel fault is detected.
 124

Figure 5.12. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 2

 125

Figure 5.13. Open Phase Fault Scenario 1-Case 2

 126

5.8.3 Scenario 2 Case 1

The single open phase fault without ground is simulated at point 2 and at t=2.5 second
(phase “b” is opened) of the feeder shown earlier in Figure 5.9. The open phase is located
on the same side of both sources. The result of this simulation is shown in Figure 5.14 and
Figure 5.15. In contrary to the previous simulation, for the fault on the same side of the
sources, at the instant of the fault, active power for the two sources changes in the same
direction at the station and DG. Both PDG ↓ and PGrid ↓ decrease due to the loss of portion
of the load in the phase “b”.

∆PGrid
>0
∆PDG

The above result shows that the fault is between the two sources and is fed by the grid.

∆I1G ∆I1DG
( )<0 ( )<0
∆t ∆t

∆I2G ∆I2DG
( )>0 ( )>0
∆t ∆t

∆I0G ∆I0DG
( )>0 ( )>0
∆t ∆t

∆I1G ∆I2G ∆I0G ∆I1DG ∆I2DG ∆I0DG

( ).( + )<0 ( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

The validity of above inequality reveals the that fault is open phase and confirms that it is
being fed by grid.

∆V1G= ∆V1DG ≃ 0

The rate of change of the voltage shows that during the simulation no parallel fault is
detected.
 127

Figure 5.14. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current

 128

Figure 5.15. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current

 129

5.8.4 Scenario 2 Case 2

The single open phase fault without ground is simulated at point 2 at 𝑡 = 2.5 second (phase
“b” is opened) of the feeder, shown in Figure 5.9. The ground fault with resistance of 200
ohm on the source side is added to the simulation at t = 3.00 sec. The ground fault current
measured at the fault is 36 A, which represents the high impedance ground fault (typically
less than 50 A) and is caused by a fallen wire. The simulation results are shown in Figure
5.16 and Figure 5.17. The power for the two sources changes in the same direction at the
station and at the DG. Both PDG ↓ and PGrid ↓ decrease due to the loss of portion of the
load in the phase “b”. The power, voltage, and current measured at PCC and substation and
for the time between the open phase and ground fault (2.5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4) shows an open phase
fault signature similar to scenario 2 case 1. (5.19) can be considered for both sources in
this simulation:

∆PGrid −0.75
= = 0.61
∆PDG −1.22

∆I1G ∆I1DG
( ) = −0.03 KA ( ) = −0.03 KA
∆t ∆t

∆I2G ∆I2DG
( ) = 0.007 KA ( ) = 0.05 KA
∆t ∆t

∆I0G ∆I0DG
( ) = 0.003 ( ) = 0.007 KA
∆t ∆t

∆I1G ∆I2G ∆I0G ∆I1DG ∆I2DG ∆I0DG

( ).( + )<0 ( ).( + )<0
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

The validity of the above inequality shows that the fault is open phase and confirms that it
is being fed by the grid.

∆V1G= ∆V1DG ≃ 0

The rate of change of the positive sequence voltage shows that there is no parallel fault in
the circuit. After the high impedance ground fault is added to the system, the voltage
remains the same, and small changes or perturbations that are observed in the current
component does not change the inequality criteria of open phase.
 130

Figure 5.16. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current

 131

Figure 5.17. Single Open Phase Fault (phase b)- Current

 132

5.8.5 Scenario 2 Case 3

The single open phase fault is simulated at point 2 and at t = 2.5 second (phase “b” is
opened) of the feeder, as shown earlier in Figure 5.9. The solid ground fault is added to the
circuit at t = 4.0 sec. The purpose of this simulation is to compare the open phase fault
with the solid or low impedance ground fault with the high impedance ground fault. It is
interesting to note that one of the major discriminations between the open phase fault and
dIG1 dIDG1
any parallel fault is the rate of change or which is negative opposite to any other
dt dt

fault. Figure 5.18 and Figure 5.19 show the results of this simulation. The detection of a
solid ground fault is not an issue for the conventional protection system. After t = 3.0 sec,
the signature of the open phase fault is totally dissolved by the ground fault protection
signature.

The sudden increase in rate of change in all the three-current components I1, I2, I0 make
the fault easily detectable by any simple or conventional over current protection element.
However, it should be noted that the extension of the open phase fault is not a solid ground
fault. The concern about the open phase conductor and its consequences is a high
impedance ground fault which is not reliably detected by conventional protection system.

It is interesting to note that one of the major discriminations between the proposed solution
dIG1
and parallel fault is at the instance of the open phase fault the rate for both grid DG
dt

are negative. While this is opposite to any parallel fault characteristics.

 133

Figure 5.18. Single Open Phase Fault with Solid Ground

 134

Figure 5.19. Single Open Phase Fault with Solid Ground

 135

5.8.6 Scenario 3 Sensitivity Limitation

The solution presented in this chapter is a current based solution, therefore, in order to
detect the open phase fault, the fault should interrupt a minimum amount of the load in the
faulty phase. In Figure 5.20, the single open phase fault without ground is simulated at the
end feeder in point 2 at “t=2.5” second (phase “b” is opened). The minimum load that is
required for the proposed algorithm to detect the open phase is determined by sensitivity
analysis and is about 4% of total supplied load at instant of open phase incident. This means
that for the solution to work, minimum 4% of the three phase load should be exposed to
open phase circuit to leave the signature that is described in (5.18). It important to note that
for an ideal balanced feeder with the balanced load, the sensitivity is limited to the ability
of measuring the current reliably considering the error of the measurement. However,
generally, if prior to the occurrence of an open phase, there is a unbalance load in the circuit
in the worst case scenario, the open phase fault will be detectable if the open phase fault
disturbs the load which is, at minimum, slightly greater than the current feeder unbalance
load. In the current example, the load unbalance is about 2-3 %.

The sensitivity of the proposed solution is not the same among the phases when the feeder
supplies an unbalance load. The phase with the highest load represents the least sensitive
phase. Figure 5.21. shows the open phase simulated at t=3 sec on the phase with the largest
load. The feeder supplies around 15 MVA (1 PU) and phase “C” carries about 5.2 MVA,
1.3% above the average load per phase and has the highest load. The negative sequence
component (I2) prior to the open phase incident created by an unbalanced load is around
3.2%. The plotted results show that the open phase in phase C can be detected only if the
open phase fault generates more negative sequence current than the unbalance load (3.2%)
to leave the detachable signature described in (5.18).
 136

Mva

∆𝐒𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 =4.01%

∆𝐈𝟏_𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝
<𝟎
∆𝐭
I1 [KA]
I2 [KA]

∆𝐈𝟐_𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝
>𝟎
∆𝐭
I0 [KA]

∆𝐈𝟎_𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝
>𝟎
∆𝐭

Sec

Figure 5.20. Single Open Phase at the End of Feeder with 4% Load
 137

∆I1 = 0.078 PU

∆𝐼1
∆I1 = <0
∆𝑡

∆I2 = 0.013 PU

∆𝐼2
∆I2 = <0 ∆𝐼2
∆𝑡 ∆I2 = >0
∆𝑡

∆𝐼0
∆I0 = >0
∆𝑡

∆I0 =
∆𝐼0
<0 ∆I0 = 0.013 PU
∆𝑡

Figure 5.21. Single Open Phase at the End of Feeder with 4% Load
In regard to security of the proposed solution as previously shown in Table 5-1 if a single-
phase load connected directly to the primary feeder is switched off by the consumer, not
by fault, fuse blown, or feeder operator, this can be seen erroneously as an open phase fault
by the proposed sensitive open phase detection algorithm. Figure 5.22 shows that the
single-phase load (0.02 PU) is turned off in the completely balanced three-phase system
and the dynamic of this switching can be seen by this solution as an open phase. The minim
threshold provision in (5.18) is considered to desensitize the algorithm based on the largest
single phase load installed at the primary feeder. For example, if the largest single-phase
load is 0.02PU installed in the primary
 138

The Iset1min must be set at least 3%.

∆I1
≥ Iset1min ≥ 0.03
∆t

Therefore, the actual sensitivity of the solution is equal to the greater value of the maximum
expected unbalance load and the largest installed single-phase load on the primary circuit
(one load not a group of loads). With the consideration of the cases discussed in this section
the proposed solution can protect 90% to 95% of the feeder-load against the open phase
fault if we assume the unbalanced load and the largest installed single-phase load on the
primary circuit are somewhat less than 5% to 10% of the feeder rating.

∆𝐼1
∆I1 = <0
∆𝑡

∆𝐼2
∆I2 = >0
∆𝑡

∆𝐼0
∆I0 = >0
∆𝑡

Figure 5.22. Single Open Phase at the End of Feeder with 4% Load
 139

5.9 Conceptual Implementation

The prime PMU application so far has been on the wide area of the power transmission
network and bulk energy power system. Although the proposed solution focuses on the
open phase fault detection in a distribution network, the same principal can be applied in
any network by taking advantage of PMU data stream phasor measurement which makes
sets of current and voltage phasors available on a real time basis. The PMU data in the
distribution network can serve many applications, such as islanding and fault locations as
well as open phase detection scheme. Therefore, capital investment for such a multipurpose
device is much easier to justify. The PMU function, as part of integrated IED, is available
at negligible additional cost from mainstream IED manufacturers. The communication
system architecture for the proposed solution is illustrated in Figure 5.1. The utilization of
PDC, particularly for the number of PMUs used in this application, is not essential. Instead,
using IEC61850-90-5 standard complaint PMUs, where PMUs connected at the PCC or
substation can directly exchange their data in a peer to peer communication relationship by
using GOOSE in PDU, can improve the time performance of the application. The main
time-consuming tasks in the proposed solution are as follows:

1. PMU response to stream the phasor data

2. Communication time delay
3. Open Phase Detection (OPD) logic task

The communication time delay depends on the type of media and can vary from 5-30 ms.
PMU real time performance can take around 10-20 ms, and OPDs logic around 10-20 ms,
considering 3 to 5 sample windows for decision making process. The time performance
limitation must be taken into consideration when this application is used to block the fast
auto-recloser scheme. This chapter presented a novel open phase detection scheme in the
distribution feeder with DGs. The application is based on PMU data that are available in
substation and PCCs. The solution is examined based on analysis carried on
PSCAD/EMDC modeling and calculations.

The open conductor with the ground is modeled as a two-step event which starts with the
breaking the conductor and a time delay for it to develop into a ground fault on the bus
 140

side. Detection of open phase fault should be done prior to development of this fault into a
ground fault. Symmetrical component characteristics are used as the chief property of the
open phase identifier. Rate of change, both in amplitude and in angle of both current and
voltage symmetrical components, proved to be reliable metrics to identify the target fault
in a complex feeder with multiple power sources.

5.10 Summary
In this chapter, the second use case to detect the open phase fault using the synchrophasor
data was studied. The vulnerability of distribution systems in an open phase fault and a
critical review of the reach conducted in this area was presented in this chapter. The
problem is formulated by analyzing the single- and two-phase open phase fault, with and
without high impedance ground using symmetrical component analysis technique and
EMT model development. Based on the fault signature, specific measurable criteria were
developed to identify open phase fault by PMUs located at the substation and point of
common coupling. The algorithm was further developed for a feeder with the multiple
integrated DGs. The high impedance ground fault recognition and impact were added to
the existing criteria. Although, it is shown that the high impedance fault impact is
predictable following the open phase fault, the open phase fault signature is still
recognizable with and without the ground fault.

The test system was developed using PSCAD/EMTDC software and a utility type
distribution feeder with the actual parameters was modeled using this software. The test
scenario to examine the reliability of the proposed solution was developed with emphasis
on dependability and security. From the many simulations that were carried out, select
representative results were analyzed and reported. The conceptual implementation for the
proposed solution considering the market available hardware and software was proposed.

The next chapter will summarize the work, present the major conclusion of this work, and
provide suggestions for future research work.
 141

Chapter 6
Summary
The communication technology to create a new generation of protection relays that works
not only by sensing an abnormal condition based on local measurements, but also by
receiving information from remote devices, is becoming more and more possible. NASPI
(North American Synchro Phasor Initiative), which is funded by U.S. Department of
Energy, has been focusing on bulk power energy and the wide area network. However, the
deployment in this area so far, has been limited to some non-time critical monitoring
applications. In this initiative, not much attention has been given to distribution systems.

The topology of a typical distribution feeder is very similar to wide area networks but at a
much smaller scale, as it contains many connections and branches. However, no
infrastructure is available to provide information from these nodes and branches that can
be utilized for protection and control system. For many years, the simplicity of the
distribution system as a radial system and a network which is designed to be an interface
to the consumers only permitted that utilities operate this system as it is with little need for
communication and measuring technologies.

With the technological changes that are coming, the distribution system is at the forefront
of smart grid initiatives, DG integration, peak demand management, and the microgrid.
These are transforming the distribution network from simple radial systems to the more
complex bidirectional flow systems which must manage and protect the local generation
and the independent, smaller local grids. In this research, the use of synchrophasor data for
the protection of the distribution network has been investigated and it has been shown that
the investment in this application, coordinated with other aforementioned initiatives, is
underway in the distribution system.

The synchrophasor data can serve many protection and control applications with the same
structure, some of which are recommended as future research objectives in this work. This
work investigates two protection use cases and shows that more work and research in this
area can prepare the distribution system with its transformation to a grid with local
generations.
 142

The integration of synchrophasor data to the substation automation infrastructure promoted

by IEC61850-90-5, further provides an opportunity for the distribution system to make this
into an integrated part of the substation automation application and makes the overall
application more economically effective.

6.1 Summary and Conclusion

In Chapter 1, an introduction to power system structure and the need to modernize the
power grid due to multiple factors, such as economic, political, environmental and
technical, including aging infrastructure, integration of multiple DER (Distributed Energy
Resources), other new technologies, security concern and more influence of the end
consumer to the local legislation. It is discussed that despite the past power industry
investment history which has favorited generation and transmission the need for shift of
focus to distribution systems modernization. The synchrophasor technology, its
advancement and the prospective of its role is discussed. The objectives of the research
were presented. Chapter One also included an introduction to synchrophasor measurement,
PMU, and μPMU power system protection relevant to the area of this research.

In Chapter 2, the fundamentals of the distribution system feeder structure relevant to this
research was presented. The Principle of protection in distribution and feeder protection
specifics were reviewed. Challenges related to the integration of DG and DG characteristics
were also verified. Wind turbine type 1 to 4 and PV solar DG short circuit and reactive
power production capability were studied. The changes in the regulatory standard, such as
IEEE 1547 related to DG integration and islanding, were reviewed and summarized.

In Chapter 3, the fundamentals of synchrophasor measurement, data communication,

performance, signal processing, application, and system architecture were presented. The
IEC61850 compliant system appropriate for the current research in the area of protection
application was discussed. The concept of μPMU and high PMU data resolution for
distribution systems is reviewed. The accuracy required for some of distribution
application is reviewed.

In Chapter 4, the proposed research solution for islanding detection based on phasor
measurement data was presented. The mathematical formulation for the detection
 143

algorithm was provided. The test model was developed in PSCAD-EMTDC and MATLAB
based on actual utility feeder data. The mathematical formulation is validated by numerous
simulations on a real-world test model. The concept is generalized by developing separate
models for the mainstream DERs and concept is tested with real world scale utility feeder.

In Chapter 5, the research-based proposed solution for open phase fault detection with and
without a downed wire (ground fault) based on synchrophasor data was presented and
discussed. The mathematical formulation for the detection algorithm was also described.
The computer-based test model was developed in PSCAD-EMTDS and MATLAB based
on utility data. The algorithm was validated with numerous simulations representing many
actual cases.

6.2 Contribution of this Work

The following are the major contributions of this work in the subject area of this study
and distribution systems:

1. This study has provided a theoretical justification that synchrophasor

measurement devices can be successfully utilized to address some of the existing
and new challenges faced by distribution systems in relatively smaller
applications, such as distribution feeders, where a smaller number of PMUs are
used in comparison to typically wide area applications, as demonstrated in the
use cases in this work. The integration of PMU data using IEC61850-90-5
communication standard with substation automation system can be addressed.
The proposed system architecture as demonstrated in this study can be utilized
for many applications which will maximize the return of investment on phasor
measurement technology in utilities’ network.

2. The proposed solution for the first use case - the islanding detection - has
contributed to this subject with the following specific innovative features:

a. The proposed solution relies on the existing protection infrastructure at

substations and points of common coupling.
 144

b. The proposed solution uses the adaptive protection scheme when

adaptation is done in non-critical time during feeder normal operation.

c. The proposed solution addresses the weakness of the passive detection

schemes, particularly, the non-detection zone, by introducing sensitivity-
based constrained detection of islanding, when applicable.

d. The proposed solution is not depending on the type of DG integrated into

the feeder.

e. The proposed solution does not rely on the static angle of voltage
differences between the PCC and DGs which can be small depending on
the location and size of DGs. It is based on monitoring the change of this
angle when islanding occurs, and the maximum sensitivity solution is
defined based on the IEEE compliance PMU with one degree available in
the marketplace.

f. The proposed solution if used for a sizeable DG integration in term of

power size 2.00 MW and above does not require the use of high-
performance PMU.

3. The proposed solution for the second use case, detecting the open phase fault is
a major contribution to this subject since the selective detection of this fault is
nonexistent. The proposed solution relies on the waveform properties of the open
phase fault to recognize it, and within that framework uses an algorithm based on
the available and measurable data in substations and PCCs. The accuracy of the
measured quantity is not as important as the changes in the quantity. The voltage
phase angle is not used in proposed algorithm. Therefore, in contrast to many
protection schemes, the proposed solution is immune to inaccuracies in
measurement and is not relying on phase angle measurement.

At the time of publication of this work, two journal papers summarizing the two use cases
studied for open phase and islanding detection are under review by the IEEE Power System
Access.
 145

6.3 Recommendation for Future Research Work

Some of the potential areas for further research are identified below:

1) There is potential to use synchrophasor data to provide real time visibility and state
estimation for the distribution network. [63]

2) There is potential to use synchrophasor data to design the PMU-based adaptive over
current protection system for distribution system with DG system [64].

3) There is potential to identify and optimize the number and location of PMU sensors
to serve control and protection applications of a distribution network.

4) There is potential to develop a cost-constrained optimal load flow real time

operational program based on distribution voltage profile measurements and
communicated by PMUs.

5) There is potential to investigate upgrading and optimizing the Distribution

Management System with the use of synchrophasor data.

6) There is potential for fault location application using synchrophasor data both in
primary feeder and in the secondary underground network [65].
 146

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 150

Appendix A: Network Model Information

Figure A1 shows the distribution system one-line diagram which is used for Anti-Islanding
and open phase study test system. For the open phase study, the location of DGs and AR
is changed as per cases requirement as per what is described in chapter 5

Figure A1. One-line Diagram of Modeled Distribution Feeder

Table A1 is presents the type of conductor which is used in the model with thire electrical
characteristics.

Table A1. Conductor Type and Data Used in the Model

 151

Table A2 presents the length of the conductor used in the model.

Table A2. Conductor Length Used in the Model

From To Conductor Length
PSCAD Label Phase Node Node Type (km)
L1 ABC 1 2 556AL427 0.1142
L2 ABC 2 3 556AL427 0.1337
L3 ABC 3 4 556AL427 0.1998
L4 ABC 4 5 556AL427 1.2202
L5 ABC 5 7 556AL427 1.1214
L6 ABC 8 9 40ASR427 1.5665
L7 ABC 9 10 40ASR427 0.0192
L8 ABC 10 11 U20AL1428 0.1144
L9 ABC 9 13 40ASR427 0.0294
L10 ABC 14 15 U20AL1428 0.239
L11 ABC 9 16 40ASR427 0.1327
L12 ABC 17 18 U20AL1428 0.1077
L13 ABC 16 19 40ASR427 0.4252
L14 ABC 19 20 40ASR427 0.4185
L15 ABC 20 21 40ASR427 5.6039
L16 ABC 21 22 336AL427 0.1406
L17 ABC 23 24 336AL427 0.856
L18 ABC 25 26 336AL427 0.1068
L19 ABC 26 27 336AL427 0.3571
L20 C 27 28 10ASR427 0.059
L21 C 29 30 10ASR427 0.1475
L22 ABC 27 31 336AL427 0.0814
L23 B 31 32 10ASR427 0.058
L24 B 33 34 10ASR427 0.14
L25 ABC 31 35 336AL427 0.0771
L26 C 35 36 10ASR427 0.0493
L27 C 37 38 10ASR427 0.1429
L28 ABC 35 39 40ASR427 0.0986
L29 ABC 40 41 40ASR427 0.1201
L30 ABC 41 42 40ASR427 0.35
L31 C 43 44 10ASR427 0.3132
L32 C 44 45 10ASR427 0.4135
L33 ABC 35 46 336AL427 0.0805
L34 A 46 47 10ASR427 0.0567
L35 A 48 49 10ASR427 0.1242
L36 ABC 46 50 336AL427 0.0772
L37 A 50 51 10ASR427 0.0524
L38 A 52 53 10ASR427 0.1176
L39 ABC 50 54 336AL427 0.0755
L40 A 54 55 10ASR427 0.0474
L41 A 56 57 10ASR427 0.2411
L42 A 57 58 10ASR427 0.1486
 152

L43 ABC 54 59 336AL427 0.0749

L44 A 59 60 10ASR427 0.0224
L45 A 61 62 10ASR427 0.1693
L46 ABC 59 63 336AL427 0.1622
L47 ABC 63 64 10ASR427 0.7655
L48 B 65 66 10ASR427 0.2213
L49 ABC 64 67 10ASR427 1.452
L50 ABC 68 69 10ASR427 0.3347
L51 ABC 67 70 10ASR427 1.1306
L52 ABC 71 72 10ASR427 0.6802
L53 B 72 73 10ASR427 0.0229
L54 B 74 75 10ASR427 0.107
L55 B 75 76 10ASR427 0.2811
L56 A 72 77 30ASR427 0.0259
L57 A 78 79 30ASR427 1.194
L58 ABC 72 80 10ASR427 0.145
L59 ABC 80 81 10ASR427 0.3988
L60 C 81 82 10ASR427 0.0346
L61 C 83 84 10ASR427 0.1773
L62 C 84 85 10ASR427 0.118
L63 ABC 81 86 10ASR427 0.2321
L64 A 87 88 10ASR427 0.2086
L65 A 88 89 10ASR427 0.091
L66 ABC 86 90 10ASR427 0.5296
L67 C 91 92 30ASR427 3.3797
L68 ABC 21 93 40ASR427 6.4518
L69 ABC 93 94 40ASR427 0.3972
L70 ABC 95 96 40ASR427 0.9648
L71 ABC 97 98 40ASR427 0.6654
L72 ABC 98 99 10ASR427 0.3629
L73 ABC 100 101 10ASR427 2.7921
L74 ABC 98 104 40ASR427 0.9303
L75 C 104 105 10ASR427 0.0273
L76 C 106 107 10ASR427 0.8709
L77 ABC 104 108 40ASR427 0.0305
L78 C 108 109 10ASR427 0.0363
L79 C 110 111 10ASR427 0.9992
L80 ABC 108 112 40ASR427 0.2213
L81 ABC 112 113 40ASR427 0.2939
L82 ABC 114 115 40ASR427 0.4083
L83 ABC 116 117 40ASR427 0.2026
L84 ABC 117 118 40ASR427 0.9115
L85 ABC 119 120 40ASR427 0.3926
L86 ABC 120 121 336AL427 0.6663
L87 ABC 122 123 336AL427 0.1252
L88 ABC 123 124 336AL427 0.3863
L89 ABC 124 125 40ASR427 0.3102
L90 C 126 127 40ASR427 0.5507
 153

L91 ABC 124 128 336AL427 0.5321

L92 ABC 129 130 336AL427 3.1889
L93 ABC 130 131 336AL427 0.4304
L94 ABC 131 132 336AL427 0.1002
L95 A 132 133 10ASR427 0.0479
L96 A 134 135 10ASR427 0.0599
L97 A 135 136 10ASR427 0.1086
L98 ABC 132 137 336AL427 0.2634
L99 ABC 137 138 10ASR427 0.0488
L100 ABC 139 140 10ASR427 0.1686
L101 ABC 140 141 10ASR427 0.1573
L102 ABC 137 142 336AL427 0.0495
L103 ABC 143 144 336AL427 0.237
L104 C 144 145 10ASR427 0.0387
L105 C 146 147 10ASR427 0.3133
L106 C 147 148 10ASR427 0.1727
L107 B 144 149 10ASR427 0.0579
L108 B 150 151 10ASR427 0.5248
L109 B 151 152 10ASR427 0.2227
L110 B 152 153 10ASR427 0.0869
L111 ABC 144 154 336AL427 0.3137
L112 ABC 154 155 10ASR427 0.3412
L113 C 156 157 10ASR427 1.0307
L114 ABC 154 158 336AL427 0.1389
L115 A 158 159 10ASR427 0.0747
L116 A 160 161 10ASR427 0.3018
L117 A 161 162 10ASR427 0.1781
L118 ABC 158 163 336AL427 0.147
L119 C 163 164 10ASR427 0.0815
L120 C 165 166 10ASR427 0.3683
L121 C 166 167 10ASR427 0.1981
L122 ABC 163 168 336AL427 0.2334
L123 A 168 169 10ASR427 0.0728
L124 A 170 171 10ASR427 0.1993
L125 ABC 168 172 336AL427 0.2485
L126 B 172 173 10ASR427 0.0506
L127 B 174 175 10ASR427 0.2067
L128 ABC 172 176 336AL427 0.1787
L129 B 176 177 10ASR427 0.0314
L130 B 178 179 10ASR427 0.1254
L131 ABC 176 180 336AL427 0.2469
L132 A 180 181 10ASR427 0.0583
L133 A 182 183 10ASR427 0.1569
L134 ABC 180 184 336AL427 0.0717
L135 A 184 185 10ASR427 0.0364
L136 A 186 187 10ASR427 0.1284
L137 ABC 184 188 336AL427 0.1187
L138 B 189 190 10ASR427 0.1111
 154

L139 B 190 191 10ASR427 0.0674

L140 ABC 188 192 336AL427 0.1595
L141 C 193 194 10ASR427 0.0698

L142 ABC 192 195 336AL427 1.2174

L143 ABC 195 196 30ASR427 0.0585
L144 ABC 197 198 30ASR427 1.7426
L145 ABC 195 199 30ASR427 0.1552
L146 ABC 200 201 30ASR427 0.4701
L147 AB 201 202 30ASR427 0.2865
L148 C 201 203 30ASR427 0.1988
L149 ABC 195 204 336AL427 0.7638
L150 ABC 204 205 336AL427 0.6184
L151 ABC 205 206 10ASR427 0.078
L152 ABC 207 208 10ASR427 0.3467
L153 A 208 209 10ASR427 0.2129
L154 ABC 208 210 10ASR427 0.0552
L155 A 211 212 10ASR427 0.2583
L156 AC 210 213 10ASR427 1.0601
L157 ABC 205 214 336AL427 0.1752
L158 B 215 216 10ASR427 0.2127
L159 ABC 214 217 336AL427 0.0945
L160 B 218 219 10ASR427 0.2007
L161 ABC 217 220 336AL427 0.0945
L162 B 221 222 10ASR427 0.2496
L163 ABC 220 223 336AL427 0.8372
L164 ABC 223 224 10ASR427 0.0646
L165 ABC 225 226 10ASR427 0.2907
L166 B 226 227 10ASR427 0.1214
L167 ABC 223 228 336AL427 0.1568
L168 B 229 230 10ASR427 0.1338
L169 ABC 228 231 336AL427 0.2139
L170 AC 232 233 10ASR427 0.123
L171 ABC 231 234 336AL427 0.164
L172 B 235 236 10ASR427 0.1835
L173 ABC 234 237 336AL427 0.4795

Table A3 presents the installed load in the feeder.

Table A3. Distribution Feeder Installed Load

Fro Balance
PSCA To Connec Connec
m d/ Phas Connecte
D Nod Type pf (A) ted kVA pf (B) ted kVA pf (C)
Nod Unbalan e d kVA (A)
Label e (B) (C)
e ced
DL1 11 12 Distributed U ABC 150 0.919 150 0.8977 150 0.917
DL2 14 15 Distributed U ABC 300 0.919 217.49 0.8977 343.45 0.917
DL3 17 18 Distributed B ABC 150 0.913 150 0.9126 150 0.913
DL4 26 27 Distributed U ABC 765 0.919 835 0.8977 285 0.917
 155

DL5 29 30 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 50 0.917

DL6 33 34 Distributed U B 0 0 50 0.8977 0 0
DL7 37 38 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 0 0
DL8 41 42 Distributed U ABC 167 0.919 192 0.8977 142 0.917
DL9 44 45 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 510 0.917
DL10 48 49 Distributed U A 50 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL11 52 53 Distributed U A 50 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL12 57 58 Distributed U A 100 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL13 61 62 Distributed U A 100 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL14 65 66 Distributed U B 0 0 125 0.8977 0 0
DL15 68 69 Distributed U BC 0 0 50 0.8977 120 0.917
DL16 75 76 Distributed U B 0 0 250 0.8977 0 0
DL17 78 79 Distributed U A 45 0.919 0 0 0 0
SL18 Spot
DL19 84 85 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 225 0.917
DL20 88 89 Distributed U A 100 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL21 86 90 Distributed U ABC 330 70 20
DL22 91 92 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 215 0.917
SL23 103 Spot U ABC 1114 0.919 1186 0.8977 1195 0.917
DL24 106 107 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 120 0.917
DL25 110 111 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 120 0.917
DL26 108 112 Distributed U ABC 175 0.919 340 0.8977 155 0.917
DL27 117 118 Distributed U ABC 25 0.919 25 0.8977 25 0.917
DL28 123 124 Distributed U ABC 60 0.919 360 0.8977 135 0.917
DL29 126 127 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 45 0.917
DL30 130 131 Distributed U ABC 175 0.919 200 0.8977 185 0.917
DL31 135 136 Distributed U A 125 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL32 140 141 Distributed U ABC 150 0.919 50 0.8977 100 0.917
DL33 147 148 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 275 0.917
DL34 151 152 Distributed U B 0 0 350 0.8977 0 0
DL35 152 153 Distributed U B 0 0 250 0.8977 0 0
DL36 156 157 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 375 0.917
DL37 161 162 Distributed U A 250 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL38 166 167 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 100 0.917
DL39 170 171 Distributed U A 100 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL40 174 175 Distributed U B 0 0 225 0.8977 0 0
DL41 178 179 Distributed U B 0 0 50 0.8977 0 0
DL42 182 183 Distributed U A 150 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL43 186 187 Distributed U A 50 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL44 190 191 Distributed U B 0 0 175 0.8977 0 0
DL45 193 194 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 100 0.917
DL46 197 198 Distributed B ABC 50 0.919 50 0.9126 50 0.913
DL47 200 201 Distributed U ABC 185 0.919 175 0.8977 185 0.917
DL48 201 202 Distributed U AB 10 0.919 10 0.8977 0 0
DL49 201 203 Distributed U C 0 0 0 0 75 0.917
DL50 195 204 Distributed U ABC 320 0.919 295 0.897 260 0.917
DL51 207 208 Distributed B ABC 25 0.919 25 0.9126 25 0.913
DL52 208 209 Distributed U A 362 0.919 0 0 0 0
 156

DL53 208 210 Distributed U ABC 0 0 125 0.8977 0 0

DL54 211 212 Distributed U A 25 0.919 0 0 0 0
DL55 210 213 Distributed U AC 0 0 0 0 325 0.917
DL56 215 216 Distributed U B 0 0 100 0.8977 0 0
DL57 218 219 Distributed U B 0 0 150 0.8977 0 0
DL58 221 222 Distributed U B 0 0 25 89.77 0 0
DL59 225 226 Distributed B ABC 25 0.919 25 0.9127 25 0.913
DL60 226 227 Distributed U B 0 0 275 0.8977 0 0
DL61 229 230 Distributed U B 0 0 50 0.8977 0 0
DL62 232 233 Distributed U AC 0 0 0 0 275 0.917
DL63 235 236 Distributed U B 0 0 100 0.8977 0 0
DL64 234 237 Distributed U ABC 275 0.919 160 0.8977 150 0.917

Table A4 presents the transformer data in the feeder.

Table A4. Transformer Data

From To Phase MVA Primary Secondary Z1 Z0
Node Node Type Rating kV kV (%) X1/R1 (%) X0/R0 Configuration
94 95 3-ph 25 27.6 27.6 3.6 22 3.6 22 Yg/Yg
102 103 3-ph 3.6 27.6 8.32 5.92 10 5.92 10 D/Yg
- - 3-ph 25/33/42 110 28.4 7.035 18.63 YD
- - 3-ph 25/33/42 110 28.4 6.889 18.54 YD
- - 3-ph 25/33/42 115.5 28.4 8.665 28.87 DY
- - 3-ph 25/33/42 110 28.4 6.734 26.6 YD

Table A5 presents the transformer tap changer data of the feeder.

Table A5. Transformer Tap Changer Data

General Tap changer 1 Tap changer 2
Max Max No.
From To Phase Phase Buck Boost No. of Max Min of
Node Node Type Shift (%) (%) taps kV kV taps
94 95 3-ph YNyn0 5 15 16 - - -
102 103 3-ph Dyn1 - - - - - -
- - 3-ph - - - 2.84 -2.84 16
- - 3-ph - - - 2.84 -2.84 16
- - 3-ph - - - 5.68 -5.68 32
- - 3-ph - - - 2.84 -2.84 16
 157

Appendix B: IEC61850 Communication Service Interface

Figure B1 shows the Abstract Communication Service Interface (ACSI) defined in

IEC61850 standard. Thee time critical communication service in IEC61850 comprises a
peer-to-peer (publisher-subscriber) model or GOOSE (General Object-Oriented Substation
Event) used for time-critical purposes, such as fast and reliable transmission of data
between protection IEDs, from one IED to many remote IEDs and periodic sampled value
services for transmissions. The peer-to-peer communication is a multicast type of
communication and uses the only first two layers of the communication and bypass the
others.

Data Model (Objects, Services)

Client Server Sampled

GOOSE
Communication Values
Abstract
Communication
Services
Interface
(ACSI)
Mapping
Stack
Interface

MMS Real Time Communication

TCP
IP
Ethernet Link Layer
Ethernet physical Layer (100 Mbit/s)

Figure B1. Abstract Communication Services Interface in IEC61850 (Courtesy of ABB

Substation Automation)

This communication should be fast, and, for this reason, it cannot pass through all the seven
layers of the OSI communication model. In addition to the periodical data transfer from
the publisher to the subscriber for the GSE service, the GOOSE message will be sent
 158

instantly upon the occurrence of any changes in the value or state of GOOSE dataset
members. In order to increase the reliability of GOOSE message in comparison to client-
server type communication model, the GOOSE message is repeated after each trigger of
transmission from the minimum time interval (Tmin). This could be as fast as 2 ms after
the original event and can be increased up to Tmax (order of seconds), which will be set
by the user in the GOOSE control block. The current status of the GOOSE data will be
transmitted continuously every Tmax. This feature could be utilized to define an action for
subscriber for supervising the connectivity of the GOOSE message if no message is
detected by the subscriber after the Tmax interval.
 159

Appendix C: Wind Turbine Model Type 3

Figure C1. Wind Turbine Model Type 3 Used in this Study

 160

Figure C2. Machine Side Converter Control “dq” Value Transformation

 161

Appendix D: Wind Turbine Model Type 4

Figure D1. Wind Turbine Model Type 4 Used in this Study

 162

Figure D2. Converters, DC link, Grid, and Machine Side Control I/O

Figure D3. Grid Side control, Identification of Current and Voltage Component
 163

Figure D4. Grid side Control, Calculation of Id, and Iq Current

Figure D5. Grid side, Decoupled Control

 164

Figure D6. Grid Side, Transformation of Grid Side Voltage

 165

Appendix E: Open Phase fault Additional Simulations

Additional simulation in this section covers the different types of fault, switching
operation, and double open phase fault. The list simulation and thire results are shown in
Table E1. The different types of fault and switching operation simulation serves to
demonstrate how the proposed algorithm for the open phase fault can be discriminated
from any parallel faults and switching operation. The plus sign means that the ratio is
greater than zero. Thus, the quantity of the current component in the table increases after
the instance of the fault while the negative sign represents a decrease in the quantity after
the fault. The double sign represents the intensity of increase or decrease compared to the
single sign.

Table E1. Rate of the Change of Current Symmetrical Components

No. Fault or switching type ∆I1 ∆I2 ∆I0 ∆V1 Figure No.
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

1 Three phase fault ++ NA NA - Figure E1

2 Two phase fault ++ ++ NA - Figure E3

3 Two phase to ground ++ + + - Figure E5

4 Ground fault ++ ++ ++ - Figure E8

5 Energizing unbalance + + + NA Figure E9

load

6 De-energizing - - - NA Figure E12

unbalance load
 166

Figure E1. Three phase Fault (ABCG) Power and Voltage

 167

Figure E2. Three Phase Fault (ABC) Current

 168

Figure E3. Two Phase Fault (BC) Power and Voltage

 169

Figure E4. Two Phase Fault (BC) Current

 170

Figure E5. Two Phase to Ground Fault (BCG) Power and Voltage
 171

Figure E6. Two Phase to Ground fault (BCG) Current

 172

Figure E7. Ground Fault (BG) Power and Voltage

 173

Figure E8. Ground Fault (BG) Current

 174

Figure E9. Energizing Unbalance Load Power and Voltage

 175

Figure E10. Energizing Unbalance Load Current

 176

Figure E11. De-energizing Unbalance Load Power and Voltage

 177

Figure E12. De-energizing Unbalance Load Current

 178

Figure E13 and Figure E14 presents the double open phase fault at the point where both
sources of DG and grid are feeding the fault on the opposite side. The first open phase
occurs at t=2.5 second and the second open phase occurs at 3.5 s. Figure E15 and Figure
E16, however, show the open phase fault at point 2 where the fault is on the same side of
substation and DG. The current sequence component rate of the change at t=2.5 second
and t=3.5 sec, respectively, and for both simulations represent the signature of the open
phase, which is discussed in chapter 5, where sequence positive current decreases while
negative and zero components are increasing.

Figure E13. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Power and Voltage (point 2)
 179

Figure E14. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Current (point 2)

 180

Figure E15. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Power and Voltage (point 1)
 181

Figure E16. Two Open Phase Fault (BC) Current (point 1)

 182

Curriculum Vitae

Name: Mansour Jalali

Post-secondary Iran University of Science and Technology-IUST

Education and Tehran, Iran
Degrees: Bachelor’s in Electrical Engineering - Power
Thesis Title: Designing the variable frequency drive for the
induction motors
1985-1989

University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Master of Applied Science in Electrical & Computer Engineering
Thesis Title: Contribution of DFIG type wind turbine in primary
Frequency regulation
2008-2011

University of Western Ontario

London, Ontario, Canada
Ph.D. in Electrical and Computer Engineering
Thesis Title:
2012-2019

Related Work Principal Engineer Kinectrics (Ex Ontario Hydro Research)

Experience RTDS LAB, EMT Modeling, System Study
2011-Present

ABB Inc. Substation Automation

Last position- Chief Engineer
1995-2010

Recent Publications:

M. Jalali, S. Cress, A. Zamani, Over current protection for underground Distribution

system- Chapter for EPRI Bronze Book-2016

M. Jalali, NERC PRC-005 Best Practices for Compliance, CEATI International -2019

M. Jalali, Guide for IEC61850 Application, CEATI International -2019