reflective

teaching
in schools
4th edition
Available and forthcoming titles in the Reflective Teaching Series

Series Editors: Andrew Pollard and Amy Pollard

Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools (2nd edition), edited by Andrew Pollard

Reflective Teaching in Further and Adult Education (3rd edition), Yvonne Hillier

Forthcoming titles:

Reflective Teaching in Early Education, Jennifer Colwell et al.

Readings for Reflective Teaching in Early Education, edited by Jennifer Colwell and
Andrew Pollard

Reflective Teaching in Higher Education, Paul Ashwin et al.

Reflective Teaching in Further, Adult and Vocational Education, Margaret Gregson,

Yvonne Hillier et al.
reflective
teaching
in schools
4th edition
Andrew Pollard
with Kristine Black-Hawkins, Gabrielle Cliff Hodges, Pete Dudley, Mary James,
Holly Linklater, Sue Swaffield, Mandy Swann, Fay Turner, Paul Warwick,
Mark Winterbottom and Mary Anne Wolpert
 Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway

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www.bloomsbury.com

Bloomsbury is a registered trade mark of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published 2014

© Andrew Pollard and Contributors, 2014

Andrew Pollard and Contributors have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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ISBN: 978-1-4411-3662-6

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 This book is dedicated to Anne and Michael Pollard,
and to the generation who lived and worked in the 20th century to create
more productive, inclusive and balanced societies in the UK.

Beyond its prime audience of teachers and trainee teachers, it is also respectfully offered
to all politicians and others who need to understand why they must support and trust
education professionals if they really want to promote learning for the 21st century.
Contents

Introduction ix

Part one Becoming a reflective professional

1 Identity Who are we, and what do we stand for? 3
2 Learning How can we understand learner development? 33
3 Reflection How can we develop the quality of our teaching? 67
4 Principles What are the foundations of effective teaching and learning? 91

Supplementary chapters at reflectiveteaching.co.uk

• Mentoring Learning through mentoring in initial teacher education
• Enquiry Developing evidence-informed practice

Part two Creating conditions for learning

5 Contexts What is, and what might be? 123
6 Relationships How are we getting on together? 147
7 Engagement How are we managing behaviour? 173
8 Spaces How are we creating environments for learning? 203

Part three Teaching for learning

9 Curriculum What is to be taught and learned? 233
10 Planning How are we implementing the curriculum? 267
11 Pedagogy How can we develop effective strategies? 301
viii Contents

12 Communication How does use of language support learning? 325

13 Assessment How can assessment enhance learning? 351

Part four Reflecting on consequences

14 Outcomes How do we monitor student learning achievements? 379
15 Inclusion How are we enabling learning opportunities? 409

Part five Deepening understanding

16 Expertise Conceptual tools for career-long fascination? 443
17 Professionalism How does reflective teaching contribute to society? 473

Supplementary chapters at reflectiveteaching.co.uk

• Starting out Learning as a newly qualified teacher
• Improvement Continuing professional development

Reflective activities 493

List of case studies, checklists, figures and research briefings 497
Acknowledgements 501
Bibliography 505
Index 537
Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools: Contents list 551
The reflective teaching series 557

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Introduction

T his book offers two levels of support for initial teacher education and continuing
professional development.
●● Comprehensive guidance is offered on key issues in classroom practice – including
relationships, behaviour, curriculum planning, learning and teaching strategies,
assessment processes and evaluation.
●● Uniquely, the book also introduces evidence-informed ‘principles’ and ‘concepts’
to support a deeper understanding of teacher expertise.
Reflective Teaching thus supports both initial school-based training and extended
career-long professionalism for both primary and secondary school teachers.
Developed over three decades, the book, companion reader and website represent the
accumulated understanding of generations of teachers and educationalists.
Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools provides a compact library which comple-
ments and extends the chapters in this book. It has been designed to provide convenient
access to key texts and will be of particular help when library access may be difficult.
The associated website, reflectiveteaching.co.uk, offers an enormous range of supple-
mentary resources including reflective activities, research briefings, advice on further
reading and additional chapters. It also features a compendium of educational terms,
a conceptual framework showcasing some of the UK’s best educational research and
extensive links to useful websites.
Underlying these materials, there are three key messages. The first is that it is now
possible to identify teaching strategies which are more effective than others in most
circumstances. Teachers therefore now have to be able to develop, improve, promote
and defend their expertise by marshalling such evidence and by embedding enquiry and
evaluation within routine practices. Second, all evidence has to be interpreted – and we do
this by ‘making sense’. In other words, as well as information about effective strategies
we need to be able to discern the underlying principles of learning and teaching to which
specific findings relate – we need to understand what is going on in this complex area of
professional activity. Finally, we need to remember that education has moral purposes and
social consequences. The provision we make is connected to our future as societies and to
the life-chances of the children and young people with whom we work. The issues require
very careful consideration.
x Introduction

Reflective activity is thus of vital importance to the teaching profession:

●● it underpins professional judgement and its use for worthwhile educational
purposes;
●● it provides a vehicle for learning and professional renewal – and thus for
promoting the independence and integrity of teachers;
●● above all, it is a means to the improvement of teaching, the enhancement of
learning and the steady growth in standards of performance for both schools and
national education systems.
We hope that you will find these materials helpful in your professional work and as you
seek personal fulfilment as a teacher.
A summary of the book follows.
Andrew Pollard
Bristol, Cambridge, London, June 2013

PART 1: BECOMING A REFLECTIVE PROFESSIONAL introduces and structures

the activity of becoming a teacher. We start in Chapter 1 with a focus on the decision to
teach and on the significance of the contribution we can make as professionals. Then comes
an introduction to ways of understanding ‘learning’ (Chapter 2) – which is the foundation
of expert teacher judgement. Despite much complexity, learning is what it is all about! The
chapter on reflective practice (Chapter 3) discusses how such processes can improve the
quality of our teaching. And then it gets really interesting, with a review of ten principles
of effective teaching and learning (Chapter 4). These come from a major UK research and
development programme and also draw on accumulated evidence from around the world.
Measured effects of particular strategies are related to underlying principles.
Two supplementary chapters are available on reflectiveteaching.co.uk – on school-
experience and mentoring for initial training (‘Mentoring’) and on how to conduct
small-scale enquiries to achieve an ‘evidence-informed classroom’ (‘Enquiry’).
PART 2: CREATING CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING concerns the creation of
classroom environments to support high quality teaching and learning. We begin by
considering the circumstances which impinge on families and schools (Chapter 5) – and
we note the ways in which people contribute to and challenge such circumstances through
their actions. We then move to the heart of classroom life with a focus on teacher–pupil
relationships and inclusion (Chapter 6). Because such relationships are so crucial for
classroom success, this is an extremely important chapter. Chapter 7 builds further and
illustrates how positive cycles of behaviour can be created through firmness, fairness and
engaging pupils in the curriculum. Finally, we consider a range of learning spaces in school
and beyond (Chapter 8) and the affordances they offer for formal and informal learning. As
well as the basic dimensions of classroom organisation, this chapter also addresses the use
of technology, pupil organisation and teamworking with teacher assistants.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
 Introduction xi

PART 3: TEACHING FOR LEARNING supports the development of practice across

the three classic dimensions of teaching – curriculum, pedagogy and assessment.
Chapter 9 starts us off with a review of curricular aims and design principles, before
progressing to a review of national curricula in the UK and the role of subject knowledge.
‘Planning’ (Chapter 10) puts these ideas into action and supports the development and
evaluation of programmes of study, schemes of work and lesson plans. Chapter 11 offers
ways of understanding the art, craft and science of pedagogy – and the development of a
pedagogic repertoire. ‘Communication’ (Chapter 12) extends this with an introduction to
the vital role of talking, listening, reading and writing across the curriculum. Perhaps the
core instructional expertise of the teacher lies in the skill of dialogic teaching? Finally, this
part concludes by demonstrating how assessment can be tied into teaching and learning
processes in very constructive ways (Chapter 13). In short, through principled strategies
for sharing goals, pupil engagement, authentic feedback, self-assessment and responsive
teaching, excellent progress in learning can be made.
PART 4: REFLECTING ON CONSEQUENCES draws attention to what is achieved,
and by whom, in our classrooms – what are the consequences of what we do? Chapter
14 reviews big issues in assessment, with particular attention on how schools measure
pupil achievement and manage accountability. Whilst some problems are raised, positive
uses of summative assessment data are also promoted. ‘Inclusion’ (Chapter 15) asks us to
consider various dimensions of difference and also the ways in which routine processes
differentiate between people. However, the emphasis is on accepting difference as part of
the human condition and on how to build more inclusive classroom communities.
PART 5: DEEPENING UNDERSTANDING, is the final, synoptic part of the book. It
integrates major themes through discussion of teacher expertise and professionalism.
‘Expertise’ (Chapter 16) harvests and integrates powerful ideas from previous chapters
into a holistic conceptual framework of enduring issues in teaching and learning. The
chapter constructs a framework describing dimensions of expert thinking. In Chapter 17,
‘Professionalism’, we consider the role of the teaching profession in our societies and
suggest how reflective teachers can contribute to democratic processes.
Supplementary chapters are available on the website, reflectiveteaching.co.uk, on
succeeding as a newly qualified teacher (‘Starting out’) and on career and school devel-
opment (‘Improvement’).

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
part one 1
Becoming a reflective
professional
1 Identity Who are we, and what do we stand for?

2 Learning How can we understand learner development?

3 Reflection How can we develop the quality of our teaching?

4 Principles What are the foundations of effective teaching

and learning?

Supplementary chapters at reflectiveteaching.co.uk are:

• Mentoring Learning through mentoring in initial teacher education
• Enquiry Developing evidence-informed practice

This part introduces and structures the activity of becoming a teacher.

We start with a chapter focused on ourselves and on the significance of

the contribution we can make as professional teachers. Then comes an
introduction to ways of understanding ‘learning’ (Chapter 2) – which is
the foundation of teacher judgement. After all, despite much complexity,
learning is what it is all about! The chapter on reflective practice (Chapter 3)
discusses how such processes can improve the quality of our teaching. And
then it gets really interesting, with a review of ten ‘principles of effective
teaching and learning (Chapter 4). These come from a major UK research
and development programme and also draw on accumulated evidence from
around the world.
Identity
Who are we, and
what do we stand
for?
1
Introduction (p. 4)

1 Understanding ourselves as teachers (p. 5)

1.1 Becoming a teacher (p. 5)

1.2 Values informing practice (p. 7)
1.3 Teacher identities (p. 9)
1.4 Teachers’ work (p. 12)

2 Knowing children and young people as pupils (p. 14)

2.1 Pupil views of themselves in school (p. 14)

2.2 Pupil perspectives of teachers and school (p. 15)
2.3 Pupil cultures (p. 16)
2.4 Understanding pupil needs (p. 20)
2.5 Examining our perceptions of pupils (p. 22)

3 Learning and teaching through life (p. 25)

3.1 Pupil development and career (p. 25)

3.2 Teacher development and career (p. 28)

Conclusion (p. 29)

4 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Introduction
This chapter is concerned with the teachers, children and young people in classroom life,
and with the feelings and perceptions we hold in relation to ourselves and others.
A key issue is that of our ‘identities’ as unique individuals and how these identities
relate to the cultures and opportunities within classrooms and schools. However, to under-
stand the identities of each other and ourselves we must recognise both social influences
beyond the school and also development throughout each stage of life.
The first section of the chapter focuses on the professional vocation and work of
teachers. We consider why people choose to become teachers and the values that might
inform and sustain our practice. We introduce what is known about teachers’ work,
including how teachers respond to complexity and uncertainty. This section also reflects
the belief that there are always things that we can do to improve the quality of educational
provision for all learners. To this end, whilst celebrating vocational commitment, the
chapter also acknowledges the professional resilience that is increasingly necessary.
Section 2 focuses on thinking about children and young people. We consider what we
know about the particular identities and cultures of the young people with whom we work
– in, and beyond, our schools. We challenge ourselves to consider how our values and
pre-existing understandings may influence how we think about pupils and their learning.
Section 3 considers the ways in which children and young people develop and learn
through their schooling. Social, physical and psychological factors are addressed. The
agency of children and young people is then celebrated by tracing trajectories through
primary and secondary education and into adulthood. Finally, our own biographies, and
our commitment to teaching, are acknowledged. We again affirm the need to balance our
personal and professional lives to achieve success.

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on identity and values in
­education:

Effective teaching and learning equips learners for life in its broadest sense.
Learning should aim to help people to develop the intellectual, personal and social
resources that will enable them to participate as active citizens, contribute to
economic development and flourish as individuals in a diverse and changing society.
This implies adopting a broad view of learning outcomes and ensuring that equity
and social justice are taken seriously. (Principle 1)

Effective teaching and learning depends on teacher learning. The need for
teachers to learn continuously in order to develop their knowledge and skills, and
adapt and develop their roles, especially through classroom inquiry, should be
See Chapter 4 recognised and supported. (Principle 9)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
 Chapter 1 Identity 5

1 Understanding ourselves as teachers

1.1 Becoming a teacher

There are lots of reasons why people choose to enter the profession of teaching. Many
are attracted because of a principled commitment to the education of children and young
people – whether this is anticipated to be for a short period or, potentially, for a career.
Teaching can certainly be a source of great fulfilment, and thus contribute to personal
wellbeing. Teaching also, of course, offers secure and respected employment.
Commitment to ‘working with children’ is often particularly strong for those who
choose to become primary or early years teachers. This was sensitively described by
Nias whose classic study Primary Teachers Talking (1989) showed how identification
with the role eventually became so strong for some that they saw themselves as ‘persons-
in-teaching’ rather than just as people who happened to be employed as teachers. It has
been argued that the commitment of primary teachers ‘affirms feminine virtues such as
caring and nurturance’ (Burgess and Carter, 1992), but significant contributions are made
by teachers of both sexes. Whilst the contemporary role is as challenging as in any other
profession, there is no doubt that the opportunity to support the development of young
children over time has considerable fascination and importance.
Studies of secondary school trainee teachers often find that a significant intrinsic factor
is the opportunity to work within their subject specialism. This is either because of the
perceived value of the subject itself or because of a desire to share their knowledge and
enthusiasm with others (see, for example Younger, Brindley, Pedder and Hagger, 2004).
For many too, there is a strong commitment to providing opportunities so that young
people can fulfil their potential – as expressed in some of Richardson’s books such as
Changing Life Chances (2011). Secondary trainees may be very idealistic:

I feel powerfully that everybody is deserving of equal chances to make their way in the
world.

You are influencing a whole generation, generations of people – and that’s exciting.
(Quoted in Younger et al., 2004, p. 249)

There is thus a well-established theme of idealism in the commitment of many aspiring

teachers. The profession attracts those with a sense of moral purpose who decide that they
want, through their work with children, students and young people, to make a contribution
to the future of our societies. The ‘passion for teaching’ of many primary and secondary
teachers as has been recorded many times in the past, and remains evident today (see Day,
2004; Gu, 2007, Reading 1.1).
Importantly however, the vocational commitment of trainees is not associated with
complacency about the challenges of becoming a ‘good teacher’. Most people, when
beginning to learn how to become a teacher, are extremely aware of the challenges.
Fortunately, with appropriate support, commitment can be nurtured until profes-
sional capabilities and self-confidence are secure. However, a slightly uneven journey,

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
6 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

characterised by ups and downs and a lot of hard work, is not unusual – though guides,
such as Turnbull’s ‘practical guide to empowerment’ (2007) help considerably
The early years of classroom life for newly qualified teachers is crucial for career
decisions. In a recent study of such experiences, McNally and Blake (2010) found that
establishing good relationships with pupils and with teacher colleagues often assumes
huge importance – and feelings about teaching and personal self-confidence ebb and
flow (see also the Research Briefing on p. 11). The struggle to establish competence
and acceptance could be overwhelming and feelings sometimes veered ‘from anxiety and
despair to fulfillment and delight’.
The significance of this research is that it highlights aspects of the journey that we all
share as teachers. The feelings associated with our first few weeks in the profession may
stay with us in some form – a keen sense of moral purpose; excitement because of the
responsibility and opportunities; and awe, wonder and uncertainty about how to fulfill our
ambitions for both ourselves as teachers and for the children and young people with whom
we work. Gradually though, these commitments are tempered by experience, but it is to be
hoped that they never fade completely.
Like the trainees in the research projects, much of our motivation and resilience will be
associated with our personal qualities. Moreover, these qualities will develop and sustain
us throughout our careers – and contribute to ‘reflective practice’. The process of reflection
acknowledges dilemmas and the need for expert judgement in teaching. It is entirely
understandable to feel such challenges – see Richardson’s classic ‘Daring to be a Teacher’
(1990). Reflective Teaching in Schools offers constructive ways of managing challenges in
the short term whilst also building principled, career-long expertise.

Reflective activity 1.1

Aim: To reflect on your own decision to become a teacher.
Evidence and reflection: In Section 1.1 we explored the importance of early feelings
in relation to motivation, aspiration and determination. Write for yourself a short
piece, recollecting why you decided to train to become a teacher. If appropriate,
also record your feelings at the point of qualifying.
Extension: Read what you have written and highlight where you have made reference
to specific value commitments. List these, and try to identify personal experiences
that informed why they were so important. (For example: to inspire people to want
to discover the joy of literature – because of what my Year 7 English teacher did for
me; to encourage every child to be confident enough to ‘have a go’ and persevere –
because of the PE teacher who told me I’d never get picked for the football team.)
Share your thinking with colleagues and discuss the range of motivations which inform
‘becoming a teacher’.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
 Chapter 1 Identity 7

1.2 Values informing practice

As suggested above, the values we hold about the importance of education are critical to
the decision to become teachers in the first place, and to sustaining our motivation and
resilience through our career.
The values that inform our practice are not necessarily explicit but it is important to
try to identify them for at least three reasons. First, being clear about values can help

Figure 1.1 Professional values as articulated by the General Teaching Councils of Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland, and The Teaching Council, Ireland; for updates, see links on
reflectiveteaching.co.uk.

Professional Values and Personal Commitment

GTC SCOTLAND

●● Registeredteachers show in their day-to-day practice a commitment to social justice,

inclusion and caring for and protecting children.
●● Registered teachers take responsibility for their professional learning and development.
●● Registered teachers value, respect and are active partners in the communities in which
they work.
Code of Professional Conduct and Practice
Key Principles – professionalism and maintaining trust in the profession.
GTC WALES

Registered teachers: base their relationship with pupils on trust and respect; have regard
to the safety and wellbeing of pupils in their care; work in a collaborative manner with
teachers and other professionals, and develop and maintain good relationships with
parents, guardians and carers; act with honesty and integrity; are sensitive to the need,
where appropriate, for confidentiality; take responsibility for maintaining the quality of
their professional practice; uphold public trust and confidence in the teaching profession.
Code of Values and Professional Practice – Core Values
The core values of the profession are: trust; respect; integrity; honesty; fairness; tolerance;
GTC NORTHERN

commitment; equality and service.

IRELAND

A commitment to serve lies at the heart of professional behaviour. In addition, members

of the profession will exemplify the values listed above in their working and in
their relationships with others; recognising in particular the unique and privileged
relationship that exists between teachers and their pupils. In keeping with the spirit of
professional service and commitment, teachers will at all times be conscious of their
responsibilities to others: learners, colleagues and indeed the profession itself.
The Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
TEACHING COUNCIL

The Code begins by setting out the ethical foundation for the teaching profession –
respect, care, integrity and trust.
IRELAND

Respect: Teachers uphold human dignity and promote equality and emotional and
cognitive development. Care: Teachers’ practice is motivated by the best interests of
the pupils/students entrusted to them. Integrity: Honesty, reliability and moral action
are exercised through professional commitments, responsibilities and actions. Trust:
Teachers’ relationships with pupils/students, colleagues, parents, school management
and the public are based on trust. Trust embodies fairness, openness and honesty.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
 8 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

us to assess whether we are consistent, both in what we as individuals believe, and in

reconciling differences which may exist in a school between colleagues working together.
Second, it can help us to evaluate and respond to external pressures and requirements – as
‘creative mediators’ of policy (see Chapter 3, Section 2.7). Third, it can help us to assess
whether what we believe is consistent with what we actually do: that is, whether our value
system or philosophy is compatible with our actual classroom practice.
As well an awareness of the values we held when we entered the profession (see
Reflective activity 1.1), we are also required to work by values shared within our
profession. In the British Isles, the three General Teaching Councils (GTC) (Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland), Teaching Council (Ireland) and the Department for Education
(England) articulate clear expectations regarding the values that should underpin teachers’
work. These professional expectations are reflected in ‘codes of conduct and practice
for registered teachers’, see Figure 1.1. In England, a similar statement is made in the
documentation of Teachers’ Standards.

Reflective activity 1.2

Aim: To compare your personal values (see Reflective activity 1.1) with the statements
developed by the Teaching Councils.
Evidence and reflection: Were there values in your initial reflection that are not
included in any of the national codes or standards? If so, why do you think this
might be?
Are there ways in which the official codes and standards extend your value
expectations? How? Which aspects of your practice do they relate to? For example,
in your initial reflections, did you, like GTC Northern Ireland, highlight the value of
‘service’?
Extension: Isolate and compare each element of the four statements of professional
values. How would you explain the similarities and differences?

One of the arguments for developing codes or standards for professional practice is
that they frame our practice and development in purposive ways. They are intended to
For a supplementary
approach to articulating
encourage us to be reflective and responsible, to remind us of professional values, aims
values, aims and and commitments and to consider indicators of their implementation and effect. Only
commitments see then will we be able to judge whether what we really do matches what we say we value.
reflectiveteaching.co.uk Gaps between aspirations, values and outcomes are common in many walks of life but for
teachers it is particularly important to examine why this may occur. After all, failure to
adapt and change may have significant effects on the lives of others.
Of course, self-improvement is often based, one way or another, on the collection and
analysis of evidence. So the contemporary professional has to be willing to test his or her
value positions and beliefs. Indeed, the reflective practitioner, as we will later see, is able
to justify his or her practices and provide an explanation or ‘warrant’ for them.
An important step in developing as reflective practitioners is to understand how our
own personal values, beliefs and practices are influenced by our previous experiences,

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
 Chapter 1 Identity 9

circumstances and understanding. We need to become ‘reflexive’ and thus able to question
ourselves. Such reflexivity is an important aspect of reflective practice. Whilst the latter
addresses a wide range of social, organisational, pedagogic and other factors, reflexivity
focuses directly on our self-awareness and ability to reflect on ourselves (Moore, 2004).
Beliefs, of course, can be particularly difficult to change since they may rest on
significant cultural and material foundations. Indeed, we may even feel that our beliefs
are representations of ‘objective truths’ and so that nothing more needs to be considered.
Reflective practice requires an interesting combination of moral commitment and open-
mindedness. Whilst being fully value committed, we must still aspire to learn and improve.
We will explore this more fully in Chapter 3.

1.3 Teacher identities

What sort of a person do we think we are, and what sort of a teacher do we wish to
become? In primary education, teachers often associate themselves with a pupil year or
Key Stage, whilst in secondary identification with a subject or cluster of subjects is pretty
much taken for granted.
The concept of ‘identity’ summarises the ways in which we think about ourselves. Our
sense of personal identity forms through life and is particularly influenced by identification
with ‘significant others’ such as parents, friends and, in due course, colleagues. But we
often separate our thinking in terms of our ‘personal’ and ‘professional’ self and, in this
section, we focus on the formation and development of professional identities as teachers.
As we have seen, most people enter the profession of teaching with a strong sense
of personal commitment and such values are affirmed and expected as professional
characteristics.
However, the progression from early idealism to long term professionalism is often
not straightforward. At each stage, we must wrestle with the tension between vocational
commitment and practical challenges.
Initial teacher education brings the first round of such challenges. Maynard and
Furlong (1993) identified five typical stages of initial school experience – ‘early idealism’,
‘personal survival’, ‘recognising difficulties’, ‘hitting the plateau’ and, finally, ‘moving
on’. For example, it may well be rather dispiriting if you come into school to help children
with their learning only to find that you cannot get them to pay attention and take you
seriously! But it is also reassuring to know that most people do, with the support of others,
work their way through these initial challenges – and as they do so, a more professional For a full account of this
and of helpful support,
teacher identity begins to form. see the supplementary
In their few first years of teaching, teachers may experience a similar cycle. For Mentoring chapter on
example, Ewing and Manuel (2005) identified five stages from initial experiences to a reflectiveteaching.co.uk
more confident professionalism:
●● early expectations and a sense of vocation;
●● early days of the first teaching appointment;
●● finding a place: the establishment phase;

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
10 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

●● consolidating pedagogical content knowledge;

●● building a professional identity and voice. (Ewing and Manuel, 2005)
This process is also similar to that described by McNally and Blake (2010) and must
succeed if a long-term teaching career is to be established. The issue of achieving personal
fulfilment from teaching is obviously of great significance in this. It is most likely when
there is congruence between each teacher’s personal commitments and the roles which
they fulfil in school. If personal and professional identities align, then a long-term career
is much more likely.
The classic study of teacher careers as a whole is Huberman’s The Lives of Teachers
(1993). He suggested that teacher careers typically develop through five stages. He saw
initial training and early career learning as ‘career entry’ which, after five years or so,
leads onto ‘stabilisation’ and then ‘experimentation’ for a long period which may last for
20 years or more. After that, he suggested, there is typically a period of wind-down into
‘serenity and conservatism’ followed by ‘disengagement’ and eventual retirement!
Day and Gu (2010, see also Reading 1.1) bring this analysis up to date for UK circum-
stances, as informed by a large-scale study on teachers’ work and lives (see the TLRP
Research Briefing on p. 11). They showed that the key contemporary factor in achieving
satisfaction, commitment, wellbeing and effectiveness for teachers is the relative success
with which various personal, work and external policy challenges are managed. In other
words, given the challenges of teaching today, successful career teachers require strong
personal and professional identities which derive coherence from underlying values and
beliefs. Day et al. suggest that teachers who offer this combination of professional under-
standing and personal qualities are often particularly effective in terms of supporting
pupil learning and are also better able to achieve a sustainable work-life balance. They
are committed, but they also keep things in perspective.
Exploring a particular dimension of this, Hargreaves’ (1998) has written on the place of
emotion in teaching. He argues that:

As an emotional practice, teaching activates, colours and expresses teachers’ own feelings
and actions as well as the feelings and actions of others with whom teachers interact. All
teaching is inextricably emotional either by design, or by default. (p. 5)

Hargreaves reminds us that it is not only the values we go into teaching with that matter,
but how we feel able to put these into practice. Affective responses to classroom situations
invariably do influence our actions and the ways in which we express what we value.
Moreover, in such interactions with pupils and others, our professional success often
depends significantly on how we make others’ feel. Becoming an effective teacher thus has
a great deal to do with learning how to support, manage and develop oneself.
The nature of personal and professional identities is therefore of great significance
for teachers. We each reflect the uniqueness of our past experiences and circumstances
– and these influences, of course, have very significant effects on our self-perceptions.
In school settings, the influence of other colleagues on the school staff is often consid-
erable. They represent ‘significant others’ providing feedback to us in relation to our
self-presentation.

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 Chapter 1 Identity 11

Research
Briefing
Teacher careers and effectiveness

A large-scale and comprehensive TLRP project on teachers’ work, lives and effectiveness, VITAE, researched teachers’ professional
identities through career phases. Teachers’ sense of professional identity is affected by tensions between: their personal values and
life experiences; the situated leadership and cultures of their schools; and the impact of external policies on their professional work.
Outcomes, in terms of wellbeing, commitment and resilience, and hence effectiveness, depend on teachers’ capacity to manage
interactions between personal, work and professional factors.

Commitment, Resilience and Effectiveness

Mediating Influences
(Stable/unstable/positive/negative scenarios)

Influencing Factors Personal Influencing Factors

Professional Professional
Life Phases Identities
Situated Professional

Outcomes

Well-being,
Commitment
and Resilience

Effectiveness
•Perceived Effectiveness
•Pupil progress and attainment

Key findings: Implications:

Pupil attainment: Pupils of teachers who are committed and Policy makers, national associations and head teachers concerned
resilient are likely to attain more than pupils whose teachers are with raising standards in schools need to consider the connections
not. between teachers’ commitment, resilience and effectiveness.

Professional identity: Teachers’ sense of positive professional Strategies for sustaining commitment in initial and continuing
identity is associated with well-being and job satisfaction and is professional development programmes should distinguish
a key factor in their effectiveness. between the needs of teachers in different phases of their
professional lives.

Challenge: The commitment and resilience of teachers in schools Schools, especially those which serve disadvantaged
serving more disadvantaged communities are more persistently communities, need to ensure that their continuing professional
challenged than others. development (CPD) provision is relevant to the commitment,
resilience and health needs of teachers.

Experience: Teachers do not necessarily become more effective National organisations and schools need strategies for
over time. Teachers in later years are likely to be less effective. professional learning and development to support teachers in
the later stages of their careers.

Sustainability: Sustaining and enhancing teachers’ commitment Efforts to support and enhance teacher quality should focus upon
and resilience is a key quality and retention issue. building, sustaining and retaining their commitment and resilience.

Further information:
Day, C., Stobart, G., Sammons, P., Kington, A., Gu, Q., Smees, R,. Mujtaba, T. and Woods, D. (2006) Factors that make teachers more effective across their careers.
TLRP Research Briefing No 20 (at www.tlrp.org/pub).
Day, C., Stobart, G., Sammons, P. and Kington, A. (2007) Teachers Matter. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
This TLRP Associate Project was funded by DfES and directed from the University of Nottingham.

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12 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Our teacher colleagues, and others with roles in school

Expert question and beyond, are likely to influence the development of our
Effectiveness: are there improvements in identities and self-confidence as teachers. If we don’t relate
standards, in both basic skills and other well to them, that fact may inhibit our personal and profes-
areas of curricular attainment, to satisfy sional development. On the other hand, collaboration with
society’s educational goals? colleagues, when underpinned by open, trusting relationships,
This question contributes to a conceptual enables authentic development of professional identities.
framework representing enduring issues This has been demonstrated for many years by research on
and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16). school effectiveness which identifies the benefits of schools
The overall effectiveness of the school supporting teachers in taking risks, exploring new practices
system is one of the outcomes to which and creating ‘learning communities’ (Lave and Wenger,
the book as a whole contributes. 1991) in which teachers are also learners (MacBeath and
Mortimore, 2001; MacGilchrist, Myers and Read, 2004;
James et al., 2007).
In summary, for teachers, the personal and the professional interrelate to a considerable
extent. The nature, resilience and development of our identity over time will make a
significant contribution to our professional success.

1.4 Teachers’ work

In terms of responsibilities, teachers’ work can be described with some precision, and
indeed, employment contracts do exactly this. Teachers have a right to receive particulars
of employment setting out expectations for their role and, if full-time in England and Wales
for example, they must be available for work for 195 days or 1,265 hours of ‘directed time’
each year. A minimum of 10 per cent of timetabled teaching time should be designated
(without pupil contact) for planning, preparation and assessment. There will be provision
addressing administration, breaks, leave, performance review, etc, etc.
However, whilst contractual conditions are extremely important, the most significant
question concerns how we interpret both them and the role more generally. This question
needs to be posed because, as we have already seen, teaching is a complex activity and
contractual terms, whilst necessary, are not sufficient to validly represent it. Below, we
offer a different but complementary approach.
Metaphor can enable us to understand complexity more clearly, and this certainly
applies to interpretations of the nature of teaching. The most common metaphors used are
‘the art of teaching’ (e.g. Eisner, 1983; Egan, 2010), the science of teaching (e.g. Simon,
1985, Reading 11.3; Hattie, 2012, Reading 4.6), and the craft of teaching (e.g. Grimmett and
Mackinnon, 1992; Brown and McIntyre, 1993; Day, 2005). Indeed, these metaphors are
explicitly deployed in Chapter 11 to describe dimensions of teachers’ pedagogic expertise
(see also Reading 11.1).
The metaphor of ‘art’ emphasises the affective and creative aspects of teaching and
learning as well as use of intuition in forming judgements. The ‘science of teaching’
conjures an image of the application of tested knowledge, whilst emphasis on the teacher’s
‘craft’ affirms the particular significance of practical experience. There are many other

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 Chapter 1 Identity 13

common metaphors too, such as the ‘teacher as gardener’ which perhaps emphasises the
personal development of learners, or the image of ‘conductor’ which foregrounds the
teacher role in orchestrating multiple, simultaneous classroom activities.
The choice of metaphor thus foregrounds particular aspects of teachers’ expertise,
knowledge and decision-making – creating, instructing, directing, coordinating, facili-
tating, nurturing, etc.

Reflective activity 1.3

Aim: To develop insight into our identity and work as a teacher.
Evidence and reflection: The most established metaphors to describe teachers’ work
foreground the art, science and craft of teaching. Listed below are some additional
metaphors that people have used to describe the work of teachers.
●● architect
●● conductor
●● gardener
●● engineer
●● director.
Choose a couple of the metaphors discussed above and explore their strengths and
limitations. For example, a conductor coordinates diverse contributions to create a
symphony, but follows a score. A gardener nurtures and tends, but weeds …
Look over your lists. What does it reveal about how you understand the nature of
teachers’ work?
Extension: The issues raised could be discussed and analysed with colleagues. It might
be helpful to try to identify aspects which are core to the role of teachers, and those
which are more supplementary.

So far in this chapter, we have explored personal and professional values and demonstrated
how teachers’ own sense of identity is drawn on, and develops, during initial training and
beyond. In a sense, the whole of this book is dedicated to helping us to analyse our own
behaviour and its consequences. As we bring evidence to bear on our classroom practice,
we can reflect on our value commitments and aspirations and on progress in the devel-
opment of expertise (see Chapter 16).
We now move our focus onto children and young people who remain central to all our
work.

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14 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

2 Knowing children and young people as pupils

Developing an understanding of pupils requires a reflective teacher to empathise with their
school experience as well as develop personal knowledge of and rapport with individual
children. This is a foundation for establishing good behaviour and a positive learning
atmosphere in the classroom – and is key to school practices.

2.1 Pupil views of themselves in school

The way that children think of themselves in school will directly influence their approach
to learning, their ‘learning disposition’ (Dweck, 1986, Reading 2.6; Claxton, 1999,
Reading 2.9). Some may be highly anxious and continually undervalue themselves. Others
may seem overconfident and extremely resilient. Some may be very well aware of their
own strengths and weaknesses whilst others may seem to have relatively naive views of
themselves. Children and young people may be gregarious, or loners, or they may in fact
be lonely. For instance, Pollard and Filer traced the home, playground and classroom
experiences of small groups of children through their primary and secondary school careers
(1996, 1999, 2007, Reading 1.2; see also Warin, 2010). Such studies show how pupils
adopt particular strategies and identities as they manage relationships with peers and with
teachers, and thus negotiate their way through schooling. These experiences contribute
to each pupil’s sense of identity and thence to confidence and achievement in learning.
Qualitative research of this sort highlights the complexity of pupils’ lives, and suggests that
there are no simple explanations for how and why pupils respond to schooling as they do.

Reflective activity 1.4

Aim: To explore one of the features of ‘growing up’: the multiple and sometimes
contradictory expectations that different people have of children and young people.
Evidence and reflection: These issues can be explored through ‘picture maps’ about
themselves. Pupils can draw or write about each perspective.
How other members of
my family see me
How my parent(s) How my teachers
see me see me
MY OWN
SENSE OF
MYSELF
How my friends How my classmates
see me see me
How the media
sees me
Follow-up: The activity, as well as giving you insights into your pupils, may provide
opportunities for discussion of how they could handle differing expectations of
different people, and how it feels to feel uncertain of ‘who we are’. You may also
be able to discuss who they wish to become … and are becoming.

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 Chapter 1 Identity 15

A central strategy in the development of positive self-concepts among the children and
young people in school (Lawrence, 1987, Reading 6.6) lies in encouraging individuals
to identify qualities within themselves which they can value. It is important to provide
opportunities where a wide range of qualities can be appreciated. In classrooms where
competitive achievement is greatly emphasised, some pupils may quickly come to regard
themselves unfavourably, or else learn to resent and oppose the values of the teacher. It is,
however, possible to create a climate where many different qualities are valued and where
pupils are encouraged to challenge themselves to improve their own individual perfor-
mance. In this way pupil dignity can be protected and individual effort and engagement
rewarded (see Chapters 6 and 15 on inclusive practices). One of the ways of contributing
to such a climate is to encourage pupils to evaluate their own work and to set their own
personal goals – as in ‘assessment for learning’ (see Chapter 13). As we will see, it is
important that such procedures are meaningful for students and worthy of their respect.

2.2 Pupil perspectives of teachers and school

Children’s views of teachers have been studied for many years (Blishen, 1969; Meighan,
1978; Kyriacou, 2009; Pollard et al., 2000) – and also of trainees (Cooper and Hyland,
2000). Much of the evidence suggests that children like teachers who ‘help them learn’.
They expect teachers to teach, by which they seem to mean to take initiatives, to explain
things clearly and to provide interesting activities. On the other hand, they also like
teachers who are prepared to be flexible, to respond to the different interests of the
individuals in the class and to provide some scope for pupil choice. Pupils dislike teachers
who have favourites or who are unpredictable in their moods. Most children like a teacher
who can sometimes ‘have a laugh’. Overall, it seems that children like teachers who are
firm, flexible, fair and fun, and who help them succeed as learners.
You could check these findings with some of the pupils you teach.

Reflective activity 1.5

Aim: To find out young people’s criteria for a `good teacher’.
Evidence and reflection: Hold a discussion (with the whole class, or in small groups
which can then report back to the whole class) on what makes a ‘good teacher’.
Perhaps the discussion could be couched in terms of suggestions for a student on
how to become a good teacher.
Discussions with pupils on such a topic must obviously be handled very carefully and
only with the agreement of any teachers who are involved.
Follow-up: Such information can be interesting in two ways:
1 It reveals something of the young people’s expectations of what it is to be a good
‘teacher’.
2 It can contribute to reflection on our own effectiveness as teachers and in
implementing our values, aims and commitments. It could also lead to a
reconsideration of those values, aims and commitments.

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16 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

The personal development of pupils implies that they take increasing responsibility and
exercise more autonomy as learners. Indeed, extensive classroom research (Rudduck and
Flutter, 2004, Reading 1.3; Rudduck and McIntyre, 2007, Research Briefing on p. 17) has
shown that authentic consultation with pupils about teaching and learning is extremely
worthwhile. It facilitates the development of relationships (see Chapter 6) and improves
learning because of the higher quality feedback loops which are created (see Chapter
13). Such processes call for a degree of managed power-sharing between teachers and
pupils. The most significant manifestation of pupil recognition lies in ‘making visible’ the
learning objectives and success criteria which are in play. Hattie (2009, 2012, Reading 4.6),
summarising one of the largest-ever international syntheses of research, put this in terms of
two high level ‘big ideas’ which teachers should certainly adopt if they want to maximise
effectiveness:
●● I see learning through the eyes of my students
●● I help students to become their own teachers.
Authentic consultation, engagement and transparency with pupils may seem risky for
some teachers, since it involves opening up spaces and issues which might be contested.
Ultimately however, understanding has to be constructed by learners so that, sooner or
later, they simply have to take control of their learning. A reflective teacher embraces and
constructively manages this process.

2.3 Pupil cultures

So far the focus has been on the teacher, the pupil and their mutual perceptions. However, it
is most important to remember that, although the teacher is a central figure, classrooms are
a meeting place for many children and young people – indeed, Jackson (1968, Reading 6.1)
referred to ‘the crowd’ as being a salient feature of classroom life. How children learn to
cope with being one of a crowd and how they relate to each other is of consequence. This
can affect how well the children settle in the class socially, and, in turn, may affect their
learning. There is, thus, a social dimension to classroom life.
Pupil culture has been described by Davies (1982, p. 33) as the result of children
‘constructing their own reality with each other’ and ‘making sense of and developing strat-
egies to cope with the adult world’. It thus reflects the children’s collective perspectives
and actions, many of which can be interpreted as defensive responses to adults.
Children’s place is, therefore, an important means by which they can identify with
each other, establish themselves as members of a group, try out different roles and begin
to develop independence and responsibility. Young children often make friends with those
who are immediately accessible and with whom they share common experiences (Rubin,
1980). Typically, their friends are children who live close by, who are in their class or who
are the children of their parents’ friends. When peer groups begin to form, each individual
is likely to have to establish their membership of the group in a number of ways. For
example, each member may be expected to contribute and conform to the norms which

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 Chapter 1 Identity 17

Research
Briefing
Consulting pupils about teaching and learning

TLRP’s researcher/practitioner network on consulting pupils, led by Jean Rudduck, was influential in respect of policy on personalised
learning. For example, ‘pupil voice’ was identified as enabling children to ‘take ownership of their learning’ and thus develop citizenship
and a positive learning disposition. As the 2020 Vision team put it in recommending effective pedagogies:

Pupils are more likely to be engaged with the curriculum they are offered if they believe it is relevant and if they are given
opportunities to take ownership of their learning. (DfES 2006, p. 26)

Many hundreds of teachers worked in Jean Rudduck’s networks. They developed strategies for consulting pupils about teaching and
learning in the classroom and for building pupil consultation into the organisation of the school. They found that pupil consultation on
everyday, practical issues enhanced pupil self-esteem and also gradually changed the ways teaching and learning was thought about
across the whole school. The figure below represents this impact.

PUPIL CONSULTATION AND PARTICIPATION

Yields practical agenda Strengthens pupil self-esteem

ENHANCED COMMITMENT TO
LEARNING AND SCHOOL

sustained by
transformation of teachers’ knowledge of pupils
(greater awareness of their capacity for constructive analysis)

transformation of pedagogic transformation of teacher-pupil

and organisational practices relationships (from passive to
oppositional to more active and collaborative)

Key findings: Implications:

For pupils: Being consulted produces a stronger sense of If pupils feel that they are respected in school, then they are
engagement with learning, an enhanced sense of agency and of more likely to commit themselves to learning.
self as learner.

For teachers: Consulting pupils leads to deeper insights into Pupils’ accounts of what helps and what hinders them in
children’s abilities and learning preferences, leading to more learning can provide a practical agenda for improving teaching
responsive teaching and giving greater responsibility to pupils and learning.
individually and as a group.

For schools: Consulting pupils strengthens school policy and Pupil testimony can feed powerfully into whole school policy
priority development by including pupils in substantive rather and planning – where this is enabled to happen.
than marginal or tokenistic ways.

For national policy: Pupil engagement suggests new insights and Classroom and school practice engaging pupils can provide the
practical tools for school self-evaluation, strategic planning and basis for further systematic inquiry and policy development.
improvement.

The U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) included children’s right to be heard as one of its four basic principles. It is seen
as integral to the Citizenship curriculum and lifelong learning. How to listen and learn, as well as to teach and lead, is the challenge for
teachers, schools and their communities.
Further information:
Rudduck, J., Arnot, M., Demetriou, H., Flutter, J., MacBeath, J., McIntyre, D., Myers, K., Pedder, D., Wang, B., Fielding, M., Bragg, S. and Reay, D. (2005) Consulting
Pupils about Teaching and Learning. TLRP Research Briefing, No 5. Available at www.tlrp.org/pub (accessed 18 November 2013).
Rudduck, J. and McIntyre, D. (2007) Improving Learning through Consulting Pupils. TLRP Improving Learning series. London: Routledge.
This TLRP network was directed from the University of Cambridge.

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18 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Figure 1.2 Year 7 12

friendship groups Alison’s
group

5 ‘GOOD’ GROUPS 1
Caroline’s Martin
group and Adam

1
Simon’s
4 2
group
The netball group The football group

‘JOKER’ GROUPS

6 8
7
The Samantha’s
Janine’s
Scorpion gang gang
Terror’s

1 17 18
‘GANG’ GROUPS Martin Malcolm’s Sarah’s
and Adam gang gang
Girls

Boys

Figure 1.3
Perspectives of ... good groups are ... ... joker groups are ... ... gang groups are ...
Year 7 friendship
groups
Good Sensible, quiet, Nice, but they Stupid, rough,
groups honest, rare show off too much. unfair, unkind,
think ... and friendly. troublemakers.

Joker Quiet, boring, Good fun, friendly Rough, thick, bossy,

groups and they just and sensible, disgusting, silly,
think ... wander about. good to play with. stupid babies, and
they cause trouble.

Gang Goody-goodies, Big-heads and (Own gang) great,

groups pathetic, soft, and show-offs, posh, fantastic, rough and
think ... they just talk and do rubbish. tough.
what they’re told. (Other gangs) cocky,
rubbish, soft, stupid,
thick, smelly,
horrible, daft.

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 Chapter 1 Identity 19

are shared by the group: for example, liking similar games, toys, television programmes;
supporting the same football team or pop group; liking the same fashions. Group members
will also be expected to be loyal to each other, ‘stand up for their mates’, play together and
share things. For example, sociometric and interview data with Year 7 pupils produced the
analysis in Figure 1.2 and the often lively perspectives on each other which are summa-
rised in Figure 1.3. Pupil cultures do throw up challenges for teachers, but it is better to
try to understand them than to pretend they do not exist.
Status is important in peer culture. As children and young people establish their
individual identities among their peers, each will be valued in particular ways. For young
children this value may be based on prowess in the playground in activities such as skipping,
dancing, chasing or football as well having access to fashionable toys, clothes or activities.
For secondary students, status may be earned through success at sport or even schoolwork
for some. However, style is likely to be much more significant – such as wearing designer
clothes, embracing fashionable music and even exploiting emergent sexuality.
The identities which students develop have serious implications for us as teachers
because they often lead to significant differentiation as schools try to meet the apparent
needs of particular student groups. Processes of differentiation start during the early years
at school, perhaps with the practical organisation of group work, and have been found to
increase during student’s school lives (Breakwell, 1986; Pollard, 1996; Ireson and Hallam,
2001, Reading 15.4). Pupil responses may eventually lead to a polarisation of proschool and
antischool cultures (Lacey, 1970) and this has been cited as of particular significance in the
underachievement of boys, when to ‘be good’ in school is considered ‘uncool’ (Raphael
Reed, 1996; Evans, 2007). Self-image and status within a peer group thus has significant
consequences for development during the school years – and these often last into adult
lives. This is further discussed in Chapter 15.
One particular issue which should be watched for, in relation to pupils’ relationships
with each other, is that of bullying (Elliott, 2002, Tattum and Lane, 1989, Robinson et al.,
1995). This is an unacceptable aspect of young people’s culture and often reflects both its
tendency to emphasise conformity and its concern with status – as well as, frequently, the
relative insecurity of the perpetrators. Thus children who are different in some way – new
to school, overweight, or possibly have an unusual accent or simply a different culture
– are picked on physically and verbally and are excluded by other pupils as their unaccept-
ability for cultural membership is asserted or as a pecking order is maintained. In its worst
forms this can degenerate into overt racism (Richardson and Miles, 2008), homophobia
(DePalma and Atkinson, 2008) or sexual harassment (Lees, 1993).
Adult intervention must be firm, but also needs to be sensitive to the realities of the
social situation. Everyone needs friends and to feel accepted by others. Very often then,
the teacher’s task is to stop the bullying whilst facilitating the entry of the ‘victim’ into
an appropriate niche within the pupil cultures of the school (Cowie and Wallace, 2000).
Complex issues are raised on which new teachers should seek advice from more experi-
enced colleagues.

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20 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

2.4 Understanding pupil needs

Just as we need to consider our personal identities and circumstances as teachers, so a
similar kind of ‘biographical’ knowledge about each child is valuable in understanding
them as individual people and as learners. We are likely to find that many characteristics
are shared in common, but others will be more unique and individual. More ‘personalised’
forms of provision can thus be made (Department for Education and Skills (DfES), 2004b).
Many schools collect basic information about each child’s medical history and educa-
tional progress, but such records, although sometimes helpful, rarely convey an impression
of the ‘whole child’. As a move in this direction, profiles, portfolios or ‘records of
achievement’ used to be commonplace in schools. Increasingly, however, records tend
to focus more narrowly on each child’s progress and targets achieved in different subject
areas, supplemented perhaps with examples of their work at different ages. However, they
may be enhanced by including information about hobbies and interests, abilities and tastes
and materials which reflect each pupil’s social attitudes, behaviour, out of school achieve-
ments and family context. Students may also participate in decisions about what to include.
Accessing such information can be done through a ‘knowledge exchange’ between home
and school, as is modelled in the ‘Home–school Knowledge Exchange’ project (Feiler et
al., 2007; Winter et al., 2009, see the Research Briefing on p. 107).
Such records may provide an excellent starting point for understanding each individual
learner, in terms of their material, social and cultural circumstances as well as their devel-
opment in school. They thus provide one sort of context for understanding children and
young people in school. However, such records cannot replace the awareness which will
come from personal contacts with pupils and, where appropriate, with their parents.

Reflective activity 1.6

Aim: To begin to construct a biographical understanding of a pupil.
Evidence and reflection:
●● Take an interest in a pupil’s general behaviour inside and outside the classroom.
Consider how they interact with other pupils and how they tackle learning tasks.
●● Present open-ended opportunities where the child can write, draw, talk or otherwise
communicate about herself or himself. Discussions about friends, experiences,
family or about favourite books or TV characters can be revealing. Make notes.
●● If possible, discuss the pupil with parents and other teachers.
●● Discuss the pupil’s own perception of their individual needs with them.
●● Summarise what you have learned.
Follow-up: Consider what implications your new understanding has for shaping the
educational provision that is appropriate for the young person concerned.

It is often argued that the `needs’ of the learner should be seen as the starting point
for teaching and learning policies. However, the notion of appropriate needs is not
straightforward, since it begs questions about prior aims, and judgements about what

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 Chapter 1 Identity 21

is worthwhile (Barrow, 1984). Nevertheless, it may be valuable for us as reflective

teachers to articulate what we see as the basic `needs’ of the learners to whom we commit
ourselves.
The classic work of Maslow (1954) is interesting here, since he linked the drive to have
needs met with motivation in learning. Maslow proposed a hierarchy of basic needs, and
proposed that the lower level order of needs must be met before people could fulfil higher
level needs. This argument is represented as a pyramid.
5 Self-actualisation needs
4 Esteem needs
3 Belongingness and love needs
2 Safety needs
1 Physiological needs

Figure 1.4
Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs

morality,
creativeity,
spontaneity,
problem solving,
lack of prejudice,
Self-actualisation acceptance of facts

self-esteem, confidence,
achievement, respect of others,
Esteem respect by others

friendship, family, sexual intimacy

Love/belonging

security of: body, employment, resources,

Safety morality, the family, health, property

breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

Physiological

The lowest level (1) expresses our primary biological need for food, shelter, oxygen,
water, etc. The second level (2) encompasses the need for security and freedom from
anxiety. The third level (3) includes the need to feel that one belongs and to be loved and
be able to love in return. The fourth level (4) addresses the need for prestige and status,
to be successful and to feel good about oneself. The final level (5) might be seen as the
ultimate goal of education – the need of people to fulfil their potential.
Teachers and pupils are no different in their humanity, and they therefore share
the needs which each of these elements represent. To learn, and to work at teaching,
physiological needs are basic – and we will explore one dimension of this in Chapter
8 when considering the physical qualities of classroom learning environments. More
significantly, if a pupil is hungry or distressed, teaching and learning is unlikely to be

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22 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

effective. Successful schools and classrooms enable both

Expert question teachers and pupils to feel safe, respected and valued.
Empowerment: is our pedagogic repertoire The experience of being in school thus supports devel-
successful in enhancing wellbeing, learning oping towards mutual self-actualisation. We can all take
disposition, capabilities and agency? pleasure from success.
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework representing enduring issues
and teacher expertise (see Chapter
16). The empowerment of young
people through teaching is one of the
educational outcomes to which the book
as a whole contributes.

2.5 Examining our perceptions of pupils

In the sections above, we have considered pupils’ views of themselves, of teachers and of
school. We have reviewed peer cultures and begun to understand the hierarchy of learner
needs. How then, does this influence the expectations which we ourselves have about
`pupils’? (Jones, 2009, Reading 1.5)
All of us are likely to have views about what we would like children and young people
to be like as pupils – polite, attentive, cooperative, hard-working, bright? And we also
have ideas about the characteristics which may be less favoured. These conceptions tend
to relate to the practical challenges of doing the job in the classroom. However, it has been
found that teacher judgements are affected by the gender, ethnicity, or social class of the
pupils and even by their names (Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford, 1981). If, as teachers, we
hold such preconceptions without reflecting on them, it can result in treating particular
individuals or groups of pupils in ways which may not be fair or just. When the pupils
then respond, original preconceptions may be reinforced. Labelling, or stereotyping,
can thus lead to a phenomenon known as the ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ and thus result in
considerable social injustices (Brophy and Good, 1974; Nash, 1976; Mortimore et al.,
1988; Hart, Dixon, Drummond and McIntyre, 2004, Reading 1.4). This is particularly the
case if patterns emerge in official assessment outcomes (Stobart, 2008, Reading 13.6; Filer,
2000).
As reflective teachers, we must focus on supporting and enhancing the achievement
of all pupils in our care. We therefore need to occasionally step back from our initial or
routine reactions to pupils, and interrogate our conscious or unconscious processes of
categorisation (see also Chapter 15, Section 1). For instance:
1 How does the school or classroom organisation differentiate between pupils, and
what are the implications of this for teachers and pupils?
2 How do we personally acknowledge, categorise and label the pupils we work
with?
3 How can we think about and work with pupils, moving beyond the labels?

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 Chapter 1 Identity 23

Of course, teachers do have to develop ways of understanding, organising and grouping

pupils in order to respond effectively to their educational needs. Within the classroom
however, this should be done with regard for the purposes of each particular situation
or learning activity (see Chapter 15 for extensive discussion of inclusive practice). An
inflexible form of classroom organisation is almost bound to disadvantage some students
unnecessarily.

Reflective activity 1.7

Aim: To understand our perceptions of ‘pupils’.
Evidence and reflection: First, without referring to the register or any lists, write down
the names of the pupils in your class or tutor group. Note which order you have
listed them in and which names you found hard to remember. What does the order
tell you about which students are more memorable than others, and for what
reasons?
Second, use your complete class list to generate the ‘personal constructs’ which you
employ. To do this, look at each adjacent pair of names and write down the word that
you think indicates how those two pupils are most alike. Then write down another
word which shows how they are most different.
When you have done this with each pair, review the characteristics that you have
identified. What does this suggest to you about the concepts through which you
distinguish children? What additional qualities do the children have which these
constructs do not seem to reflect and which perhaps you do not use?
Extension: Consider, perhaps with a colleague, the results of this activity and note
any patterns that might exist: for example whether some of your ideas relate
more to boys than girls, or to children from different class, ethnicity or religious
backgrounds. There may be some constructs that relate to such things as academic
ability, physical attributes or behaviour towards teachers or other children. How
might this be problematic for the identities of those pupils within your class, or for
your expectations of them as learners?

Reflecting on our own thinking and practices helps us to understand the complexity of the
classroom choices and decisions that are faced routinely every day. It helps us to ensure
that future actions can be justified; that we continue to be professionally accountable.
There are various ‘tools’ available to support reflective practice. One helpful one is
Hart’s Framework for Innovative Thinking (2000). The essence of this framework is that it
invites us to break down, or interrupt, our routine thinking and to try new ideas. The latter
are framed in constructive, enabling and inclusive ways. Figure 1.5 summarises Hart’s
‘five moves’, and Reflective activity 1.8 invites us to try this out.

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24 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Figure 1.5 A framework for innovative thinking (adapted from Hart, 2000)

Five moves for innovative thinking

This move involves exploring how the specific characteristics of the child’s
Making
response might be connected to features of the immediate and wider
connections
learning environment.
This move involves questioning the assumptions underlying a given
interpretation by searching out a plausible alternative interpretation
Contradicting which casts the meaning of the situation in a new light. This helps
to tease out the norms and expectations underlying the original
interpretation so that it can be re-examined.
This move involves trying to enter the child’s frame of reference and to
Taking a child’s
see the meaning and logic of the child’s response from the child’s
eye view
perspective.
Noting the This move involves examining the part that our own feelings play in
impact of the meaning that we bestow on the situation and in leading us to a
feelings particular interpretation.
Postponing This move involves recognising that we may lack information or expertise
judgement in needed to have confidence in our judgements. It involves holding back
order to find from further analysis and the attempt to arrive at judgements about
out more the child’s needs while we take steps to acquire further information.

Reflective activity 1.8

Aim: To review the learning of a pupil in the light of Susan Hart’s Framework for
Innovative Thinking.
Evidence and reflection: Think of a child or young person who is puzzling you, and
review an example of their learning activities which surprised you or which you
thought they might have done better.
Write a brief account of what happened.
Now use Hart’s framework to reflect on what happened. Does it help in illuminating
possible interpretations? What more would it be helpful to know? How might you find
this out?
Extension: Share what you have written with a colleague who also knows the child
or young person. How does their understanding match or contrast with yours?
Why do you think this is? What teaching strategies seem most appropriate for the
future?

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 Chapter 1 Identity 25

3 Learning and teaching through life

Children and adults, pupils and teachers, occupy particular stages and roles through the
lifecourse. We all pass through infancy, childhood and adolescence before establishing
ourselves as young adults. We then, often imperceptibly, progress into ‘middle age’ (with
its rather elastic definition) and on towards retirement. ‘Old age’ then beckons – with even
more learning challenges. In one sense then, although relevant historic periods generate
particular circumstances, we already know something of our pupils, for we once inhabited
that role too. And although we may look upon children and young people as ‘in need of a
good education’ it is upon them that we will one day come to depend.
This section draws on our common experience to acknowledge and empathise with
processes of development, becoming and contributing over time.

3.1 Pupil development and career

There are many different theories and perspectives on what the years from birth to age 16
mean in our society.
We can start by acknowledging that ‘childhood’ and ‘adolescence’ are social construc-
tions. For example, during particular periods of history and in different parts of the world,
young people are considered to have ‘grown up’ sufficiently to assume responsibilities at
widely varying ages (Aries, 1960; Boas, 1966; James and Prout, 1997; James and James,
2004). Indeed, for some, contemporary western childhood is seen as reflecting adult prior-
ities and ambitions (Moss and Petrie, 2002) or adult sentiment and nostalgia (Gillis, 1997).
Thus whilst ‘childhood’ appears as a cultural feature of many societies, particularly
in the western world, it is also possible to characterise young people simply as ‘young
people’, rather than as ‘children’. This suggestion is intended to disrupt the idea of
children as becoming – with a focus on what the child is ‘not yet’. On this argument,
children and young people should thus be fully recognised as active and interactive
agents (Jones, 2009, Reading 1.5; see also Mayall, 2002; Dahlberg, Moss and Pence,
1999) and as participants in society during childhood. Early phases of life have intrinsic
value in themselves, not simply as preparations for future stages.This sort of approach
can be illustrated by longitudinal studies of pupil learning and careers through primary
and secondary school (Warin, 2010; Pollard and Filer, 1996, 1999, 2007, Reading 1.2).
These sources provide detailed case studies of individual pupils as they develop through
schooling, and document the ways in which relationships with family, friends and
successive teachers influence the learning outcomes and the emergent identities of each
child (see Figure 1.6).
Of course, there are extremely significant physiological changes too during infancy,
childhood and adolescence. As we will see in Chapter 2, normal biological development
is sequential. It follows that particular forms of educational provision are appropriate for
children of different ages (a point which ambitious policymakers sometimes neglect). For
example, it is implausible to require children to write until their fine motor control has

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26 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Figure 1.6 Social Social

influences on context
learners through a
school career

Family

Learner

Teacher Peers Age

Organisational Peer
culture culture

begun to develop. It is then possible to go with the flow of development to extend and
refine that capability. This way of thinking is the source of the concept of ‘readiness to
learn’, and has been applied in many domains. The problem of course, is that you might
wait so long that teaching is neglected and children thus become disadvantaged. As with
so many things in education, we need balanced judgement in the light of important ideas
which pull in slightly different directions.
The physiological changes associated with puberty are many, and happen at different
rates and stages. Such changes, whether early or late, can lead to a loss of self-confidence
– for example, when a boy of 15 has not yet reached his growth spurt or broken voice,
and still looks like a child whilst his peers look like young men. The scale and rate of
physical changes in adolescence can sometimes lead to tiredness, clumsiness, moodiness
and depression. It can also be a great boost to confidence, of course.
Neuroscientists are contributing more and more to our understanding of how the brain
develops and functions and this is again explored in Chapter 2. For the moment, we can
simply note that whilst infancy appears to be particularly significant, later development
through childhood and adolescence is also extremely important. Cognitive capacity is
enhanced through use, and schooling is the primary source of structured experience for
most young people.
Other psychological features of childhood and adolescence relate to changes in
cognition. Whilst the thinking of children tends to be relatively bounded by direct
experience, older children and young people gradually become more sophisticated in their
manipulation of abstract concepts and complex thought (Inhelder and Piaget, 1958). They
develop the ability to ‘de-centre’ by empathising with others and can evaluate moral and
ethical dilemmas (Kohlberg, 1976). Emotions and emotional states also play an important
role in personal development – whether of children (Hyland, 2011) or even in teacher
education (Shoffner, 2009).
All teachers thus have to consider and juggle with the developmental needs of learners
in relation to curricular requirements and expectations.
It is now possible to see the consequences of these social and developmental factors
within our education systems over time. The National Child Development Study (NCDS)

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 Chapter 1 Identity 27

Figure 1.7
Wider benefits: Social productivity Mediating
Mediating mechanisms mechanisms for
• Individual health and wellbeing
• Skills and competencies • Family functioning achievement of the
Education
• Social interactions • Community cohesion and flourishing wider benefits of
• Qualifications • Social cohesion, economic growth learning (Feinstein,
and equality Vorhaus and
Sabates, 2008)

has been following the lives of around 17,000 people born in Britain in one week in 1958
(see Now We Are 50, Elliot and Vaitilingam, 2008). Such longitudinal data has enabled
analysis of the long-term consequences of early childhood and school experiences and
analysis has begun to identify factors that reinforce positive and negative developments
in people’s lives. Other cohort studies have been established which will extend these
analyses.
Feinstein, Vorhaus and Sabates (2008, Reading 1.6) draw on such studies in a
Government Foresight Study on ‘learning through life’. They note that there are signif-
icant ‘economic returns’ to investment in education but also that ‘intrinsic motivations
are also important in individual decision-making’ (p. 23). In an important analysis of the
‘wider benefits of learning’ they demonstrate how education fosters skills, confidence
and qualifications which lead to many other benefits in later life and across society (see
Figure 1.7).
Feinstein et al. cite TLRP’s ‘evidence-informed principles’ (see Chapter 3) as a contri-
bution to the improvement of teaching and learning practices and argue that:

Educational systems have a crucial role in equipping children and adults to withstand the
economic, cultural and technological challenges they face in an increasingly globalised
world. The fast pace of new technological developments and the intensification
of economic pressures mean that the technical and academic skills of the working
population are crucial for the UK economy. However, so are features of personal
development such as resilience, self-regulation, a positive sense of self, and personal
and social identity. The capability of individuals to function as civic agents with notions
of personal responsibility, tolerance and respect depends on these wider features of
identity which are strongly influenced by interactions with others in schools, workplaces,
communities, neighbourhoods and through the media and other channels. (Feinstein,
Vorhaus and Sabates, 2008, p. 35)

The implication of such research and of our brief

consideration of pupil development and career in schools Expert question
is to draw attention to the responsibility on us as teachers. Consequence: do assessment outcomes
Quite simply, our work contributes in significant ways to lead towards recognised qualifications and
our national economy and cultures and, not least, to a confident sense of personal identity?
the future wellbeing of the country’s citizens. Although This question contributes to a conceptual
daunting, this task echoes with the ambitions voiced by framework representing enduring issues
the trainee teachers discussed at the beginning of this and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16).
chapter. Moreover, their commitment serves to remind

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28 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

us not just of the economic reasons for this endeavor, but also the moral. To participate
in the process of education is to participate in civil society. As we engage children and
young people in new learning, so we challenge ourselves, as reflective practitioners, to
create new possibilities for all our futures.

3.2 Teacher development and career

Membership of the teaching profession represents a stage in the personal trajectory
through life of each of us. For some, teaching will offer a long-term career. For others,
our time as a teacher may be relatively brief, or even transitory. However, for all
qualified teachers, official certification in that role affirms good knowledge of appro-
priate subject matter, understanding of learners and learning in school settings, and
an important array of personal qualities. New teachers, in other words, are selected
because of the competence they demonstrate and for the potential contributions which
are anticipated.
The issues discussed above in relation to pupils also all apply again, albeit at different
stages of life. Thus social relations, identity and self-confidence complement physical,
psychological and neurological maturity to offer social, affective and cognitive capability.
We are simply the children of yesteryear, who have now grown up.
As we saw in Section 1.2 above, Huberman (1993) proposed five stages of teacher
development – career entry, stabilisation, experimentation, conservatism and disen-
gagement. Day and Gu (2010) took this further in The New Lives of Teachers by linking
the challenges of professional development with particular life and work scenarios. They
argue that:

The relative success with which teachers manage various personal, work and external
policy challenges is a key factor in the satisfaction, commitment, well-being and
effectiveness of teachers. The influences of school leadership, culture, colleagues and
conditions are also profound, and relate directly to teacher retention and the work-life
balance agenda. (Day and Gu, 2010, prelim, see also Reading 1.1)

The social influences on teachers through a professional career are thus not dissimilar to
those which affect pupils as they progress through schooling. We all have basic needs
which must be satisfied to create conditions for success. It is noticeable that, just as
positive learning dispositions and resilience to new challenges are crucial to pupil success
(see Claxton, 1999, Reading 2.9), so teacher commitment and resilience are essential to
effectiveness over the whole of a career.
The finding in Day et al.’s (2006) study that: ‘teachers do not necessarily become more
effective over time’ is challenging for us to think about. It draws attention to our own
professional vulnerabilities and suggests that aspiration, good intentions or values are
not enough. We also need to reflect on our practices, using evidence of various sorts to
challenge ourselves in continuous cycles of improvement (see Chapter 3).
The notion ‘warranted practice’ has been used to emphasise the importance of
progressive development in the work of teachers (Richardson, 1998). Ruthven (2005)

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 Chapter 1 Identity 29

used the term to describe the process teachers engage in

to ensure continual improvement of provision, as well Expert question
as meeting the demands of professional accountability. Warrant: are our teaching strategies
He suggests that educational reform depends on deeper evidence-informed, convincing and
understandings and flexible thinking about practice. For justifiable to stakeholders?
Ruthven, the term ‘warranted’ is used in two important This question contributes to a conceptual
senses. First, it provides reasoned grounds for the practice framework underpinning professional
as intended; and second, it suggests that the practice expertise (see Chapter 16).
as implemented in a particular setting is indeed likely
to succeed in its aims. This perspective does not offer
a ‘cook book’ prescription of ‘what works’, because teacher decision-making is seen
as being contextual, dynamic and responsive to the needs of learners in each particular
setting.
Our commitment to professionalism through a teaching career is expressed through our
values, identities, and work as teachers. However, professionalism also needs to be under-
pinned by processes which enable us to routinely review and improve our own practices
(see Chapter 3).

Conclusion
This chapter celebrates the idealism and moral purpose of teachers, but also recognises
the personal and professional challenges. It reviews the significant array of factors shaping
pupil’s lives, and suggests how such knowledge may be used to support effective teaching
and learning. Finally, it describes the trajectories through life of pupils and teachers, and
acknowledges our common humanity.
We saw that the process of reflecting on our aims and values as teachers can help us
in developing a realistic personal and professional identity. Further, it was suggested that,
by understanding the many influences on our teaching more explicitly, we can identify
where we are being most successful and perhaps where values and intention, evidence and
practice do not match as well as they might.
It was suggested that, by maintaining awareness of the cultures of children and young
people, their views of us as teachers and their perspectives on themselves and each other,
we are better able to take account of their needs when developing opportunities for
learning. We do however need to keep under scrutiny the concepts which we ourselves
use to understand pupils.
Finally, we considered the significance of teaching and learning in the lifecourse of
pupils, and for ourselves.

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30 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Key readings
A classic introduction to the delights and challenges of teaching is:
Richardson, R. (1990) Daring to be a Teacher. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.

A sensitive account of the values and commitment of primary school teachers, of

relevance to secondary, is:
Nias, J. (1989) Primary Teachers Talking: a Study of Teaching at Work. London:
Routledge.

For an appreciative guide to being a teacher from a secondary perspective, of relevance

to primary, see:
Turbull, J. (2007) 9 Habits of Highly Effective Teachers. A Practical Guide to
Empowerment. London: Continuum.

On teacher development and commitment through careers and lives, the classic account
is Huberman’s. We also have excellent contemporary work from Day and Gu.
Huberman, M. (1993) The Lives of Teachers. London: Cassell.
Day, C. and Gu, Q. (2010) The New Lives of Teachers. London: Routledge. (see also
Reading 1.1)

For a thorough exploration of how student teachers learn from the expertise of practising
teachers, see:
Hagger, H. and McIntyre, D. (2006) Learning Teaching from Teachers – Realizing
the Potential of School-Based Teacher Education. Maidenhead: Open University
Press.

There are many interesting books on children’s culture, friendships and perspectives
in primary and secondary schools. Devine promotes primary pupils ‘speaking for
themselves’, whilst Rudduck and McIntyre summarise extensive cross-sectoral work on
‘pupil consultation’:
Devine, D. (2003) Children, Power and Schooling. The Social Structuring of
Childhood in the Primary School. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.
Rudduck, J. and McIntyre, D. (2007) Improving Learning Through Consulting Pupils.
London: Routledge. (see also Reading 1.3)

For detailed case studies of children’s developing identities and careers through
schooling, see:
Pollard, A. and Filer, A. (1999) The Social World of Pupil Career: Strategic
Biographies through Primary School. London: Cassell. (see Reading 1.2)

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 Chapter 1 Identity 31

And for one of many analyses of secondary school experiences see:

Smyth, J. and McInerney, P. (2012) From Silent Witnesses to Active Agents: Student
Voice in Re-engaging with Learning. New York: Peter Lang.

An important book which challenges all determinist ideas about ‘ability’ is:
Hart, S., Dixon, A., Drummond, M-J. and McIntyre, D. (2004) Learning Without
Limits. Maidenhead: Open University Press. (see Reading 1.4)

The long-term consequences of schooling are quantified in:

Feinstein, L., Vorhaus, J., and Sabates, R. (2008) Learning Through Life: Future
Challenges. Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project. London: The
Government Office for Science. (Reading 1.6)

For a foretaste of the implication of the arguments in this chapter, try the readings in
Chapter 17 of Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools – such as:
Power, S. (2008) ‘The imaginative professional’, in Cunningham, B. (ed.) Exploring
Professionalism. London: IOE Press. (Reading 17.5)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

include Further Reading, Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and Download Facilities
for diagrams, figures, checklists and activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Learning
How can we
understand learner
development?
2
Introduction (p. 34)

1 Learning processes (p. 35)

1.1 Behaviourism (p. 35)

1.2 Constructivism (p. 37)
1.3 Social cognition (p. 40)

2 Nature, nurture and agency (p. 44)

2.1 Personal development, health and wellbeing (p. 44)

2.2 Body and brain, mind and behaviour (p. 46)
2.3 ‘Intelligence’, attribution and expectations (p. 49)

3 Nurture, nature and agency (p. 53)

3.1 Culture, language and disposition (p. 53)

3.2 Personality, motivation and identity (p. 57)
3.3 Metacognition and thinking skills (p. 59)

4 Taking stock of learning (p. 60)

4.1 Key factors in learning (p. 60)

4.2 Metaphors of learning (p. 61)
4.3 Applying learning beyond school (p. 63)

Conclusion (p. 64)

34 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Introduction
Learning can be considered as the process by which people acquire, understand, apply and
extend knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes. Children and young people also discover
their feelings towards themselves, towards each other and towards learning itself. Learning
is thus a combination of cognitive, social and affective elements. The teacher’s recognition
of what learners bring to their education is crucial.

TLRP principles

Three principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on learning:

Effective teaching and learning recognises the importance of prior experience

and learning. Teaching and learning should take account of what the learner
knows already in order to plan their next steps. This includes building on prior
learning but also taking account of the personal and cultural experiences of different
groups of learners. (Principle 3)

Effective teaching and learning promotes the active engagement of the

learner. A chief goal of teaching and learning should be the promotion of learners’
independence and autonomy. This involves acquiring a repertoire of learning
strategies and practices, developing positive attitudes towards learning, and
confidence in oneself as a good learner. (Principle 6)

Effective teaching and learning recognises the significance of informal

learning. Informal learning, such as learning out of school, should be recognised
as at least as significant as formal learning and should therefore be valued and used
See Chapter 4 appropriately in formal processes. (Principle 8)

How we understand children and their learning affect the choices that teachers make, day
by day, encounter by encounter in the classroom. There is a tendency to attribute differences
between children’s learning and attainments to deficits in the young people themselves.
However, a new mindset is turning this deficit approach around, enabling teachers to take a
‘credit approach’, seeing all children as rich, strong, powerful learners, as long as conducive
classroom conditions and compelling opportunities for learning are provided (see Hart et al.,
2004; Swann et al. 2012, Reading 1.4). Reflective teachers taking the credit approach focus on
what pupils can do, not on what they cannot do. They are more interested in young people’s
desire to understand than in gaps in their knowledge. If we see all learners as powerful then
we are inescapably committed to the educability of every child, and to building and using
our professional expertise to seek, understand and remove barriers to learning.
In this chapter we focus first on processes of learning, and introduce three perspectives
which have particularly influenced education – behaviourism, constructivism and social
constructivism. We then consider the classic debate about the relative roles of ‘nature’ and
‘nurture’ in education through a review of biological, social and cultural factors – whilst
emphasising the agency of learners and teachers.

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 Chapter 2 Learning 35

1 Learning processes
Learning is a fascinating, but highly complex, aspect of human activity. In psychology, a
distinction is often made between cognitive and affective development – contrasts being
drawn between thought and feeling; rationality and emotion; and even some forms of
knowledge and understanding. There are interesting interconnections of course – with
a recent neuroscientific analysis entitled ‘we feel, therefore we learn’ (Immordino-Yang
and Damasio, 2007, Reading 6.2). Indeed, attention, memory, decision-making and other
cognitive capabilities are strongly influenced by affective disposition and feelings. The
latter respond to characteristics of learning environments – such as homes, classrooms and
even examination halls, as many of us will recognise.
Of course, humans learned for many thousands of years before anyone thought that a
‘curriculum’ and ‘schooling’ were necessary. Indeed, at its simplest, learning can be seen
as the product of a continuous interaction between development and experience through
life (Blyth, 1984, Figure 2.1). The professional teacher’s job is to understand the process
as well as possible and to offer children the benefit of that understanding.
For centuries, philosophers and psychologists have worked to analyse learning. The
result is that there are many alternative theories which attempt to describe the process.
We have simplified this complex field by identifying just three theories of learning which
have been of particular influence on teaching and learning in schools. Each has merit in
highlighting particular dimensions of learning.

DEVELOPMENT Figure 2.1

Development,
experience and
curriculum

CURRICULUM

EXPERIENCE

1.1 Behaviourism
This theory suggests that living creatures, animal or human, learn by building up associa-
tions or ‘bonds’ between their experience, their thinking and their behaviour. Thus, as long
ago as 1911, Thorndike formulated two principles. First, the ‘law of effect’:

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36 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of
the bond.

Second, the ‘law of exercise’: the relationship between the frequency of the response and
learning:

The probability of a response occurring in a given situation increases with the number of
times that response has occurred in that situation in the past.

Thorndike confidently claimed that these ‘laws’ emerged clearly from ‘every series of
experiments on animal learning and in the entire history of the management of human
affairs’ (Thorndike, 1911, p. 244).
A variety of versions of behaviourism were developed and provided the dominant
perspective on learning until the 1960s. Perhaps the most significant of these psychologists
was Skinner (e.g. 1968, see Reading 2.1) who, through his work with animals, developed
a sophisticated theory of the role in learning of stimulus, response, reinforcement and
consequence.
The influence of behaviourist theory in education has been immense because, in the
early part of the twentieth century, it provided the foundations of work on a ‘science of
teaching’ based on whole-class, didactic approaches through which knowledge and skills
were to be taught. The ‘law of effect’ was reflected in elaborate systems and rituals for
the reinforcement of correct pupil responses. The ‘law of exercise’ was reflected in an
emphasis on practice and drill.
Behaviourist learning theory casts the learner in a relatively passive role, leaving the
selection, pacing and evaluation of learning activity to the teacher. Subject expertise can
thus be transmitted in a coherent, ordered and logical way, and control of the class tends to
be tight – because pupils are often required to listen. There is a problem though in whether
such teaching actually connects with the learner’s existing understanding.
Teaching which has been influenced by behaviourism can be seen in all schools. The
importance of reinforcing children’s work and effort is well established, and reflects the
work of Skinner (e.g. 1953) in demonstrating the limited value of punishment as a means
of supporting learning. The use of practice tasks is also well established, particularly
for teaching aspects of the core curriculum such as numerical computation, spelling and
writing, and this type of work reflects the influence of the ‘law of exercise’. The use of
teacher-controlled explanation and of question-and-answer routines are important parts of
any teacher’s pedagogic repertoire. They will be found, for instance, when new topics are
being introduced and when taking stock of achievements. The idea of building progressive
steps in learning (e.g. Gagné, 1965) is, of course, directly reflected in the organisation of
the curriculum into ‘stages’ and ‘levels’. Behaviourism has also been influential in work
with children who experience emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD), achieving
significant success through reinforcement of appropriate actions (Wheldall, 1991).
Figure 2.2 represents the roles of children and adult in behaviourist-influenced teaching
and learning processes.
Some particular points could be noted. First, there is a high degree of adult control
in the process; deciding on the subject matter, providing instruction, pacing the lesson,

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 Chapter 2 Learning 37

Figure 2.2
Respond A behaviourist
CHILDREN Respond
model of roles
in the teaching–
learning process

ADULT Decides on
important Instructs Assesses Instructs
knowledge, children information children
skills, etc

correcting, assessing and reinforcing pupil responses. In principle, this makes it relatively
easy for teacher expositions and explanations to be logical, coherent, linear and progressive
as subject matter or skills are introduced to the pupils. However, there are also some diffi-
culties with teaching in this way. The most important is the question of connecting with the
existing understanding of the learner. In this respect, the strength of subject exposition can
also be a weakness if a pupil does not recognise subject divisions as being relevant to daily
experiences (see Chapter 9, Section 3.3). Such a mismatch can reduce motivation and
achievement as the child cannot use the knowledge which is offered to build a meaningful
understanding. In such circumstances, learning tends to be superficial and fragmented.
This problem may be made acute when large groups are taught because it is very hard for
a teacher to ‘pitch’ the lesson appropriately for all learners.
The influence of behaviourism has been greatest on what are commonly termed ‘tradi-
tional’ teaching methods, and particularly those associated with whole-class, subject-based
teaching. Careful programmes of reinforcement can meet particular needs – for example,
some computer programmes are particularly successful at exploiting these strengths.
However, behaviourism is often oversimplified as a ‘training’ model and some in the
media even seem to expect behaviourist assumptions to be applied to almost all teaching.
Perhaps it is popular because of its association with tight discipline and strong subject
teaching. However, the responsibility of teachers is to interact with pupils so that they
actually learn, not simply to expose them to subject matter and drill. Teaching methods
based on behaviourism must, therefore, be fit for their purpose.

1.2 Constructivism
This theory suggests that people learn through an interaction between thinking and
experience, and through the sequential development of more complex cognitive struc-
tures. The most influential constructivist theorist was Piaget (e.g. 1926, 1950, 1961; see
Reading 2.2) whose ultimate goal was to create a ‘genetic epistemology’ – an understanding
of the origin of knowledge derived from research into the interaction between people and
their environment.
In Piaget’s account, when children encounter a new experience they both ‘accom-
modate’ their existing thinking to it and ‘assimilate’ aspects of the experience. In so doing
they move beyond one state of mental ‘equilibration’ and restructure their thoughts to

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38 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

create another. Gradually then, children come to construct more detailed, complex and
accurate understandings of the phenomena they experience.
Piaget proposed that there are characteristic stages in the successive development of
these mental structures, stages which are distinctive because of the type of ‘cognitive
operation’ with which children and young people process their experience. These stages
are:
●● the sensorimotor stage (approximately birth–2 years)
●● the preoperational stage (approximately 2–7 years)
●● the concrete operations stage (approximately 7–12 years)
●● the formal operations stage (approximately 12 years onwards).
In each of the first three stages the role of the child’s direct experience is deemed to be crucial.
It is only in the formal operations stage that abstract thinking is believed possible. In the
sensorimotor and preoperational stages children are thought to be relatively individualistic
and unable to work with others for long. Children are believed to behave rather like
‘active scientists’, enquiring, exploring and discovering as their curiosity and interests lead
them to successive experiences. Play and practical experimentation have a crucial role
in the assimilation process at each stage (Piaget, 1951) – a point that is particularly well
understood by early childhood educators (Moyles, 2005; Parker-Rees, 1999).
The influence of constructivist theory in primary education was considerable following
the report of the Plowden Committee (Central Advisory Council for Education (CACE),
1967, see also Reading 9.4) in which it was suggested that:

Piaget’s explanation appears to fit the observed facts of children’s learning more
satisfactorily than any other. It is in accord with what is generally regarded as the most
effective primary school practice, as it has been worked out empirically.
(CACE, 1967, para. 522)

The image of the active child as the agent of his/her own learning runs through Plowden.
‘Child-centred’ teaching approaches, based on interpretations of Piaget’s work, were
adopted with enormous commitment by many teachers in the late 1960s and 1970s.
Great imagination and care was put into providing varied and stimulating classroom
environments from which children could derive challenging experiences (e.g. Marsh,
1970). Sophisticated forms of classroom organisation, such as the ‘integrated day’ (Brown
and Precious, 1968; Walton, 1971) were introduced and developed to manage the problem
of providing individual children with appropriate direct learning experiences. Despite
these efforts, empirical research showed that constructivist methods were not greatly
reflected in the actual practice of teachers of older primary children (Galton, Simon and
Croll, 1980). Constructivism has always been particularly influential in work with younger
pupils with whom the benefits of working from children’s interests, from play and from
practical experience are relatively clear-cut (Anning, 1991; Dowling, 1992; Doddington
and Hilton, 2007). However, Piaget’s work has also influenced important research on the
development of thinking skills and ‘cognitive acceleration’ in science and maths across the
age range (Adey and Shayer, 1994).

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 Chapter 2 Learning 39

There have been a number of criticisms of Piaget’s work, particularly because of the
way in which seeing the development of young people in sequential structured stages can
lead to underestimation of their capacities. Psychologists, such as Donaldson (1978) and
Tizard and Hughes (1984), demonstrated that children’s intellectual abilities are far greater
than those reported by Piaget. Their findings emerged when children were observed in
situations that were meaningful to them. In such circumstances children also show consid-
erably more social competence at younger ages than Piaget’s theory allows (Dunn, 1988;
Siegler, 1997). From a different perspective, sociologists such as Walkerdine (1983, 1988)
have argued that Piaget’s stages became part of child-centred ideology and a means through
which teachers classify, compare and, thus, control children. Critics have also suggested
that this form of constructivism over-emphasises self-discovery by the individual and
ignores the social context in which learning takes place. In so doing, the potential of
teachers, other adults and other children to support each child’s learning is under-estimated.
Constructivist learning theory, as adapted by educationalists, casts the learner in a very
active and independent role, leaving much of the selection, pacing and evaluation of the
activity to the child to negotiate. There is considerable emphasis on pupil interests and
some compromise on the specifics of curriculum coverage. In its place, there tends to be
more emphasis on learning concepts and skills through work on pupil-chosen topics.
Teaching which has been influenced by constructivism can be seen in all schools. It is
reflected in the provision of a rich, varied and stimulating environment, in individualised
work and creative arts and in extended projects and investigations. Above all, though, the
influence of constructivism is reflected in the ways in which teachers relate with children and
young people. Perhaps this is an unintended legacy, but the nature of constructivism, with
its close identification with the learner, provides many opportunities for teachers to share
in pupil fascination and excitement when encountering new and meaningful experiences.
Figure 2.3 represents the roles of child and adult in constructivist-influenced teaching
and learning processes.
Figure 2.3
CHILD Experiences Experiences Makes sense A constructivist
model of roles
in the teaching–
Area of work learning process
and activity
negotiated
Evaluates

ADULT

Note here the negotiation of pupil activity and the emphasis placed on direct experience in
learning. Together, these have the enormous strength, in principle, of creating high levels
of pupil motivation and engagement. In the right circumstances, creativity and other forms
of pupil achievement can reach exceptional levels of excellence. However, coverage of a
particular curriculum is hard to monitor and the diversity of individual pupil interests tends
to produce relatively complex forms of classroom organisation as a range of activities is

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40 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

provided. Research shows that teachers then tend to be drawn into managing this complex
environment rather than teaching itself.
As with behaviourist approaches, professional judgements about ‘fitness for purpose’
will guide decisions about the use of teaching methods based on constructivism.

1.3 Social cognition

This perspective on learning takes two main forms. On the one hand, it draws attention
to the language and forms of understanding that are embedded in particular contexts
and social practices – and sees these as important ‘cultural resources’ that are available
to a learner from that setting. Studies with this emphasis are often referred to as socio-
cultural. On the other hand, it draws attention to the key role of experienced participants
in inducting less competent learners, and in ‘mediating’, ‘scaffolding’ and extending their
understanding. Studies with this emphasis are known as social constructivist, because they
retain the constructivist concern with learner activity, but also recognise the significance
of social processes.
We might say then, that theories of social cognition affirm the importance of recog-
nising and building on pupils’ family and community knowledge, whilst also emphasising
the role of teaching and instruction in extending such knowledge. The seminal writer
on this approach was Vygotsky (1962, 1978, Reading 2.3) whose publications in Russian
date from the 1930s. The increasing availability of Vygotsky’s work in English coincided
with reappraisals of the strengths and weaknesses of Piagetian theory. Psychologists such
as Bruner (1986), Wood (1997) and Wertsch (1985) have been able to demonstrate the
considerable relevance of Vygotsky’s work to modern education. This complemented
empirical work by other child psychologists, and curriculum-development initiatives by
subject specialists.
As we have seen, a key insight concerns the role of the culture and the social context
of the learner in influencing understanding (Wells (1999, Reading 2.5; Bruner, 1990, 2006,
Reading 11.4; Pollard and Filer, 1997, Reading 1.2). This influence starts in informal ways
from birth. Thus infants and young children interact with their parents and family and,
through experiencing the language and forms of behaviour of their culture, also assimilate
particular cognitive skills, strategies, knowledge and understanding (Dunn, 1988; Richards
and Light, 1986). Cognition, language and forms of thought thus depend on the culture and
social history of the learner as well as on any particular instruction which may be offered
at any point in time. For example, Mercer (1992) shows how his daughter ‘appropriated’
new ways of playing from watching an older child. This influence of culture on learning
continues throughout life; indeed, it is what makes learning meaningful. Ideas, language
and concepts derived from interaction with others thus structure, challenge, enhance or
constrain thinking.
An extremely practical conclusion from this is that teachers must engage with
children’s existing cultural and conceptual understandings (and misunderstandings) before
attempting further instruction. A review from the United States (US) indicates that: ‘if
initial understanding is not engaged, students may fail to grasp new information and

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 Chapter 2 Learning 41

concepts, or may learn for the purposes of the test, but fail to transfer the learning to new
situations’ (Bransford et al., 1999, p. 25, Reading 4.1). As we will see later in this chapter,
this argument for ‘deep’ and ‘connected’ learning is also linked to learner identity. Does
the learner feel comfortable with new, school knowledge? Can they incorporate it and feel
supported by the significant others in their lives (such as parents or their peers), or do they
experience apathy or even disapproval?
The second major aspect of social cognition on which we will focus concerns the social
constructivist mediation of understanding by more knowledgeable others. This is best
illustrated through Vygotsky’s concept of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (the ZPD)
(1978, Reading 2.3). This is:

the distance between the actual developmental level (of the child) as determined through
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem
solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (Vygotsky,
1978, p. 86)

The ZPD concerns each person’s potential to ‘make sense’. Given a learner’s present state
of understanding, what developments can occur if he or she is given appropriate assistance
by more capable others? If support is appropriate and meaningful, then, it is argued, the
understanding of children can be extended far beyond that which they could reach alone.
Such assistance in learning can come in many ways. It may take the form of an expla-
nation by or discussion with a knowledgeable teacher; it may reflect debate among a
group of children as they strive to solve a problem or complete a task; it might come from
discussion with a parent or from watching a particular television programme. In each
case, the intervention functions to extend and to ‘scaffold’ the child’s understanding across
their ZPD for that particular issue. An appropriate analogy, suggested by Bruner, is that
of building a house. Scaffolding is needed to support the process as the house is gradually
constructed from its foundations – but when it has been assembled and all the parts have
been secured the scaffolding can be removed. The building – the learner’s understanding
– will stand independently.
The influence of social constructivism has grown steadily since the early 1980s. Perhaps
this is because the approach seems to recognise both the needs of learners to construct
their own, meaningful understandings and the strength of teaching itself. Indeed, a key to
the approach lies in specifying constructive relationships between these factors. As Tharp
and Gallimore (1988, Reading 11.4) suggest learning can be seen as ‘assisted performance’.
Figure 2.4, elaborated from Rowland (1987), represents the roles of children and adults
in social constructivist teaching and learning processes. Negotiation, focused perhaps on
a National Curriculum topic, is followed by activity and discussion by children. However,
the teacher then makes a constructive intervention to provide support and instruction – a
role which Rowland named as that of the ‘reflective agent’. This draws attention to the
fact that any intervention must be appropriate. It must connect with the understandings and
purposes of the learners so that their thinking is extended. If this is to happen, teachers
need to draw on both their subject knowledge and their understanding of children and
young people in general and of their class in particular. They must make an accurate
judgement themselves about the most appropriate form of input. In this, various techniques

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42 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Figure 2.4
A social Activity Activity
constructivist CHILDREN
and and Makes
model of roles discussion discussion sense
in the teaching–
learning process Area of
work and
activity
negotiated ZPD ZPD Evaluation

Support Support
and and
ADULT instruction instruction

of formative assessment (see Chapter 13) are likely to be helpful. If such judgements
are astute then the input could take the children’s thinking forward, across the ZPD and
beyond the level of understanding which they would have reached alone. Clearly there
could be successive cycles of this process.
In recent decades, the influence of social constructivism has underpinned the work of
curriculum associations and teacher-based curriculum innovation in all subjects. The role
of language and of discussion is paramount in learning in each area.

Reflective activity 2.1

Aim: To consider the application of behaviourist, constructivist and social constructivist
psychology in classroom practice.
Evidence and reflection: Review a selection of common learning situations and
teaching methods, which your class or classes experience during a school day.
Note each learning situation, each teaching approach and then consider the
psychological rationale for its use.

Learning situation Teaching approach used Psychological rationale

for the teaching approach

Consider if you are drawing effectively on the strengths of each approach. Does this
activity have any implications for the repertoire of teaching strategies that you use?
Extension: Consider the influence, strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory
on teaching and learning in your school. Are the teaching approaches used ‘fit for
their purpose’?

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 Chapter 2 Learning 43

Summary
Figure 2.5 provides a very simple summary of some key points in the previous discus-
sions of teacher–learner interaction. Hopefully, the particular insights of each perspective
on learning are apparent. We return to broader socio-cultural factors in Section 3.1 of this
chapter.
Figure 2.5 Some features of behaviourist, constructivist and social constructivist models of learning in school classrooms

Behaviourism in Constructivism in Social

classrooms classrooms constructivism in
classrooms
Image of learner ●● Passive ●● Active ●● Active

●● Individual ●● Individual ●● Social

●● Extrinsically motivated ●● Intrinsically motivated ●● Socially motivated

Images of teaching ●● Teachertransmits ●● Teacher gives child ●● Knowledge and skills are
and learning knowledge and skills opportunity to construct constructed gradually
●● Learning depends on knowledge and skills through experience,
teaching and systematic gradually through interaction and adult
reinforcement of correct experience support
behaviours ●● Learningcan be ●● Learning comes through
independent of teaching the interdependence of
teacher and children
Characteristic child ●● Class listening to an adult ●● Individualsmaking, ●● Class,group or individual
activities ●● Class working on an experimenting, playing or discussion with an adult or
exercise otherwise doing something other child/ren
●● Group problem-solving
Some ●● Draws directly on existing ●● Uses direct experience and ●● Encouragescollaboration
characteristics subject knowledge in a allows child to explore in and language development
logical, linear manner their own way at their own ●● Bystructuring challenges
●● When matched to existing pace can clarify thinking and
understanding, can be a ●● Can build confidence extending meaningful
fast and effective way to and practical, insightful understanding
learn understanding
Some issues ●● May not connect with ●● Has significant resource ●● Requiresan appropriate,
existing understanding and organisational learning-oriented classroom
and may thus lead to implications climate
superficiality ●● Management of classroom ●● Requires a high level
●● Difficultto motivate all often dominates actual of adult judgement,
children in class teaching knowledge and skill
●● Difficult
to adapt structure ●● Anticipates motivation and ●● Anticipates language,
of subject matter to varied responsible autonomy from reasoning and social
pupil needs children capability from children

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44 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

So far in this chapter we have considered three major theoretical influences on learning
and teaching processes in schools. We now move on to focus more specifically on children
and young people as learners, and on factors which influence individual differences in
learning.

2 Nature, nurture and agency

The next two sections provide an interconnected introduction to some of the factors which
influence learning. Debate about the relative importance of ‘nature’ (biological factors)
and nurture (environmental factors) has continued for centuries. The first section leads on
nature, but shows how nurture also permeates. The second leads on nurture, but suggests
that nature is similarly always present as an influence. So, to be clear, the interaction of
nature and nurture is part of a cumulative, developmental process. As teachers, we need
to understand them both.
These sections also consider ‘agency’. This refers to the capacity of humans to act
on the basis of their understanding. Although we are very signicantly influenced by our
biology and circumstances, we are not determined by them. Indeed, in all circumstances,
actions always make a difference of some sort. It is the responsibility of teachers to under-
stand learners and then to ensure that they are supported and challenged to fulfil their
potential and exercise their agency. This is the power of positive expectations, constructive
thinking and professional commitment.

2.1 Personal development, health and wellbeing

Children’s health and their physical and social development are crucial to their wellbeing
and capacity to learn (Hugdahl, 1995; Cowie, 2012). The pioneering work of Tanner at
the London Institute for Child Health (see Tanner, 1978) was influential in demonstrating
patterns of normal development in children and it was on the basis of such work that
mass-screening procedures were introduced into the United Kingdom. There is much
more awareness now of diversity, but measures such as height and weight are still used as
indicators of child health, for instance, through the birth to five ‘Healthy Child Programme’
in England, thus enabling problems to be identified and help offered if necessary. School
nurses provide services for pupils at any age, including advice to young people during
adolescence.
Health has always been strongly associated with social conditions (Rutter and Madge,
1976; Wilkinson and Pickett, 2009) and a general rise in average standards of living since
the 1970s reduced the prominence of the issue for a time. However, more recently, UK
poverty levels have steadily worsened and the circumstances of children in such families
have been badly affected (see the index of poverty and social exclusion provided annually
by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation; Ball, 2003, Reading 5.3; Department for Children,
Schools and Families (DCSF), 2009, Reading 5.4). There have also been concerns about

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 Chapter 2 Learning 45

the mental health of children and young people – particularly in relation to anxiety caused
by the frequency of assessment at school (Mental Health Foundation, 2005). Health across
the UK as a whole remains an issue of considerable concern.
Young people develop physically at very different rates and such differences can affect
both children’s capacity for new learning and their self-confidence. Differential rates of
development should therefore be carefully considered by teachers, particularly if National
Curriculum and assessment procedures make little explicit allowance for such variations
(Maude, 2001). In this context, there is concern that young children may sometimes be
required to do things, such as controlling a pencil, before they are sufficiently physically
developed. Similarly, adolescence sees variable spurts of hormonal and physical change,
with significant implications for emotional and other forms of development. At all ages,
levels of attainment may reflect present development rather than long-term learning
capabilities, and this is a vital distinction.
Modern family lifestyles have also produced concerns about child health – arising
particularly from the diet and lack of physical exercise of many children (National Audit
Commission, 2001; Sustain, 2004). The general view, articulated for instance by Jamie
Oliver, is that children consume too much fat, sugar and salt and that the exercise which
they get is not sufficiently frequent or sustained to ensure healthy development of muscles
and heart. Several cross-governmental schemes have existed to tackle the problem:
Healthy Schools Programme, Food in Schools Programme, School Fruit and Vegetable
Schemes, Physical Education, School Sport and Club Links are a few. Environmental
issues such as toxicity in cities and the rapid development of child allergies are obviously
additional concerns. More culturally related health problems of great seriousness include
those associated with tobacco, alcohol, drugs and other abusing substances.
What, too, do children and young people think of their own health and health care at
home and school? Mayall (1994) researched this question in London and found that they
were both aware of many important health issues and capable of taking more responsibility
than they were normally offered by adults. Those bodies had minds of their own, and
wanted to be consulted!

Reflective activity 2.2

Aim: To evaluate the exercises taken by pupils in your class/es.
Evidence and reflection: We suggest that a simple daily record sheet is developed such
as the one below. The task for an appropriate group of students could be to record
their physical activity:
If you had any exercise at these times, please write in what you did.
●● after getting up
●● getting to school
●● first lesson
●● playtime
●● second lesson
●● dinner time

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46 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

●● third lesson
●● getting home
●● in the evening.
This could be completed retrospectively for one week.
Extension: Analyse your results. You will probably be able to see patterns in the type,
amount and timing of activities. Perhaps there will be differences between boys and
girls, or between children with gardens at home and those without. Do you judge
that the amount of exercise is sufficient for healthy physical growth at the age of
your sample of pupils?

2.2 Body and brain, mind and behaviour

The work of biologists and neurologists has attracted much attention in recent years and
new knowledge is beginning to affect our understanding of human development and its
implications for teaching (Dowling, 1999; Goswami, 2008; The Royal Society, 2011a,
b, Reading 2.5). On the one hand, we have the extraordinary mapping of human DNA
and some 30,000 genes from which each of our species is formed. Scientists now race
to document the proteins within the body, which are arguably even more significant (see
Morange, 2001). On the other hand, the implicit biological determinism of the concept of
the ‘selfish gene’ (Dawkins, 1978) has developed into more wide-ranging socio-biological
analyses which demonstrate the interaction of genes and culture (for an influential text, see
Wilson and Lumsden, 1981). From the educational point of view, we must therefore accept
the contribution of genetic variation whilst also affirming our responsibility with parents
and others for helping each child to fulfil his or her potential in the context of specific
social, cultural and economic opportunities. However, before exploring this further, we
need to understand a little more about the brain itself.
The brain has three key biological elements:
●● the reptilian system: a deep, core element that monitors basic survival needs, such
as hunger, thirst, temperature, light, threat and risk;
●● the limbic system: associated with emotions and long-term memory;
●● the neocortex: located at the top of the brain, associated with more advanced
mental functions and split into two hemispheres.
Learning is not effective if core survival needs are not met and, whilst this is particularly
true for babies, it is a factor at any age – thus, for instance, justifying the provision of
school breakfasts for young children in some communities and the establishment of stable
and emotionally secure classroom climates.
Within the neocortex, parts of the left hemisphere have been found to be particularly
significant for analytic capacities such as language, logic, pattern recognition and reflective
thought; whilst much of the right hemisphere is associated with more intuitive and repre-
sentational capabilities such as visualisation, imagination, rhyme, rhythm and expression.

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 Chapter 2 Learning 47

There is a danger, however, in oversimplification of what is actually a complex, interacting

cognitive system (Hellige, 1993).
Trillions of networks of neural cells are interconnected within the brain by ‘synapses’,
and it is the number and complexity of these that affect the brain’s capacity. There are two
ways in which synapses are added to the brain – in part determined by biology, and in
part by each child’s experiences. First, in the early stages of development, the brain over-
produces synapses but then selectively prunes out those which are not used. As Bransford
et al. put it (1999, p. 104, see also Reading 4.1):

the nervous system sets up a large number of connections. Experience then plays on
these networks, selecting appropriate connections and removing inappropriate ones.
What remains is a refined form that constitutes the sensory and cognitive bases for later
phases of development.

The second way in which synapses are added is actually driven by experience, when
additions occur as a biological consolidation of new learning. This process of adaption and
development is known as ‘plasticity’, and operates throughout life. Such processes have
enormous implications for teaching.
There is no doubt at all then, that children’s mental capacities (or our own) are the
product of the interaction of biological and environmental factors. In this context, it
is helpful to distinguish between ‘brain’ (as a biological organ), ‘mind’ (the personal
meanings which become embodied within a brain) and ‘behaviour’ (actions taken on
the basis of thoughts and feelings). Of course, the mind strongly reflects the influence of
culture. As leading neuroscientist Colin Blakemore (2000) wrote:

if our behaviour were determined by our genes, we should be stuck in the world of the
very first of our species who appeared some 100,000 years ago. But the extraordinary
capacity of the brain to modify itself on the basis of its own experiences has fuelled a
different form of evolution, the evolution of mind and culture.

So how do we help children to enhance their learning capacity? One answer to this has
been provided by those promoting forms of ‘brain-based learning’, ‘brain gym’, ‘brain-
compatible classrooms’, etc. Such initiatives aim to enable teachers to consider the
implications of recent research so that it can be drawn into classroom practice. However,
considerable caution is necessary because, as TLRP demonstrated (see the Research
Briefing on p. 48) much scientific knowledge on the brain is not yet sufficiently robust to
underpin the conclusions that are sometimes drawn for practice. There are rather too many
neuro-myths in circulation at present and ‘brain-based’ schemes should be approached
with great caution. The Royal Society has published summaries of existing knowledge
with explicit warnings on these matters (2011a, b Reading 2.5). As they put it: ‘much of
neuroscience is still “upstream” of application’ (2011b, p. 76).

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48 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Research
Briefing
Education and neuroscience

TLRP assembled leading practitioners, neuroscientists, psychologists and educationalists to review the impact of neuroscience on
education. There was agreement about its enormous potential significance. There was also agreement that many recent applications
were inappropriate and that some ‘neuro-myths’ in schools needed to be challenged.
Essentially, aspirations to apply ‘brain science’ too directly to ‘practice’ are misplaced. The model below represents the relationship
between brain, mind and behaviour, and indicates the wide range of mediating environmental and intra-individual factors.

Examples of environmental Examples of intra-individual Factor affected

factors factors

Oxygen Synaptogenesis
Nutrition Synaptic pruning BRAIN
Toxins Neuronal connections

Teaching Learning
Cultural institutions Memory MIND
Social factors Emotion

Performance
Temporary restrictions
Errors BEHAVIOUR
e.g. teaching tools
Improvement

A model of brain, mind and behaviour (from Morton and Frith, 1995)

Key findings: Implications:

Nature/nurture: Biology is not destiny. Biology provides no Teaching should aim to enable children’s potential and to enrich
simple limit to our learning, not least because our learning can their experience.
influence our biology.

Neuro-myths: Education has invested an immense amount in Professional judgement should be applied in respect of
‘brain-based’ ideas that are not underpinned by recognisable commercial ‘brain-based’ programmes
scientific understanding of the brain. Many of these ideas remain
untested and others are being revealed as ineffective, such as:
The belief that learning can be improved by presenting
material to suit an individual’s preferred ‘learning style’ is not Focusing on learning styles too narrowly could actually inhibit
supported by high quality evidence (Coffield et al., 2004). learner development more broadly.
Encouraging teachers to determine whether a child is left
or right brained is misplaced. Performance at most everyday Right brain/left brain beliefs, particularly if linked to gendered
tasks, including learning activities, requires both hemispheres assumptions, categorises children inappropriately.
to work together in a sophisticated parallel fashion.

Neuroscience: Some particular insights from neuroscientists and There are grounds for ‘cautious optimism’.
psychologists have broad implications for teaching and learning
strategies which merit further exploration. For example:
When we learn new information, the semantic links that form The construction of meaning is a key to understanding and
between this new information and our existing knowledge remembering information.
serve to make it meaningful. An area of the left hemisphere is
a vital structure in this. (Fletcher et al., 2003).
Mental visualisation of an object engages most of the brain ‘Visualisation’ has considerable power and usefulness as a
circuitry which is activated by actually seeing it (Kosslyn, 2005). learning tool.

Cautious optimism: We are still at an early stage in our There is a growing need for research collaborations between
understanding of the brain. There are methodological limitations neuroscience, psychology and education that embrace insights
and the transfer of concepts between neuroscience and and understanding from each perspective.
education requires caution. Nevertheless, the potential is great
and there are grounds for optimism that interdisciplinary work
will produce important, secure knowledge in years to come.

Further information:
Howard-Jones, P. (ed.) (2007) Neuroscience and Education: Issues and Opportunities. A TLRP Commentary. London: TLRP. Available at www.tlrp.org/pub
Blakemore, S. J. and Frith, U. (2006) The Learning Brain: Issues for Education. Oxford: Blackwell.
Coffield, F., Mosley, D., Hall, E. and Ecclestone, K. (2004) Learning Styles and Pedagogy: A Systematic and Critical Review. London: ISRC.
The TLRP seminar series was coordinated by Paul Howard-Jones from the University of Bristol.

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 Chapter 2 Learning 49

2.3 ‘Intelligence’, attribution and expectations

Teachers meet the specific needs of children by knowing them well. In particular, teachers
must build on, and extend, the prior cognitive ability, knowledge and skills of pupils.
Indeed, perhaps unexpectedly, Hattie’s (2009, Reading 4.6) meta-analysis of factors
associated with different levels of achievement revealed a very high effect-size for prior
abilities. It is thus right and proper that concepts to describe the attributes of pupils should
exist. However, such concepts should be accurate, discriminating and capable of impartial
application. Notions of ‘intelligence’ have a long history but, given what we now know
about the capacity of people to develop themselves, there are also dangers of stereotyping
and inappropriate generalisation.
Although the validity and measurement of the concept of intelligence has been in dispute
among psychologists for many years, the idea was once taken for granted and has passed
into our culture to denote a generalised form of ability. It is part of our language and it
influences our ways of thinking about people. For instance, parents often talk about their
children in terms of ‘brightness’ or ‘cleverness’, and teachers routinely describe pupils
and classroom groupings in terms of ‘ability’. The concept of intelligence is important
too because it is often used in the rhetoric of politicians and the media when they commu-
nicate with the public. It is thus routinely assumed that there is both a generalised trait
of intelligence and that it is possible to measure it objectively and use it to predict future
achievement.
Of course, such beliefs underpinned the UK use in the 1950s and 1960s of intelligence
tests, at 11-plus, to select students for secondary education. Belief in the context-free
objectivity of such testing was severely undercut by studies at the time such as those
by Simon (1953) and Squibb (1973). Indeed, research in areas where 11-plus was still
used, such as in Northern Ireland, showed the lack of objectivity of the measurement. To read more about
For instance, Egan and Bunting (1991) recorded gains of 30 to 40 per cent for a coached this, including the work
of Howard Gardner on
group of 11-year-olds compared with an uncoached group. The results showed clearly ‘multiple intelligence’ and
that children can be taught to do intelligence tests and that it is not possible to identify or Goleman on ‘emotional
measure some context-free generalised ability with any confidence. intelligence’, see
reflectiveteaching.co.uk
The debate about the notion of intelligence also continues. Psychologists such as
Kline (1991) argue, on the basis of statistical factor analysis,
that general ability remains a valid concept to describe an
amalgam of inherited attributes. On the other hand, Howe
Expert questions
(1990) used experimental and biographical evidence from Validity: in terms of learning, do the forms
different cultures to argue that there are many types of of assessment used really measure what
they are intended to measure?
ability and that generalised measures, such as IQ scores, are
misleading. Dependability: are assessment processes
The concept of intelligence risks giving the impression understood and accepted as being robust
and reliable?
that capacities are fixed (see Figure 2.6 for some ‘labels’
denoting abilities which are in everyday use). However, as These questions contribute to a conceptual
we have seen, neuroscientists suggest that the brain is ‘plastic’ framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).
and can be moulded and developed by new experiences and

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Figure 2.6
Everyday language
embodying
labelling

opportunities. Indeed, many stories of ‘the teacher who changed my life’ concern profes-
sionals who believed in a child’s capability, and helped them to succeed in a new field of
learning.
Ability-based labelling can certainly restrict learner progress. For this reason Hart
et al. (2004, see Reading 1.4) investigated alternative practices based on the pedagogies of

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 Chapter 2 Learning 51

nine teachers who challenged apparent differences in pupil ability. Instead they demon-
strated that there is always potential for change as a result of what teachers and learners
do in the present – ‘transformability’. A second phase of research (Swann et al., 2012)
explored what becomes possible when a whole school’s staff act together to create a
learning environment free from ability labelling. The research described how a school
community became committed to transformability, and how the children became more
powerful learners. Together, the staff worked to shape curriculum and pedagogy, and to
build inclusion and social justice through their unshakeable commitment to the educability
of every child.
Research by Dweck over many years (e.g. 1986, 1999, Reading 2.6) demonstrates why
such challenges to fixed-ability thinking are so important. Dweck studied, in particular,
how children think about, explain and ‘attribute’ their own capability. Those who adopt
an ‘entity theory’ of intelligence tend to believe that their personal capability is fixed, and
that they either ‘can’ or ‘cannot’ succeed at the new challenges that they meet in school.
For this reason, they tend to adopt a form of ‘learned helplessness’ and dependency to
accomplish school and this disposition tends to roll forward into adult life. However,
those who adopt an ‘incremental theory’ of their capability believe that they are able

Figure 2.7 Sally

and Andrew
illustrate ‘mastery’
and ‘helplessness’
in learning

Sally communicates confidence, an understanding of progression and the need to practise to improve.
Her pictures suggest that she has an ‘incremental’ view of her learning. Sally is on the way to becoming
a ‘lifelong learner’ and a sound teaching goal would be to support her in finding new challenges.

Andrew’s drawings seem to represent bewilderment, annoyance and anxiety, particularly about
maths – and a retreat to sleep! Other pictures indicate how friends and the playground offer release.
He appears to have an ‘entity’ model of his capacity in maths. It would be wonderful to be able to
gradually help Andrew to develop a more positive view of himself as a learner of maths – but don’t
forget that he might be a splendid learner in other domains, including those out of school.

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to learn and improve. They are thus likely to be more highly motivated, have greater
engagement and take risks, exhibit ‘resilience’ (Claxton, 1999, Reading 2.9) and act
independently. They exhibit ‘mastery’ rather than ‘helplessness’. For instance, Figure 2.7
shows the drawings of two children who were asked to ‘draw pictures of how they felt
about school learning’.
Differences between young people certainly exist and prior opportunities and experi-
ences also vary widely. The key question for teachers is how to account for such
differences. Indeed, teacher expectations have been demonstrated to be very significantly
related to pupil outcomes (Gipps and MacGilchrist, 1999, Reading 6.5).
●● If teachers account for differences between learners by believing in unalterable
variation in ‘ability’ (in other words, that some children simply are more clever
than others – and that is that), then they may place limits on learning, albeit
unintentionally.
●● If they believe that each person’s capacity to learn can be continually developed
and shaped by working together, then a whole new, exciting and unpredictable
world of opportunity is made possible as the teacher commits to supporting future
learning.
The beliefs and values about learners and learning
Expert question that teachers bring to learning encounters thus have
Expectation: does our school support high profound effects, for better or for worse, on all children’s
staff and student expectations and aspire opportunities to learn in school. Put crudely, are some
for excellence? pupils ‘written off’, or do we really try to do our job as
This question contributes to a conceptual professional educators?
framework underpinning professional There is thus an articulation of great consequence
expertise (see Chapter 16). between teacher expectations and pupil beliefs.

In summary, it is worth remembering some simple points about ‘intelligence’ and

learning:
●● the use of generalised terms such as intelligence, ability, etc. is imprecise, insecure
and unreliable – but, unfortunately, is often used in everyday interactions;
●● there are many differences between children and young people, and one challenge
for teachers is to identify, develop and celebrate such diverse attributes;
●● whatever a learner’s present capabilities, a teacher can influence the quality
of pupil learning experiences and can thus influence future disposition and
achievements.

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 Chapter 2 Learning 53

Reflective activity 2.3

Aim: To monitor the use and abuse of concepts of ‘intelligence’.
Evidence and reflection: A simple method is proposed based on noticing, recording
and studying any use of language which denotes generalised ability.
This could be done in a school, in discussion with governors, teachers, parents, non-
teaching staff or students, from printed articles in newspapers and the educational
press, from school or government documents, from the speeches of politicians. It will
require active listening – becoming attuned to things which are said which are relevant
– and the period of awareness may need to extend over a week or so.
Whatever sources are chosen, the statements and the context in which these occur
should be recorded in notes as accurately as possible.
When you have a collection of statements, study them.
Think about them in their context. For instance: Do they recognise the richness and
diversity of pupil’s present capabilities? What particular expectations about future
attainment are implied?
Extension: Try to monitor your own use of language. Be explicitly aware of the words
and concepts which you use. Distinguish between abilities and attainments. Try to
satisfy the criteria of accuracy, discrimination and impartiality in your thinking about
children’s capacities and potential.

As we have seen, whilst the influence of ‘nature’ is real, and intrinsic differences in
capabilities do exist, these are profoundly mitigated by cultural factors and teacher/pupil
actions. These impact on pupils’ interpretation of performance and on their views of
themselves as learners – and they thus merit our specific attention.

3 Nurture, nature and agency

In this section, we lead on the social and cultural factors which contribute to ‘nurture’ and
the learning environment. At the same time though, we remain aware of biological factors
and draw particular attention to the opportunities for teachers and pupils to take action to
enhance learning.

3.1 Culture, language and disposition

Of course, it has always been thought that home background, peer relationships, the
cultures of different schools and, increasingly, the media influence how children learn.
However, the development of social constructivist and sociocultural psychology has led to
a much greater understanding of the processes which are at work (Wells, 1999, Reading 2.4;
Bruner, 1990; Mercer, 1995, 1992; see also Section 1.3 of this chapter.)

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We can identify three particularly significant cultural influences on learning:

Cultural resources and experiences. Learning is a process of ‘making sense’ and
whatever is taken as being meaningful (‘makes sense’) will be strongly influenced by the
culture, knowledge, values and ideas of social groups which the learner has previously
experienced. Such cultures provide an initial framework of understanding. Thus, each
child’s early learning will tend to elaborate and extend the knowledge which is embedded
in their experienced culture. Sometimes this is talked about as ‘situated learning’ (Lave
and Wenger, 1991).
The mediation of language. Language is the medium of thinking and learning and is
created, transmitted and sustained through interaction with other people within the
cultures of different social settings. These settings influence the range of ‘languages’ we
use – the register, styles, dialects, etc. Language also embodies the ‘cultural tools’ through
which new experiences are ‘mediated’ and interpreted as learners become inducted into
the knowledge of their communities (Wertsch 1985, 1991). Sometimes this is known as
‘cognitive apprenticeship’ (Rogoff, 1990). See also Chapter 13.
Learning disposition. The term ‘learning disposition’ summarises the ways in which
learners engage with any opportunity to learn. As defined by Carr (2001, p. 10), they
are ‘participation repertoires from which a learner recognises, selects, edits, responds
to, resists, searches for and constructs learning opportunities’. When children start
school, patterns in how they approach learning will probably already be discernible, and
the role of the teacher is to encourage, and invite positive dispositions to form (Carr,
2008). In particular, opportunities (through tasks and activities) should be provided for
positive engagement to be practised and learning disposition strengthened. Features of
the classroom environment may invite or inhibit engagement, so the choices that teachers
make are significant.
The approach to learning adopted by each child is crucial to educational outcomes. Will
a learner be open or closed to experience and support, will they be confident or fearful,
willing to take risks or defensive? What is their self-belief, their ‘identity’ as a learner?
Can they overcome setbacks, and will they become a ‘lifelong learner’? The origins of
disposition and learner identity reflect the learning cultures which each child has experi-
enced (Pollard and Filer, 1996, see Reading 1.2), yet schools continue the process as the
first formal institution which is experienced in a sustained way.
The major sources of such cultural influence are
commonly seen as family and community, peers, the
Expert question school and the media. We will consider each in turn.
Connection: does the curriculum engage
with the cultural resources and funds- Family and community. Family background has been
of-knowledge of families and the recognised as being of crucial significance in educational
community? achievement for many years. This occurs not just in
This question contributes to a conceptual material ways, depending on the wealth and income of
framework underpinning professional families, nor simply because of ownership or otherwise of
expertise (see Chapter 16). overt forms of ‘cultural capital’ (Bourdieu and Passeron,
1977). The most significant issues for school learning

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 Chapter 2 Learning 55

concern what the culture of the family and community provides in terms of frameworks
of existing understanding, language for further development and the child’s disposition
regarding learning.
Peers at school. Peer group culture is important to children as a way of both enjoying
and adapting to school life (Davies, 1982). Some peer cultures favour school attainment
and are likely to reinforce teacher efforts to engender a positive approach to learning.
Other peer cultures derive meaning from alternative values, and young people who are
influenced by such cultures may approach school with minimal or even oppositional
expectations. Such children will still be constructing understanding, but it may not be the
type of understanding for which teachers would have aimed.
The school. Schools have their own unique cultures,
created by those who work there and those who are Expert question
associated with them. A school culture must be seen as Culture: does the school support
a learning context which is at least as important as the expansive learning by affirming learner
bricks and mortar, books and equipment which make up contributions, engaging partners and
the material environment of a school (see, for instance, providing attractive opportunities?
Nias, Southworth and Campbell, 1992). Again, we have This question contributes to a conceptual
to ask how this culture influences the framework for framework underpinning professional
understanding which is offered to students, the language expertise (see Chapter 16).
in which teaching and learning is transacted and the
stance which pupils adopt (Rudduck and McIntyre, 2007,
Reading 1.3). For instance, are children and young people encouraged to take risks in their
learning?
The media and new technologies. The influence of the media is very considerable and
has been extensively researched (Marsh, 2005; Buckingham, 2008, see also Kress, 2010,
Reading 8.6). Some people have been concerned about the effects of such experience. With
reading from paper in relative decline, children and young people watch many hours of
television each week and use screens and mobile technologies in toys as well as in phones
and tablets. Play and lifestyles are influenced by advertising and popular media, including
the internet and social networking. Such experiences can be extremely educational in new
ways. Key issues for learning include whether the stance adopted is passive or active,
and how new cultural experiences are interpreted and used. Engagement with new media
creates powerful opportunies for many, but there are access problems for others where
technologies and support are not available.
Clearly, the nature of these influences on each pupil will dramatically affect the way in
which he or she approaches learning at school. Reflective activity 2.4 focuses on this issue.

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56 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Reflective activity 2.4

Aim: To map the influence of culture on the learning disposition of a pupil.
Evidence and reflection: This activity is directly based on the text of Section 3.1. It
provides an opportunity to review the range of influences on a child and their
capacity as a learner. Drawing up a table, as illustrated below, is a helpful way of
organising thoughts.

Cultural resources The mediation of Learning

and experiences language disposition
The influence
of family and
community
The influence of
peers and friends at
school
The influence of the
school
The influence of the
media and of new
communication
technologies

Think of a child or young person whom you know well. Consider the way culture and
experiences influence the child’s understanding, the language he or she uses and the
learning disposition he or she adopts. Complete each cell of the table, as far as you
can, to map what you know about the sources of influence on that child.
If you have time it would be valuable to talk to the pupil and others – parents, peers
and teachers – to improve the quality of your evidence.
Extension: Repeat this exercise with different pupils, or compare the results of similar
activities by colleagues. What insights are produced by comparisons of children of
different sex, ethnicity, religion, social class, attainment? You can see some examples
of this sort of analysis in the final chapters of Pollard and Filer (1996, 1999).

In summary, children and young people are both reproduced by their culture, and produce
new forms of it. However, culture and language always mediate thought, interpretation and
learning. Thus success or failure through curriculum tasks and short-term performance is
given particular significance by the cultural interpretations that are made of it (Filer and
Pollard, 2000, Reading 14.7). In these ways, culture both structures learning attainment and
shapes the self-belief of the learner. What then, are the consequences for the personality,
identity and motivation of the child?

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3.2 Personality, motivation and identity

Psychologists’ understanding of personality has, according to Hampson (1988), derived
from three contributory strands of analysis. The first is the lay perspective – the under-
standings which are implicit in common-sense thinking of most of us about other people.
This is evident in literature and in everyday action. It is a means by which people are able
to anticipate the actions of others – ideas about the character and likely actions of others
are used for both the prediction and explanation of behaviour.
Such understandings have influenced the second strand of analysis – that of trait
theorists. Their work reflects a concerted attempt to identify personality dimensions
and to objectively measure the resulting cognitive and learning styles. Among the most
frequently identified dimensions of cognitive style are impulsivity/reflexivity (Kagan,
1964) and extroversion/introversion (Eysenck, 1969). Such early work has been synthe-
sised by Riding and Rayner (1998) into two orthogonal families – wholist/analytic and
verbal/imager. Other accounts identify more general learning styles such as the concrete/
abstract/sequential/random offered by Butler (1998) and the visual/auditory/tactile of
Sarasin (1999). However, whilst a learning style approach is important in recognising
patterns of individual difference, it is not straightforward to translate it into specific
classroom provision. Indeed, a systematic review of such research concluded that the
scientific basis of ‘learning styles’ is weak (Coffield et al., 2004, see also the Research
Briefing on neuroscience on p. 48). Further, this is another occasion where we need to be
wary of inappropriately limiting the expectations that we make of children. Perhaps, in
other circumstances, they would sometimes surprise us.
A third strand of personality analysis has become prominent in recent years, and
Hampson calls this the self-perspective. This approach sees the development of personality
in close association with that of self-image and identity. Crucially, it draws attention to the
capacity of humans to reflect on themselves, to take account of the views of others and
to develop. The social context in which children grow up, their culture, interaction and
experiences with significant people in their lives, is thus seen as being very important in
influencing their views of self and consequent patterns of action.
A key aspect of this concerns the meaning which learning has for a child. In one
sense, such motivation issues can be seen as being technical and related to specific tasks.
Certainly, when children fail to see any purpose or meaning in an activity it is unlikely
to be productive, however well intended and carefully planned. Sadly, as we saw in
Chapter 1, a very common perception of children regarding schools is that lessons are
‘boring’ and, for this reason, engendering enthusiasm often requires sensitivity, flexibility,
spontaneity and imagination from the teacher. The nature of this challenge is represented
in Figure 2.8, which plots the relationship between new learning challenges and existing
skills, knowledge and understanding. If too great a challenge is set for a child, then the
situation of risk may produce withdrawal. Conversely, if the challenge is too little, then
boredom and inappropriate behaviour may ensue. Targeting the effective learning in
which the child will be highly motivated requires considerable skill and knowledge of
both the subject matter and the child. Of course, motivation can stem from a wider range

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58 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Figure 2.8 Risk,

boredom and
motivation

Risk

New learning challenge

?
ea
ar
ive
ct
fe
t ef
os
m
The

Boredom

Existing skills and knowledge

of factors too, from ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ interest, to a fear of receiving negative
sanctions.
However, the most enduring form of motivation is connected to the evolving identity
of each person and to their ‘framework of meaningfulness’ (National Research Council,
1999). For example, Pollard and Filer (1999, Reading 1.2) tracked two cohorts of
English children from starting school at age 5 to GCSEs at age 16. They documented
‘strategic biographies’ or each child as they adapted to successive teachers and class-
rooms. In some settings, particular children felt affirmed as they developed new skills,
appropriated new knowledge and fulfilled their learning identities through the school
curriculum. Other settings were less conducive to such processes and the children felt
little personal connection to the curriculum. It became
something that was done to them, that they had to
Expert questions endure, rather than an activity through which they could
Personalisation: does the curriculum experience personal development and understanding.
resonate with the social and cultural
For us all, deep and enduring learning only occurs when
needs of diverse learners and provide
new knowledge has relevance and connects meaning-
appropriate elements of choice?
fully with the personal narratives through which we
Relevance: is the curriculum presented
make sense of life.
in ways which are meaningful to
Similar ideas have been endorsed by some UK govern-
learners and so that it can excite their
imagination?
ments after many years of singleminded pressure for
‘performance’. For example, ‘personalised learning’ has
These questions contribute to a conceptual
been suggested as a new concept for educational provision
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).
(Teaching and Learning Review Group, 2006, Reading
10.7).

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 Chapter 2 Learning 59

We also need to remember that learning can be emotionally challenging, and is

certainly not simply cognitive and rational. Frijda (2001) suggests that emotions are
subjective responses to events that are important to individuals. Positive or negative
emotions reflect the affirmation or threat to previous understandings and ‘meaning struc-
tures’ – or indeed, implications for a learner’s personal identity, self-esteem or social
status. Whilst it can be ‘embarrassing’ for a child to succeed, it is often humiliating to
fail. Learning can thus be stressful at several levels (Lazarus, 1991, 1999).
One way of overcoming this two-pronged challenge is to become more effective at
‘learning how to learn’, and it is to this powerful set of ideas that we now turn.

3.3 Metacognition and thinking skills

Humans have the unique capacity to reflect on their own thinking processes and to develop
new strategies. This capacity for self-awareness regarding one’s own mental powers is
called ‘metacognition’ (Flavell, 1970, 1979). It has received strong endorsement and
extension in recent years through the refinement of practical ways of developing ‘thinking
skills’ (e.g. Fisher, 2008, Reading 2.7; McGuinness, 1999; McGregor, 2007).
Metacognition is a particularly important capacity once children start to attend schools.
Prior to this, at home, learning is largely self-directed and thinking tends to be embedded
in immediate personal experience (Donaldson, 1978); at school, the agenda for learning
increasingly becomes directed by teachers. Thinking is challenged to become more
disciplined and deliberate; tasks are set, problems posed and instructions given; criteria
for success and failure become more overt. The result of all this is that a new degree of
self-control is required and, in order to achieve this self-control, new forms of reflective
self-awareness become essential.
Vygotsky (see Section 1.3) believed that learners, in working to understand and cross
their ‘zones of proximal development’, could be supported by their own disciplined and
reflective thinking. Tharp and Gallimore (1988, Reading 11.4) provide a particularly good
illustration of this, with their four-stage theory of ‘assisted performance’. The concept of
‘Building Learning Power’ (Claxton, 2002, 2004, 2011, Reading 2.9; Deakin Crick, 2006)
is a contemporary development of these ideas. Indeed, experience has shown that guidance
to children on how to review their learning needs to be direct.

There is a need to be explicit about what we mean by better forms of thinking. If

students are to become better thinkers – to learn meaningfully, to think flexibly and
to make reasoned judgements – then they must be taught explicitly how to do it.
(McGuinness, 1999, p. 3)

TLRP’s project on ‘learning how to learn’ (James et al., 2006, 2007, Reading 2.8) has been
extremely influential and takes an expansive approach to the issues. The project explored
the conditions in classrooms, schools and networks which enable pupils and teachers to
engage in new practices which are conducive to learning how to learn. These extend the
principle of using assessment and feedback to support learning, as we will see in Chapter
13.

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4 Taking stock of learning

4.1 Key factors in learning

This section offers a simple summary of the key factors that affect learning and motivation
(see Figure 2.9). The interaction of nature and nurture, and the potential for agency, is
readily apparent in the figure. Teachers, and pupils, can make a difference.
Figure 2.9 Factors
affecting learning LEARNER
engagement Things that are likely to Things that are likely to
(adapted from have a positive effect on make children’s learning
Bransford, 1999)
children’s learning more difficult
• Good health • Illness
• Good nutrition PHYSICAL AND • Hunger
• Adequate sleep CIRCUMSTANTIAL • Fatigue
• Appropriate clothing FACTORS • Inappropriate clothing
• Adequate housing • Poor housing

• Calculation that the • Calculation that it isn’t

effort is worthwhile worth the effort
• Self-belief in success • Perceived failure, shame
• Meaningful rewards • Lack of rewards
• Awareness of learning • Poor understanding of
PERSONAL
processes learning processes
FACTORS
• Sense of mastery • Sense of helplessness
• Encouragement from • Absence of attention or
significant others encouragement
• Rich experiences and • Limited experiences and
language language
• Active family support and
high expectations • Family resignation and
• Peer group support and low expectations
constructive competition • Peer group opposition
FORMS OF SOCIAL
• Social support system, and ridicule of learning
SUPPORT
extended family, role
models and relevant • Limited social support,
experiences negative role models and
many distractions

• Cognitively matched • Too easy or too difficult

• Emotionally satisfying • Emotionally disturbing
• Perceived as relevant and THE QUALITY OF • Perceived as irrelevant
personally meaningful TASKS AND and personally
• Engaging through active CHALLENGES meaningless
pedagogy • Disengagement through
• Interactive tasks and passive pedagogy
subject matter • Boring tasks or subject
matter

LEARNER ENGAGEMENT
Paying attention, concentrating, practising, reflecting, persevering:
building and extending a meaningful conceptual framework.

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 Chapter 2 Learning 61

Our understanding has moved a long way beyond simple theoretical models. We now
know that the most effective, deep, long-term learning is meaningful and conceptual. This
is hugely important for teaching, and Reflective activity 2.5 encourages you to apply these
insights to children in your class.

Reflective activity 2.5

Aim: To review and apply knowledge about factors affecting learning.
Evidence and reflection: Try to take stock of the issues that have been raised in this
chapter. Although they are complex, they directly affect individuals such as the
children in your class.
Consider a boy and a girl with contrasting motivation towards learning. Using the
structure provided by Figure 2.9, make notes on the factors which, in your opinion,
affect their engagement with learning. Record physical and circumstantial factors,
personal factors, forms of social support, and the quality of tasks and challenges which
they typically meet in school.
Does such a review help in understanding and making better provision for such
children?
Extension: To what extent have such factors affected your own engagement
as a learner through your educational career? Over time, could you use this
understanding to develop your personal learning effectiveness?

4.2 Metaphors of learning

Within our cultural history, theories about learning have come and gone. And alhough, as
we have seen, contemporary sciences are gradually accumulating more stable knowledge,
the field remains complex. It is helpful therefore to consider the resonance of two metaphors
which attempt to make sense of this cultural variability and scientific complexity.
We draw here on the work of Sfard (1998) whose paper was entitled: ‘On Two
Metaphors for Learning and the Dangers of Choosing Just One’. Sfard suggests that
metaphors provide a deceptively simple way of representing our tacit frameworks of
understanding. In particular, they reach between culturally embedded intuition and more
formal knowledge. As she put it: ‘they enable conceptual osmosis beween everyday and
scientific discourses’ (p. 4).

Learning as ‘acquisition’
‘Since the dawn of civilisation’, human learning has been ‘conceived as the acqui-
sition of something’ writes Sfard (p. 5) whether this be knowledge per se or conceptual
development. In either case, the image is of the ‘human mind as a container to be filled
with certain materials and of the learner becoming an owner of these materials’ (p. 5).
These entities may include knowledge, concepts, skills, facts, understanding, meaning,
attitudes, etc. They are to be acquired through remembering, internalisation, construction,

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appropriation, development, etc, and with the help of teachers who guide, support, deliver,
explain, mediate, test, etc. Once acquired, the capabilities can be applied, transferred,
shared with others, etc. We discuss all of these aspects extensively in this book, for the
metaphor is a fine representation of an established view of ‘education’. National education
systems rest on the foundation of this metaphor, and are designed in systematic ways to
provide the conditions, support and instruction which will maximise learner attainment at
each stage of development.

Learning as ‘participation’
This alternative metaphor is more recent but is rapidly growing in significance in the
contemporary world. The emphasis is on the learner as ‘a person interested in partici-
pation in certain kinds of activities’ (Sfard, 1998, p. 6). So this is learning through
activity; through direct, authentic engagement in an applied situation – learning
through practice as a participant. With the support of parents, family and friends, a
child might learn to ‘play games’, ‘go shopping’, identify with a football team – or to
become a bit more independent by ‘sleeping over’, etc, etc. Another obvious example
is the priority given in contemporary teacher education to direct, participatory school
experience. And there are many others. The metaphor thus affirms direct experience
with participants or practitioners in real situations. Instead of prioritising formal
knowledge, one becomes a participating member of a practice community (see Lave
and Wenger, 1991). The metaphor has particular resonance in respect of informal
and tacit learning (Thomas and Pattison, Reading 2.9) – including through use of new
technologies (Buckingham, 2005; Kress, 2010, Reading 8.6). Indeed, in addition to the
unbounded flow of information which is now available, social networking opens up a
vast range of opportunities for participation. The potential for learning in entirely new
participatory ways, building on global diversity, appears to be exponential. Figure 2.10
summarises these descriptions.

Figure 2.10 Two

metaphors for
Acquisition metaphor Participation metaphor
learning (edited Learning process Acquisition of something Becoming a participant
from Sfard, 1998)
Student role Recipient, constructor Participant, apprentice
Teacher role Provider, facilitator Expert practitioner
Form of knowledge Possession, commodity Activity, practice
Form of knowing Having, possessing Belonging, communicating

We may wish to debate the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two metaphors
for learning – and, when you look for it, such debate is a constant theme in popular culture.
However, a reflective teacher should carefully note Sfard’s argument that the metaphors
represent two very important ways through which learning occurs. Put another way, the
acquisition of capabilities through formal education is necessary but not sufficient, and
the same can be said for participation in communities of practice. Acquisition alone, risks

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 Chapter 2 Learning 63

bookish knowledge which can’t easily be applied. Participation alone, risks contextually
bounded thinking. For analytic power and personal effectiveness which can be applied in
and through practice, we need both forms of learning. As we see below, this is not always
easy to provide.

4.3 Applying learning beyond school

We move towards a conclusion in this chapter by drawing attention to a major problem of
school learning. In the ‘real world’ outside, it is hard to actually apply the knowledge that
has been learned in classrooms. This seems to be because of the very different frames of
reference that structure thinking in the different settings – and echoes of our discussion
about the metaphors of ‘acquisition’ and ‘participation’ will be readily apparent.
Routine activities at home, parks, shops or street are accomplished using a quite
different set of procedures and forms of knowledge than the procedurally constrained
requirements of school (for an indication of the potential, see Thomas and Pattison, 2007,
Reading 2.10). Whilst the former tend to be pragmatic and informal, the latter are very
carefully structured and formally assessed. The result, sadly, is that children often find it
hard to make connections between their learning in these two worlds. For instance, Hughes
et al. (2000) documented the gap between the abstract, formal knowledge of school
mathematics and the authentic contexts in which it might have been applied (but often
remained unused). Similar findings exist across the curriculum, from doing geography
tasks in school, to getting lost when travelling; and from doing well in spelling tests, to
being unable to write a real letter about something important.
Learning, in this sense, is about making connections between different forms of
knowledge and across the two metaphors (see also the Research Briefing on home–school
knowledge exchange in Chapter 4, p. 107). However, this is particularly difficult when
understanding and skills are being developed and have not yet been confidently appro-
priated into identity and self-belief.
From a teacher perspective, we need to acknowledge
that children probably know a lot more than we think they
Expert question
know. If only we could tap into the funds of knowledge
Connection: does the curriculum engage
that are sustained in the social practices of families,
with the cultural resources and funds-
communities and networks, then pupils’ learning might
of-knowledge of families and the
become much more authentic, flexible and sustained. community?
We thus have yet another topic on which a reflective
This question contributes to a conceptual
and aware teacher can be really effective – this time in
framework underpinning professional
encouraging children to think about what they know, how expertise (see Chapter 16).
they know it, how it fits into their lives and how they can
apply such knowledge in the future.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
64 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Conclusion
Learning is an immensely complex topic and this chapter has simply touched the surface
of some of the many issues which are involved. In one sense, perhaps the provisional
nature of our understanding is no bad thing, because, if we knew it all, then one of the
greatest sources of fascination and fulfilment in teaching would be diminished. The
vocation of teaching will certainly always include this element of intellectual challenge
as teachers seek to understand what children understand, and then to provide personalised
support.
In this chapter we reviewed three influential theories on children’s learning and related
these to school practices. We then considered how physical and biological factors in the
body and brain interact with the social and cultural factors of family, community and the
broader society elements of a long-established ‘nature–nurture’ debate. Whilst acknowl-
edging consequential differences between learners, we emphasised the agency of both
teachers and pupils and their power to act in the present. Commitment to the learning
capacity of all children is seen as a professional responsibility and a precondition for
enhancing children’s lives and system-wide improvement. Whatever pupil circumstances
may be, teachers have the precious opportunity to influence their learning and their lives
for the better.

Key readings
On psychological approaches to learning, Wood offers a splendid account, including
reference to behaviourism, constructivism and, in particular, social constructivism. He
discusses the implications for learning in school.
Wood, D. (1997) How Children Think and Learn: The Social Contexts of Cognitive
Development. London: Wiley-Blackwell. (see also Readings 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 on
Skinner, Piaget and Vygotsky)

Research and debate on the implications of the neurobiology of the brain is growing,
though caution is appropriate in such a new field of research. For an expert introduction,
see:
Goswami, U. (2008) Cognitive Development: The Learning Brain. Hove: Psychology
Press. (see also Reading 2.5)

Bruner’s work has extended for over 50 years now and has powerfully promoted a
‘cultural psychology’ focused on the creation of understanding. See, for example:
Bruner, J. (1990) Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
(Reading 11.1)

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 Chapter 2 Learning 65

Across the world, there are significant attempts to take stock and review everything that
is known about learning and schooling. Bransford, Brown and Cocking’s book is one
influential outcome.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. I. and Cocking, R. R. (eds) (2000) How People Learn:
Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
(Reading 4.1)

Whist ‘intelligence’ remains a powerful concept, the ways in which capability is

interpreted, towards ‘mastery’ or ‘helplessness’, is now receiving particular attention.
For an accessible account, see:
Dweck, C. S. (2006) Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballantine.
(Reading 2.6)

The idea of ‘Building Learning Power’ through developing resilience, resourcefulness,

reflectiveness and reciprocity is worth considering. See:
Claxton, G. (2002) Building Learning Power: Helping Young People Become Better
Learners. Bristol: The Learning Organization (TLO). (Reading 2.9)

Among many interesting books on the development of metacognitive and thinking

skills, see:
Fisher, R. (2008) Teaching Thinking: Philosophical Enquiry in the Classroom.
London: Continuum. (Reading 2.7)

For perhaps the most influential British study of recent years on learning in schools, see:
James, M., McCormick, R., Black, P., Carmichael, P., Drummond, M-J., Fox, A.,
MacBeath, J., Marshall, B., Pedder, D., Procter, R., Swaffield, S., Swann, J. and
Wiliam, D. (2007) Improving Learning How to Learn: Classrooms, Schools and
Networks. London: Routledge.
James, M., Black, P., Carmichael, P., Conner, C., Dudley, P., Fox, A., Frost, D.,
Honour, L., MacBeath, J., McCormick, R., Marshall, B., Pedder, D., Procter, R.,
Swaffield, S. and Wiliam, D. (2006) Learning How to Learn: Tools for Schools.
London: Routledge. (Reading 2.8)

An interesting book on the informal learning out of school is:

Thomas, A. and Pattison, H. (2007) How Children Learn at Home. London:
Continuum. (Reading 2.10)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists and activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Reflection
How can we develop
the quality of our
teaching?
3
Introduction (p. 68)

1 Dilemmas, reflection and effectiveness (p. 69)

1.1 Dilemmas and challenges in classroom life (p. 69)

1.2 Reflection and evidence-informed practice (p. 71)
1.3 Standards for effectiveness and career development (p. 74)

2 The meaning of reflective teaching (p. 75)

2.1 Aims and consequences (p. 76)

2.2 A cyclical process (p. 78)
2.3 Gathering and evaluating evidence (p. 80)
2.4 Attitudes towards teaching (p. 81)
2.5 Teacher judgement (p. 82)
2.6 Learning with colleagues (p. 84)
2.7 Reflective teaching as creative mediation (p. 87)

Conclusion (p. 87)

Supplementary chapters at reflectiveteaching.co.uk is:

• Mentoring Learning through mentoring in initial teacher education
• Enquiry Developing evidence-informed practice
68 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Introduction
This book is based on the belief that teaching is a complex and highly skilled activity
which, above all, requires classroom teachers to exercise judgement in deciding how to
act. High-quality teaching, and thus pupil learning, is dependent on the existence of such
professional expertise.
The process of reflective teaching supports the development, maintenance and extension
of professional expertise. We can conceptualise successive levels of expertise in teaching –
those that student teachers may attain at different stages in their courses; those of the new
teacher after their induction to full-time school life; and those of the experienced, expert
teacher. And as teaching is a dynamic and responsive process, it is a profession in which
development and learning are continuous.
The process of reflection thus feeds a career-long spiral of professional development
and capability (see Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 The

spiral of
professional States of The process
development professional of reflective
competence teaching

Reflective teaching should not only be personally fulfilling for teachers but should also
lead to a steady increase in the quality of the education provided for children – teaching
requires a sense of moral purpose. Indeed, we would argue that because it is evidence-
based, reflective practice supports initial training students, newly qualified teachers,
teaching assistants and experienced professionals in satisfying both external performance
requirements and the intrinsic commitments to education to which most teachers
subscribe.

TLRP principles

Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on reflective practice for the
improvement of teaching:
Effective teaching and learning fosters both individual and social processes
and outcomes. Learning is a social activity. Learners should be encouraged and
helped to work with others, to share ideas and to build knowledge together.
Consulting learners about their learning and giving them a voice is both an
expectation and a right. (Principle 7)

Effective teaching and learning depends on teacher learning. The need for
teachers to learn continuously in order to develop their knowledge and skills, and
adapt and develop their roles, especially through classroom inquiry, should be
See Chapter 4 recognised and supported. (Principle 9)

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 69

This chapter has three main parts. The first introduces some of the dilemmas and
challenges which teachers and teaching assistants face; these are linked briefly to the
idea of professional standards. In the second part, the meaning of reflective teaching
is explored; seven major characteristics of reflective teaching are then identified and
discussed. In exploring these characteristics, particular emphasis is placed on teaching as
an evidence-informed profession and on the ways in which teachers might support one
another’s reflective practice. In the final part, we draw some conclusions that might inform
the future actions of teachers and teaching assistants.

1 Dilemmas, reflection and effectiveness

1.1 Dilemmas and challenges in classroom life

The complicated nature of educational issues and the practical demands of classroom
teaching ensure that a teacher’s work is never finished. One need only review the foci of
the various chapters in this book to gain a sense of the breadth of professional concerns
that are within the purview of every teacher. Thus, when practicalities, performance
standards, personal ideals and wider educational concerns are considered together, the
job of reconciling the numerous requirements and possible conflicts may seem to be
overwhelming. As a primary teacher explained to us:

‘I love my work but it’s a constant struggle to keep it all going. If I focus on one thing
I have to neglect another. For instance, if I talk to a group or to a particular child then I
have to keep an eye on what the others are doing; if I hear someone read then I can’t be
in position to extend other children’s language when opportunities arise; if I put out clay
then I haven’t got room for painting; if I go to evening courses then I can’t prepare as
well for the next day; if I spend time with my family then I worry about my class but if I
rush around collecting materials or something then I feel guilty for neglecting the family.
It’s not easy … but I wouldn’t do anything else.’

And a secondary teacher’s concerns highlight the tension that appears between the
numerous facets of their professional and personal lives:

‘I have to say that I find teaching immensely rewarding, but it should be appreciated
that it’s all-encompassing. My work with my science classes across several year groups,
departmental responsibilities, form group pastoral care and role as assessment leader all
take considerable time, care and attention. I’m not sure that I know of any teacher who
feels that they’re doing a good job all round, but some say that’s the sign of a teacher
who cares don’t they? ... acknowledging that you can always do better. But don’t even
talk to me about ‘work-life balance’!’

These quotes illustrate that the ‘job’ of becoming a teacher involves, amongst other things,
learning a complex set of technical skills and understandings; positioning yourself within a

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70 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

larger community of practice; managing emotional dimensions of ‘personal development’;

and connecting, integrating and reconciling various sources of theory and experiences of
practice. For beginning teachers, it is first necessary to reconcile the realities of school
experience with prior personal beliefs about children, subjects, teaching and learning
(Luehmann, 2007).
Such dilemmas and tensions are frequently expressed. A classic analysis of the
dilemmas which teachers face was provided by Berlak and Berlak (1981). The framework
that they developed is simple but powerful. Its strength derives from the fact that, although
they studied only three schools in detail, they took great care to relate their analysis of the
dilemmas which arose in the ‘micro’ world of the classroom to the major factors, beliefs
and influences in society as a whole. Such factors, they argued, influence, structure and
constrain the actions of teachers, children and parents. However, they do not do so in ways
which are consistent, because of existing complexities and contradictions within school
and education systems – hence the dilemmas which have to be faced. The resolution of

Figure 3.2 Treating each child as a ‘whole person’ Treating each child as a ‘pupil’
Common
dilemmas faced by
teachers Organising the children on an individual or Organising pupils as a class
group basis
Giving pupils a degree of control over their Maintaining purposeful control over
time, their activities and their work standards children’s use of time, their activities and
their work standards
Seeking to motivate the children through Offering reasons and rewards so that students
intrinsic engagement and enjoyment of are extrinsically motivated to tackle tasks
activities
Providing a curriculum structure that enables Providing a curriculum structure that reflects
children to feel in control of their learning what the children need for them to understand
and take a place in society
Showing connections in teaching and learning Maintaining the integrity of subject content in
across subject boundaries teaching and learning
Aiming for quality in school work Aiming for quantity in school work
Focusing on the development of basic skills across Focusing on expressive and creative elements of
the curriculum subject and topic learning
Trying to build up cooperative and Developing self-reliance and self-confidence in
social skills individuals
Inducting the children into a Affirming the variety of cultures in a diverse,
‘common culture’ multi-ethnic society
Allocating teacher time, attention and resources Paying attention to the special needs of particular
equally among all the children children
Maintaining consistent rules and Being flexible and responsive to particular
understanding about behaviour and situations and individuals
schoolwork
Presenting oneself formally to the children Being more open with the children
Working with ‘professional levels’ of application Considering one’s personal needs as well as
and care for the children one’s professional responsibilities

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 71

such dilemmas calls for teachers to use professional judgement to assess the most appro-
priate course of action in any particular situation.
But what are the major dilemmas that have to be faced?
Figure 3.2 presents some of the dilemmas and challenges faced by teachers in primary
and secondary schools. There are also phase-specific dilemmas and challenges that are not
listed, and you may like to consider what is particularly important to you, or what you
would add?

Reflective activity 3.1

Aim: To review experienced dilemmas.
Evidence and reflection: Think about your own situation and classroom experiences.
Look carefully at Figure 3.2 and see whether any of the identified dilemmas provide
a realistic reflection of those you are experiencing. Are there other dilemmas that
relate to your specific context?
Having carried out this exercise, try to identify the three most pressing dilemmas that
you are facing. Think carefully about each of these and consider whether there are any
measures that you might take to help mitigate them (for example, discussions with
relevant colleagues about developing approaches to behaviour management; changing
classroom assessment practices in line with recent CPD events; researching the
classroom behaviour of individuals/groups in order to have the evidence for curriculum
developments, etc.)
The important point here is to start with one dilemma and consider what evidence you
need to be able to address it effectively, and where that evidence might come from.
Progress will often be slow and incremental, but such professional development has
powerful potential for change.
Extension: Note that this reflective activity may well lead to a more formalised piece of
classroom-based research; this is considered in Reflective activity 3.2 below.

This book provides a practical guide to ways of reflecting on such issues. Indeed, it offers
strategies and advice for developing the necessary classroom expertise to resolve them.
Resolution of such dilemmas will always be based on teacher judgement. However, in
contemporary education, performance data and other evidence are now routinely used to
augment (and sometimes challenge or refine) such judgements.

1.2 Reflection and evidence-informed practice

Three main sources of evidence are available to teachers.
School performance or benchmark evidence, generated from assessment, inspection or
intake data, is often made available to schools to support improvement strategies. Such
data may also be provided to parents to inform school choice. It is also now very significant
to school managers who must respond if trends appear, and for inspection teams and others
who make judgements about school and teacher effectiveness. There are now sophisticated

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 72 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

management information systems which enable, for instance, tracking of pupil progress
and school self-evaluation in preparation for inspection (See Chapter 14, Section 3.3, also
Readings 14.3 and 14.4). There are various systems for data collation, target setting and
national comparison – such as, in England, RAISEonline. In secondary education, most
exam boards also provide feedback systems. Measures of pupil outcomes may be used in
annual reviews of teacher performance – which will certainly personalise the challenge of
achieving appropriate validity and reliability. At the other end of the scale, international,
system-wide comparisons are also made with countries in Europe, the Americas and parts
of Asia and Australasia through surveys such as the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).
A second source of evidence comes from educational research and, in particular, from
research reviews and summaries which interpret such research. The research centre for
Evidence-Policy and Practice in Education (eppi.ioe.ac.uk) pioneered systematic reviews
of available evidence, whilst the Teaching and Learning Research Programme produced
User Summaries, Research Briefings and Practitioner Applications for its major school
findings (tlrp.org). The British Educational Research Association is the largest UK body
for specialist researchers in the field (bera.ac.uk). The National Foundation for Educational
Research (nfer.ac.uk) continues to provide a range of independent evidence to support
teaching and learning. However, establishment of a trustworthy UK aggregating service
to enable access to the range of valuable work has proved difficult in recent years. An
‘evidence centre’ and other collaborative initiatives have been debated and trialled and
the best contemporary resource in the ‘toolkit’ at educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk.
For a 2010 review and analysis of sources of research on education, see sfre.ac.uk. Further
guidance is provided in Chapter 16, and up-to-date advice and links are maintained on
refectiveteaching.co.uk.
The third source of evidence is, arguably, the most important for reflective practitioners
for it suggests that teachers themselves collect their own classroom and school evidence. It
suggests, in other words, that teachers take control of their own research and development.
This builds on the long tradition of action research which was established by Lawrence
Stenhouse (Reading 3.3). The General Teaching Councils in Northern Ireland, Scotland
and Wales and the Teaching Council of Ireland (see Reading 17.3) are particular advocates
of this sort of work (as was the GTC for England, until its closure in 2011). Indeed, the
GTC for Northern Ireland actively promotes ‘The Reflective Teacher’ and encourages the
professional community to ‘take ownership’. The GTC for Scotland has been supporting
Practical guidance on professional development since 1966. Following Donaldson (2010), there are new devel-
‘Enquiry' for classroom
opments for career-long professional review through a system of ‘professional update’.
research is available at
reflectiveteaching.co.uk The GTC for Wales has awarded significant funds to promote professional development
and teacher research, and is a significant voice for teachers. More widely, teacher unions
and organisations such as Educational International (ei-ie.org) support research activities
that inform teaching and learning in various countries across the globe.
The model at Figure 3.3 summarises the relationship between classroom practice and
enquiry. It suggests that a practical problem in the classroom can helpfully be considered
in terms of the issues which might underlie it. Some careful thinking might help! As we
saw above, this foregrounds an appreciation of classroom dilemmas – the challenge of

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 73

Problem Figure 3.3

Evidence-informed
Reflect practice

Issue Evaluate
evidence
Plan
Dilemmas

EVIDENCE
Analyse
evidence
Make
provision

Collect
Judgement evidence Act

deciding what to do when there are a number of competing possibilities. The essence of
professional expertise in teaching is being able to make high-quality practical judgements
(Heilbronn, 2010, Reading 3.6) to resolve such dilemmas. Figure 3.3 shows how evidence
from classroom enquiry and other research sources can enhance such judgements.
For example, pupils’ inappropriate classroom behaviour might result in an immediate
response from a teacher to assert control. However, later reflection might promote
consideration of a number of possible longer-term issues. Are teacher–pupil relation-
ships beginning to go awry for some reason? Do the children respect teacher authority
and accept his or her actions as fair? Is the curriculum engaging the students, or causing
them to become bored? Are the lessons well planned, offering focus, interest, progression
and successful learning experiences? Each of these topics, and others, could merit further
investigation through classroom enquiry.
Of course, the sources of evidence we have reviewed – using performance or benchmark
data, interpreting educational research and professional enquiry by teachers themselves
– actually complement each other. Reflective professionals should thus be able to draw
on, or contribute to, many sources of evidence, and use them to inform their teaching
practices. However, evidence in education must always be critically evaluated, as in other
fields of social science or professional practice, because absolute ‘truth’ is not available,
given the difficulties of research on people and teaching/learning processes. Further,
because education is imbued with values, it would also be inappropriate to entirely base
educational decisions on evidence. This is the reason why the term ‘evidence-informed’
is preferred over ‘evidence-based’. It shares an assertion of the importance of evidence
in decision-making, but does not make inappropriate claims for precedence. Judgement
remains essential for practitioners in classrooms and schools, just as it is necessary for
administrators and politicians in relation to policy.

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74 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

1.3 Standards for effectiveness and career

development
In recent years, competency criteria and ‘standards’ have been set by governments in
many countries to provide a framework for teacher training and further professional
development. The evolution of such standards can take a considerable time and is often
predicated on the political perspectives of particular governments. In most cases, such
standards provide a statutory framework for continuing professional development and
performance management, as well as for initial teacher education.
Broad standards and competences can be helpful in defining goals for students,
mentors, headteachers, tutors and others who are engaged in teacher education and profes-
sional development. They can:
●● set out clear expectations;
●● help teachers to plan and monitor development, training and performance;
●● maintain a focus on improving the achievement of pupils and educational quality;
●● provide a basis for the professional recognition of teacher expertise.
However, we need to be clear about the status of such models and criteria. Those required
where a centralised national curriculum and legally defined assessment procedures exist
may well differ from those which are called for where teachers and schools are more

Figure 3.4
Regulations for the
Regulations respecting the education of pupil teachers.
education of pupil Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education, 1846.
teachers, 1846 Qualifications of candidates:
To be at least 13 years of age.

To not be subject to any bodily infirmity likely to impair their usefulness.

To have a certificate of moral character.

To read with fluency, ease and expression.

To write in a neat hand with correct spelling and punctuation, a simple prose narrative read to them.

To write from dictation sums in the first four rules of arithmetic, simple and compound: to work them
correctly, and to know the table of weights and measures.

To point out the parts of speech in a simple sentence.

To have an elementary knowledge of geography.

To repeat the Catechism and to show that they understand its meaning and are acquainted with the
outline of Scripture history. (Where working in schools connected with the Church of England only.)

To teach a junior class to the satisfaction of the Inspector.

Girls should also be able to sew neatly and to knit.

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 75

engaged with a greater degree of partnership; for example, there is a substantial difference
in the character of the standards in the different countries of the UK, in different states in
North America and in various countries of the European Union. Those called for where
class sizes are large and resources scarce (as in many parts of the world) may vary from
those needed when much smaller classes or groups are taught with good access to suitable
equipment. Further, it is worth considering that the standards required at any particular
period in history are unlikely to remain constant. To illustrate this point, it is interesting
to consider the requirements made of apprenticed ‘pupil teachers’ in England almost 170
years ago (see Figure 3.4).
We have to remember then, that officially endorsed standards are historically and
contextually specific. Despite the moderating influence of available research, they are
likely to be strongly influenced by the cultures, values and the priorities of decision-
makers who happen to be in power at the time of their construction. During a 40-year
career, a teacher is likely to experience many such systems, and historical or comparative
reflection will help keep them in perspective. Indeed, Hay McBer’s influential report
on teacher effectiveness cautioned against over-conformity when they emphasised that
‘teachers are not clones’ and asserted that professionals always have to use their judgement
about circumstances, pupils, contexts and teaching approaches (2000, para 1.1.4). The
central point to be made here, then, is that whilst standards provide a framework for
teacher actions and responsibilities, they are not a substitute for the practical judgements
that are the central element of reflective and evidence-informed teaching (see Calderhead,
1994, Reading 3.5 for an elaboration of the complexities of teaching).

2 The meaning of reflective teaching

The concept of reflective teaching stems from Dewey (1933, Reading 3.1 who contrasted
‘routine action’ with ‘reflective action’). According to Dewey, routine action is guided by
factors such as tradition, habit and authority, and by institutional definitions and expecta-
tions. By implication it is relatively static and is thus unresponsive to changing priorities
and circumstances. Reflective action, on the other hand, involves a willingness to engage
in constant self-appraisal and development. Among other things, it implies flexibility,
rigorous analysis and social awareness.
Reflective action, in Dewey’s view, involves the ‘active, persistent and careful consid-
eration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that
support it’ (1933, p. 9). Teachers who are unreflective about their teaching tend to accept
the status quo in their schools and simply ‘concentrate on finding the most efficient means
to solve problems that have largely been defined for them’ by others (Zeichner and Liston,
1996, p. 9). Of course, routine action based on ongoing assumptions is necessary, but
Dewey argued that it is insufficient on its own. In Dewey’s view, reflection ‘enables us to
direct our actions with foresight’ (1933, p. 17).
Donald Schön (1983, Reading 3.2; 1987) extended these ideas in analysing the actions
of many different professional occupations – medicine, law, engineering, management,

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76 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

etc. Schön emphasised that most professionals face

Expert question unique situations that require the use of knowledge and
Reflection: is our classroom practice based experience to inform action. This is an active, experi-
on incremental, evidence-informed and mental and transactional process which Schön called
collaborative improvement strategies? ‘professional artistry’. It is the ‘kind of professional
This question contributes to a conceptual competence which practitioners display in unique,
framework underpinning professional uncertain and conflicted situations of practice’ (1987, p.
expertise (see Chapter 16). 22) – a form of ‘knowing-in-action’. Schön thus came to
distinguish between ‘reflection-on-action’, which looks
back to evaluate, and ‘reflection-in-action’, which enables
immediate action. Both contribute to the capabilities of a
reflective teacher.
Others, such as Solomon (1987), have made a powerful case for reflection as a social
practice, in which the articulation of ideas to others is central to the development of an open,
critical perspective. The support of colleagues and mentors is thus extremely helpful in
building understanding – ideas which have been extended further with the concepts such as
‘culture of collaboration’, ‘community of enquiry’ and ‘network learning’ (see Reading 3.7).
Such ideas about what it is to be a reflective professional, when developed and applied
to teaching, are both challenging and exciting. In this section, we review their implica-
tions by identifying and discussing seven key characteristics of reflective practice. These
are that it:
1 implies an active concern with aims and consequences, as well as means and
technical efficiency.
2 is applied in a cyclical or spiralling process, in which teachers monitor, evaluate
and revise their own practice continuously.
3 requires competence in methods of evidence-informed classroom enquiry, to
support the progressive development of higher standards of teaching.
4 requires attitudes of open-mindedness, responsibility and wholeheartedness.
5 is based on teacher judgement, informed by evidence and insights from other
research.
6 along with professional learning and personal fulfilment, they are enhanced
through collaboration and dialogue with colleagues.
7 enables teachers to creatively mediate externally developed frameworks for
teaching and learning.
Each of these characteristics will now be considered more fully.

2.1 Aims and consequences

Reflective teaching implies an active concern with aims and consequences as well as
means and technical competence

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 77

This issue relates first to the immediate aims and consequences of classroom practice
for these are any teacher’s prime responsibility. However, classroom work cannot be
isolated from the influence of the wider society and a reflective teacher must therefore
consider both spheres.
An example from the history of educational policy-making in England will illustrate
the way in which changes outside schools influence actions within them. Following the
initiation of a ‘Great Debate’ by Prime Minister Callaghan (1976) many of the ‘taken-
for-granteds’ in education were progressively challenged during the 1980s and 1990s.
Successive Conservative governments introduced far-reaching and cumulative changes in
all spheres of education. Many of these reforms were opposed by professional organisa-
tions (see for example, Haviland,1988; Arnot and Barton 1992) but with no noticeable
effect on political decision-making. Indeed, the allegation was made that educational
policy was being influenced by a closed system of beliefs – an ‘ideology’ deriving from
a small number of right-wing politicians and pressure groups. Meanwhile, teachers and
pupils worked to implement the new forms of curriculum, assessment, accountability,
management and control which had been introduced, despite the fact that the profession
at the time was largely opposed to the principles on which the reforms were based (see
Osborn et al., 2000; Pollard et al., 1994).
Such a stark example of the contestation of aims and values in education raises
questions concerning the relationship between professionals, parents and policymakers,
and mirrors current developments in many countries around the world. It is possible to
start from the seemingly uncontroversial argument that, in democratic societies, decisions
about the aims of education should be ‘democratically’ determined. However, it has also
been suggested (for instance, by Education International representing 400 education
organisations across the world) that teachers should adopt a role as active ‘interpreters’ of
political policy. Indeed, that most teachers accept this argument is shown by the ways in
which they have implemented legislation about which they had reservations. For example,
where prescribed national curricula are to be implemented, the ‘official’ rationale may not
match up to the day-to-day experience of classroom teachers. Reflective teachers are likely
to use their initiative to adapt the curriculum so that it is more suitable for the pupils in
their care (Ball, Maguire and Hoskins, 2011).
This stance accepts the authority of governments regarding educational goals, but asserts
the need for practical judgement regarding implementation. It is thus very different from
the idea of the wholly autonomous professional with which many teachers once identified.
Yet it can be argued that the existence of unconstrained autonomy is only reasonable and
practical if ends, aims and values are completely uncontroversial. However, as soon as
questions about educational aims and social values are seriously raised, then the position
changes. In a democratic society, the debate appropriately extends to the political domain
and this, of course, is what has happened in recent years in many countries.
This does not mean though, that teachers, even as interpreters of policy, should simply
‘stand by’ in the procedure. Indeed, there are two important roles that they can play. In the
case of the first, an appropriate metaphor for the teacher’s role is, as both White (1978)
and Sachs (2003) have suggested, that of ‘activist’. This recognises that school teachers
are individual members of society who, within normal political processes, have rights

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78 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

to pursue their values and beliefs as guided by their own individual moral and ethical
concerns. They should thus be as active as they wish to be in contributing to the formation
of public policy. Second, whilst accepting a responsibility for translating politically deter-
mined aims into practice, teachers should speak out, as they have done many times in
the past, if they view particular aims and policies as being professionally impracticable,
educationally unsound or morally questionable. In such circumstances the professional
experience, knowledge and judgements of teachers should be brought to bear on policy-
makers directly – whether or not the policymakers wish for or act on the advice which
is offered (for interesting developments of this argument, see Thompson, 1997). Indeed,
it is important that, within a modern democratic society, teachers should be entitled to
not only a hearing, but also some influence, on educational policy. Sectoral and subject
associations in the UK, such as the Association for the Study of Primary Education and
the Geographical Association, together with the General Teaching Councils of most parts
of the UK and teacher unions (whose influence may be particularly significant), provide
collective forms of organisation for such voices.
The reflective teacher should thus be aware of the political process and of its legitimate
oversight of public educational services. They should also be willing to contribute to it
both as a citizen and as a professional (see also Chapter 17 and Readings 17.2, 17.5 and 17.7).

2.2 A cyclical process

Reflective teaching is applied in a cyclical or spiralling process, in which teachers
monitor, evaluate and revise their own practice continuously
This characteristic refers to the process of reflective teaching and provides the dynamic
basis for teacher action. It is clearly evident in the thinking of Dewey, Schön and others,
though the specific conception of a classroom-based, reflexive process stems from the
teacher-based, action-research movement of which Lawrence Stenhouse was a key figure.
He argued (1975, Reading 3.3) that teachers should act as ‘researchers’ of their own practice
and should develop the curriculum through practical enquiry. Various alternative models
have since become available (Carr and Kemmis, 1986; Elliott, 1991; McNiff, 1988) and,
although there are some significant differences in these models, they all preserve a central
concern with self-monitoring and reflection (see also Pring, 2010, Reading 3.4).
Teachers are principally expected to plan, make provision and act. Reflective teachers
also need to monitor, observe and collect data on their own, and the children’s, intentions,
actions and feelings. This evidence then needs to be critically analysed and evaluated
so that it can be shared, judgements made and decisions taken. Finally, this may lead
the teacher to revise his or her classroom policies, plans and provision before beginning
the process again. It is a dynamic process which is intended to lead through successive
cycles, or through a spiralling process, towards higher quality standards of teaching. This
model is simple, comprehensive and certainly could be an extremely powerful influence
on practice. It is consistent with the notion of reflective teaching, as described by both
Dewey and Schön, and provides an essential clarification of the procedures for reflective
teaching.

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 79

Figure 3.5 represents the key stages of the reflective process.

Reflect Figure 3.5 The

process of
reflective teaching

Evaluate evidence Plan

Analyse evidence Make provision

Act
Collect evidence

Reflective activity 3.2

Aim: To explore how improvement can come from collecting evidence of our teaching.
Evidence and reflection: The key to this process is to create a focus and to consider
what evidence is required in order to make judgements about how to proceed.
For example, you may be considering the progress of a particular child in a specific
curriculum area, or analysing the effectiveness of a method for encouraging group
dialogue. Whatever your focus, the stages you’ll consider are:
1 Which facet of classroom life should be investigated and why?
For detailed support on
2 What evidence to collect, and how? these three processes
3 How can we analyse, interpret and apply the findings? of classroom enquiry,
This may seem rather formal, but these are all things you’ll be thinking about in any see the supplementary
chapter on Enquiry at
situation where you are evaluating your classroom.
reflectiveteaching.co.uk
To start with, pick a small issue or dilemma (see Section 1.1 and Reflective activity 3.1)
and see if you can construct a plan for evidence gathering, on which you can base
subsequent action.
Extension: Generally, teachers focus their first classroom-based research and
development activity on an individual child or group of children. Is there a whole-
class intervention that you would like to trial? How will the evidence base change
for such work?

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80 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

2.3 Gathering and evaluating evidence

Reflective teaching requires competence in methods of evidence-informed classroom
enquiry, to support the progressive development of higher standards of teaching
We can identify four key skills here: reviewing relevant, existing research; gathering
new evidence; analysis; and evaluation. Each of these contribute to the cyclical process of
reflection (see Section 2.2).
Reviewing relevant, existing research. The issue here is to learn as much as possible from
others. Published research on the issue of concern may be reviewed. Internet-based search
techniques make this an increasingly straightforward task as do other resources – including
the Key Readings which conclude all chapters of this book and its associated book of
linked Readings. Going into yet more depth, Notes for Further Reading, chapter-by-
chapter, are offered on reflectiveteaching.co.uk.
Gathering new evidence. This relates to the essential issue of knowing what is going on
in a classroom or school as a means of forming one’s own opinion. It is concerned with
collecting data, describing situations, processes, causes and effects with care and accuracy.
Two sorts of data are particularly relevant. ‘Objective’ data are important, such as
descriptions of what people actually do. Pupil performance data comes into this category
of course (Ofsted, 2008, Reading 14.4), but is only part of the picture. Additionally, it is
also vital to collect more subjective data which describe how people feel and think – their
perceptions. The collection of both types of data calls for considerable skill on the part
of any classroom investigator, particularly when they may be enquiring into their own
practice.
Analytical skills. These skills are needed to address the issue of how to interpret descriptive
data. Such ‘facts’ are not meaningful until they are placed in a framework that enables a
reflective teacher to relate them one with the other and to begin to theorise about them.
Evaluative skills. Evaluative skills are involved in making judgements about the educational
consequences of the results of the practical enquiry. Evaluation, in the light of aims, values
and the experience of others enables the results of an enquiry to be applied to future policy
and practice.
Increasingly the teaching community is engaged, at a classroom or school level, in
enquiries into teaching and learning, in order to inform subsequent practice and the
developmental priorities of a school. Many of such
enquiries exhibit characteristics of case study and action
Expert question research (Pring, 2010, Reading 3.4; Carr and Kemmis,
Warrant: are our teaching strategies 1986; Hamilton and Corbett-Whittier, 2013). The ‘case’
evidence-informed, convincing and is often a class, a year group or the school cohort
justifiable to stakeholders? in which spiral of action research develops. A range
This question contributes to a conceptual of data collection methods may be used, focusing on
framework underpinning professional pupil perspectives, direct observations, interpretations of
expertise (see Chapter 16). attainment data, etc.

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 81

Such work can both develop and legitimate school and classroom policies – and thus
provide sound answers to challenges where at teacher or school is required to justify their
practice. Further practical advice on
how to carry out classroom
However, such competence is not sufficient in itself for a teacher who wishes to engage
enquiries is offered in
in reflective teaching. Certain attitudes are also necessary and need to be integrated and supplementarymaterial on
applied with enquiry skills. reflectiveteaching.co.uk.
This includes guidance on
publicly available sources
of research evidence
2.4 Attitudes towards teaching and, being web-based, is
updated regularly.
Reflective teaching requires attitudes of open-mindedness, responsibility and whole-
heartedness
In this section we draw directly on the thinking of Dewey.
Open-mindedness. As Dewey put it, open-mindedness is:

An active desire to listen to more sides than one, to give heed to facts from whatever
source they come, to give full attention to alternative possibilities, to recognise the
possibility of error even in the beliefs which are dearest to us. (1933, p. 29)

Open-mindedness is an essential attribute for rigorous reflection because any sort of

enquiry that is consciously based on partial evidence, only weakens itself. We thus use
the concept in the sense of being willing to reflect upon ourselves and to challenge our
own assumptions, prejudices and ideologies, as well as those of others – no easy task.
However, to be open-minded regarding evidence and its interpretation is not the same
thing as declining to take up a value position on important social and educational issues.
This point brings us to the second attribute which Dewey saw as a prerequisite to reflective
action – ‘responsibility’.
Responsibility. Intellectual responsibility, according to Dewey, means:

To consider the consequences of a projected step; it means to be willing to adopt these

consequences when they follow reasonably … Intellectual responsibility secures integrity.
(1933, p. 30)

The position implied here is clearly related to the question of aims that we discussed in
2.1 above. However, in Dewey’s writing the issue is relatively clearly bounded and he
seems to be referring to classroom teaching and to school practices only. Tabachnick and
Zeichner (1991) take this considerably further. Moral, ethical and political issues will be
raised and must, they argue, be considered so that professional and personal judgements
can be made about what is worthwhile. It clearly follows that a simple instrumental
approach to teaching is not consistent with a reflective social awareness.
Wholeheartedness. ‘Wholeheartedness’, the third of Dewey’s necessary attitudes, refers
essentially to the way in which such consideration takes place. Dewey’s suggestion was
that reflective teachers should be dedicated, single-minded, energetic and enthusiastic. As
he put it:

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82 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

There is no greater enemy of effective thinking than divided interest. … A genuine

enthusiasm is an attitude that operates as an intellectual force. When a person is
absorbed, the subject carries him on. (1933, p. 30)

Together, these three attitudes are vital ingredients of the professional commitment that
needs to be demonstrated by all those who aim to be reflective teachers. Echoes with the
issues discussed in Chapter 1 will be readily apparent.
In modern circumstances, these attitudes of open-mindedness, wholeheartedness and
responsibility are often challenged, as a result of continual change from the political centre
in many countries. Halpin (2001) argues that maintaining ‘intelligent hope’ and imagining
future possibilities are essential for committed educationalists. Beyond simple optimism,
this requires ‘a way of thinking about the present and the future that is permeated by
critique, particularly of the kind that holds up to external scrutiny taken-for-granted current
circumstances’ (p. 117). Maintaining a constructive engagement, a willingness to imagine
new futures, and a self-critical spirit are thus all connected to reflective practice.

2.5 Teacher judgement

Reflective teaching is based on teacher judgement, informed by evidence and insights from
other research
Teachers’ knowledge has often been criticised. For instance, Bolster (1983) carried out
an analysis of teachers as classroom decision-makers and suggested that, since teacher
knowledge is specific and pragmatic, it is resistant to development. Bolster argued that
teacher knowledge is based on individual experiences and is simply believed to be of value
if it ‘works’ in practical situations. However, this gives little incentive to change, even in
the light of evidence supporting alternative ideas or practices. On this analysis there is little
need for teacher judgement, since teachers will stick to routinised practices.
For an alternative view we can again draw on Donald Schön’s work (Schön, 1983,
Reading 3.2) on the characteristics of ‘reflective practitioners’. Schön contrasted ‘scien-
tific’ professional work such as laboratory research, with ‘caring’ professional work
such as education. He called the former ‘high hard ground’ and saw it as supported by
quantitative and ‘objective’ evidence. On the other hand, the ‘swampy lowlands’ of the
caring professions involve more interpersonal areas and qualitative issues. These complex
‘lowlands’, according to Schön, tend to become ‘confusing messes’ of intuitive action. He
thus suggested that, although such ‘messes’ tend to be highly relevant in practical terms,
they are not easily amenable to rigorous analysis because they draw, as we have seen,
on a type of knowledge-in-action. It is spontaneous, intuitive, tacit and intangible but, it
‘works’ in practice.
Schön’s ideas have received powerful empirical support in recent years, with the
sophistication of teachers’ classroom thinking and ‘craft knowledge’ being increasingly
recognised and understood by both researchers (Calderhead, 1988b, Reading 3.5; Brown
and McIntyre, 1993; Warwick, Hennessy and Mercer, 2011) and some organisations with
an influence on policymakers (OECD, 2005; Barber and Mourshead, 2007). It is clear

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 83

that effective teachers make use of judgements all the time, as they adapt their teaching
to the ever-changing learning challenges which their circumstances and pupils present to
them. There has also been much greater recognition of the role of intuition in the work
of experienced teachers (Atkinson and Claxton, 2000; Tomlinson, 1999a and 1999b) and
decision-making. Of course, reflective teachers need to recognise potential bias in their
judgements as a result of their diverse experiences, and this again emphasises the need for
open-mindedness.
Educational researchers’ knowledge may be based on comparative, historical or
philosophical research, on empirical study with large samples of classrooms, teachers,
pupils or schools, on innovative methodologies, or on developing theoretical analyses.
Many researchers certainly regard it as their duty to probe, analyse and evaluate –
particularly with regard to the impact of policy – even though this is not always popular
with governments! Whatever its character, such educational research has the potential
to complement, contextualise and enhance the detailed and practical understandings of
practising teachers.
In recent years, considerable effort has been made to improve the relevance, significance
and impact of educational research, and to engage with practitioners and policymakers.
Indeed, the best work is of very high quality and is an important source of ideas and
evidence on teaching, learning, policy and practice.
Over 100 selections of such work are provided in Readings and further advice (with
regular updates) is offered through reflectiveteaching.co.uk.
Politicians’ knowledge of education has often been criticised. However, governments
have a democratic mandate and are appropriately concerned to ensure that educational
services meet national needs. Teachers would thus be unjustified if they ignored the
views of politicians, though independence, experience, judgement and expertise remain
the defining characteristics of professionalism. Indeed, where politicians’ views appear
to be influenced by fashionable whims, media panics or party considerations rather than
established educational needs, then a certain amount of ‘professional mediation’ may be
entirely justified (see Section 2.7).
Taken as a whole, we strongly advocate attempts to maximise the potential for collabo-
ration between teachers, researchers and politicians. For such collaboration to be successful
it must be based on a frank appreciation of each other’s strengths and weaknesses. While
recognising the danger of unjustified generalisation, we therefore identify these strengths
and weaknesses (see Figure 3.6).
We arrive then, at a position that calls for attempts to draw on the strengths of the
knowledge of teachers, researchers and politicians or policymakers. By doing this, we
may overcome the weaknesses which exist in each position. This is what we mean by the
statement that reflective teaching should be based on ‘informed teacher judgement’. The
implied collaborative endeavour underpins this whole book.

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84 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Figure 3.6
A comparison
Strengths Weaknesses
of teachers’, Teachers’ Often practically relevant and May be impressionistic and can
researchers’ knowledge directly useful lack rigour
and politicians’
knowledge Often communicated effectively Usually based in particular
to practitioners situations which limits
Often concerned with the generalisation
wholeness of classroom Analysis is sometimes
processes and experiences over-influenced by existing
assumptions
Researchers’ May be based on careful Often uses jargon unnecessarily
knowledge research with large samples and communicates poorly
and reliable methods Often seems obscure and difficult
Often provides a clear and to relate to practical issues
incisive analysis when Often fragments educational
studied processes and experiences
May offer novel views of
situations and issues
Politicians’ Often responsive to issues of Often over-influenced
knowledge public concern. by short-term political
May have a democratic considerations
mandate Often reflects party political
May be backed by institutional, positions rather than
financial and legal resources educational needs
Is often imposed and may thus
lack legitimacy

2.6 Learning with colleagues

Reflective teaching, professional learning and personal fulfilment are enhanced through
collaboration and dialogue with colleagues
The value of engaging in reflective activity is almost always enhanced if it can be
carried out in association with other colleagues, be they trainees, teaching assistants,
teachers, mentors or tutors. The circumstances in schools, with very high proportions of
contact-time with children, have constrained a great deal of such educational discussion
between teachers in the past – though this is gradually changing as whole-school or even
inter-school professional development assumes a greater priority. On teacher-education
courses, despite the pressure of curricular requirements, reflection together in seminars,
tutor groups and workshops, at college or in school, should bring valuable opportunities
to share and compare, support and advise in reciprocal ways. Indeed, school settings are
a particular example of the development of ‘communities of practice’, which Wenger
analysed (1999, see also Reading 3.7). This concept of workplace communities of practice
has also been powerfully developed beyond schools through the use of teacher networks.
Whether professional conversations occur between experienced teachers, as in lesson

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 85

study in the UK (see Chapter 10), or between novice and experienced teachers as in
school-based initial teacher education, consideration of professional ethics and structuring
will ensure that the participants derive the maximum benefit from activity. For example:
●● agreement about roles and relationships within such arrangements must be clear;
●● the central focus of discussions should be on the benefits for children’s learning
that derive from the joint reflection;
●● in cases where the focus is on developing the teaching of one person involved
in the discussion, clear parameters for any teaching observations and subsequent
conversations need to be agreed;
●● decisions on future targets should be agreed together before discussion concludes.
It is important, of course, that trust between teachers and others is really secure – for
without this, the sharing of ideas, concerns and challenges can seem threatening.
Interestingly, Kettle and Sellars (1996), when studying developing reflective practice with
trainee teachers, found that work with peers encouraged challenge to existing theories More practical advice on
and preconceived views of teaching whilst modelling a collaborative style of professional mentoring is offered on
reflectiveteaching.co.uk
development.
This sort of work can be extremely engaging. For instance, a group of teachers investi-
gated ‘talk in science’ in their school ... and the implications spread through the school. A
sense of excitement is palpable in the lead teacher’s report of the project:

‘After a year of classroom analysis we, as the research group, have a wealth of data and
we are now in a position to talk with enthusiasm and authority to other professionals
about what we have learned about establishing a classroom climate which values this
approach and encourages talk which is exploratory, responsive and relevant to individual
needs. We are also able to extend our knowledge and understanding to influence future
developments.’ (Flitton, 2010; see also Flitton and Warwick, 2012)

Wherever and whenever it occurs, collaborative, reflective discussion capitalises on the

social nature of learning (Vygotsky, 1978, Reading 2.3). This is as significant for adults as it is
for children and it works through many of the same basic processes. Aims are thus clarified,
experiences are shared, language and concepts for analysing practice are refined, the personal
insecurities of innovation are reduced, evaluation becomes reciprocal and commitments are
affirmed (see also Pring, 2010, Reading 3.4). Moreover, openness, activity and discussion
gradually weave the values and self of individuals into the culture and mission of the school
or course. This can be both personally fulfilling and educationally effective.
Given the enormous importance of coherence and progression in school provision,
collaborative work is also a necessity. Work on school leadership suggests the imperative
of senior management working actively and positively with staff to find institutional
solutions to teaching dilemmas and challenges. Yet more detailed work on the nature
of school cultures and the development of the ‘intelligent school’, whilst affirming the
enormous value of whole-school staff teams working and learning together, has also
shown the complexity and fragility of the process (MacGilchrist et al., 2004). Beyond
schools, the development of ‘networked learning communities’ and other forms of

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86 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

web-supported activity are very exciting, though are

Expert question not always sustained. Professional, subject and phase-
Culture: does the school support based associations, together with the existing UK General
expansive learning by affirming learner Teaching Councils, often provide important opportunities
contributions, engaging partners and for collaborative work.
providing attractive opportunities? Whatever their circumstances, reflective teachers are
This question contributes to a conceptual likely to benefit from working, experimenting, talking, and
framework underpinning professional reflecting with others (for a proven systematic approach,
expertise (see Chapter 16). see Reflective activity 3.3). Apart from the benefits for
learning and professional development, it is usually both
more interesting and more fun!

Reflective activity 3.3

Aim: To deepen collaboration with colleagues.
Evidence and reflection: One way of doing this is through implementing regular Lesson
Study lessons.
Lesson Study is a highly specified form of classroom action research focusing on the
development of teacher practice knowledge. Stemming from practice over many
decades in Japan, lesson study offers a well developed set of principles and procedures
for supporting the professional development of teachers, focusing on the collective
planning and analysis of ‘research lessons’. It has several components:
●● identifying themes and groups
●● formulating hypotheses and goals
●● joint research lesson planning
●● post research lesson discussion
●● passing on the knowledge gained.
Lesson Study involves groups of teachers collaboratively planning, teaching, observing
and analysing learning and teaching in specified lessons. Essentially, Lesson Study
provides a way of looking in detail at something teachers want to try out in a lesson
series – this can be a big thing (e.g. developing dialogic group work) or a smaller
thing (e.g. an approach to lesson introductions). There is a specific and agreed lesson
study focus and observations relate to the children’s experience of the intervention;
this is different from many ‘normal’ lesson observations (which usually have a range
of different foci and in which the focus of observation is usually the teacher). A Lesson
Study consists of a series of ‘research lessons’ that are jointly planned, taught/observed
and analysed by a Lesson Study group. A series is usually three lessons, though it can
be longer; a minimum of two is absolutely essential to ensure that the teacher learning
from the first lesson can be used in the second.
Extension: You may wish to develop this approach across your cluster of schools in
order to share innovations and developments more widely.
This approach to collaborative professional development is applied to
curriculum planning in Chapter 10, Section 5.2. See also Pete Dudley’s website:
http://lessonstudy.co.uk/

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 87

2.7 Reflective teaching as creative mediation

Reflective teaching enables teachers to creatively mediate external requirements
‘Creative mediation’ involves the interpretation of external requirements in the light
of a teacher’s knowledge of his or her pupils, values and educational principles. A study
of change in education (Osborn et al., 2000) identified four different kinds of ‘creative
mediation’ deployed by teachers to interpret such situations.
●● Protective mediation calls for strategies to defend existing practices which are
greatly valued (such as the desire to maintain an element of spontaneity in teaching
in the face of assessment pressure).
●● Innovative mediation is concerned with teachers finding strategies to work within
the spaces and boundaries provided by new requirements – finding opportunities to
be creative.
●● Collaborative mediation refers to teachers working closely together to provide
mutual support in satisfying and adapting new requirements.
●● Conspirational mediation involves schools adopting more subversive strategies
where teachers resist implementing those aspects of external requirements that
they believe to be particularly inappropriate.
Such forms of mediation exemplify major strategies in the exercise of professional
judgement (see also Chapter 17 and Readings 17.2, 17.3 and 17.5). Clearly they need to
be carefully justified – but the irony is that creative mediation is often the source of
essential forms of innovation for future development.
Indeed, innovative schools and teachers are often sought
Expert questions
out by charities, think-tanks, teacher associations and
Effectiveness: are there improvements in
even government agencies in the constant quest for
standards, in both basic skills and other
improvement in the quality of educational services.
areas of curricular attainment, to satisfy
All education systems need to be able to guarantee society’s educational goals?
consistency in entitlements to provide opportunities for
Empowerment: is our pedagogic repertoire
all – but they also require some capacity for innovation
successful in enhancing wellbeing,
and change. In applying principles and evidence through learning disposition, capabilities and
their practice, and making this public when appropriate, agency?
reflective teachers have a significant role in providing
These questions contribute to a conceptual
such leadership. framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).

Conclusion
In this chapter we have considered the spiral of professional development and the potential
to raise standards of teaching through evidence-informed judgement. We have outlined the
seven key characteristics of reflective teaching.

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88 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Some readers may well be wondering if this isn’t all just a bit much to ask. How is
the time to be found? Isn’t it all ‘common sense’ anyway? Two broad responses may be
made. First, it is certainly the case that constantly engaging in classroom enquiry and
reflective activities of the sort described in this book would be impossible. The point,
however, is to use them as learning experiences which are undertaken from time to time
in a ‘mindful’ and purposive way. Such experiences should lead to conclusions which can
be applied in more routine circumstances. This is how professional expertise is actively
developed. Second, there is certainly a good deal of ‘common sense’ in the process of
reflective teaching. However, when reflective teaching is used as a means of professional
development it is extended far beyond this underpinning. The whole activity is much more
rigorous – carefully gathered evidence replaces subjective impressions, open-mindedness
replaces prior expectations, insights from reading or constructive and structured critique
from colleagues challenge what might previously have been taken for granted. ‘Common
sense’ may well endorse the value of the basic, reflective idea but, ironically, one outcome
of reflection is often to produce critique and movement beyond the limitations of common-
sense thinking. That, in a sense, is the whole point, the reason why reflection is a necessary
part of professional activity. The aim of reflective practice is thus to support a shift from
routine actions rooted in common-sense thinking to reflective action stemming from
professional understanding and expertise.
In summary, evidence-informed reflection makes
an important contribution throughout professional life.
Expert question
Novice teachers, such as those in initial teacher education,
Reflection: Is our classroom practice based
may use it to improve on specific and immediate practical
on incremental, evidence-informed and
teaching skills. Competent teachers, such as those who
collaborative improvement strategies?
are newly qualified, may use reflection as a means of
self-consciously increasing understanding and capability,
thus moving towards a more complete level of professionalism. Expert teachers will
work at a higher level, understanding the various issues concerning children, curriculum,
classroom and school so well that many decisions become almost intuitive (see Chapter
16 and Eaude, 2012, Reading 16.3). Reflective activity thus can be seen as making a central
contribution throughout a professional career.

Key readings
The dilemmas in educational decision-making, which suggest that reflection is a
continually necessary element of teaching, are analysed in:
Berlak, A. and Berlak, H. (1981) Dilemmas of Schooling. London: Methuen.

On the potential gains from self-evaluation, classroom research and enquiry, see:
Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development.
London: Heinemann. (Reading 3.3)

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 Chapter 3 Reflection 89

A classic work by Dewey which has strongly influenced the development of reflective
practice is:
Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking
to the Educative Process. Chicago: Henry Regnery. (Reading 3.1)

For analyses on the nature of professional knowledge and its potential to enhance
learning, see:
Schön, D. A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action.
London: Temple Smith. (Reading 3.2)
Heilbronn, R. and Yandell, J. (2011) Critical Practice in Teacher Education: A Study
of Professional Learning. London: IOE Press. (Reading 3.6)
Timperley, H. (2011) Realising the Power of Professional Learning. Maidenhead:
Open University Press. (Reading 16.6)

For an overview of different forms of research in education, including the contribution

of school-based action research, see:
Pring, R. (2010) Philosophy of Educational Research. London: Continuum.
(Reading 3.4)

More specific guidance on conducting classroom and school research is on

reflectiveteaching.co.uk and includes:
Menter, I., Elliot, D., Hall, J., Hulme, M., Lewin, J. and Lowden, K. (2010) A Guide
to Practitioner Research in Education. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Mitchell, N. and Pearson, J. (2012) Inquiring in the Classroom. Asking the Questions
that Matter about Teaching and Learning. London: Continuum.

The significance of learning and developing practice with colleagues is elaborated in:
Wenger, E. (1999) Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (see also Hodkinson et al., Reading 3.7)
McLaughlin, C., Black Hawkins, K., Brindley, S., McIntyre, D. and Taber, K. (2006)
Researching Schools: Stories from a Schools-University Partnership. Maidenhead:
Open University Press.

Sachs provides arguments for morally informed and socially aware teachers:
Sachs, J. (2003) The Activist Teaching Profession. Buckingham: Open University
Press. (see also Reading 17.5 and 17.7)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists and activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Principles
What are the foundations
of effective teaching
and learning?
4
Introduction (p. 92)

1 Evidence-informed principles (p. 92)

2 TLRP’s principles (p. 95)

2.1 Education for life (p. 95)

2.2 Valued knowledge (p. 97)
2.3 Prior experience (p. 98)
2.4 Scaffolding understanding (p. 100)
2.5 Assessment for learning (p. 101)
2.6 Active engagement (p. 103)
2.7 Social relationships (p. 104)
2.8 Informal learning (p. 105)
2.9 Teacher learning (p. 109)
2.10 Policy frameworks (p. 110)

3 International knowledge accumulation (p. 113)

Conclusion (p. 116)

92 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Introduction
This chapter is focused on ten ‘evidence-informed educational principles’ which have been
specifically identified to support the development of teachers’ professional judgement –
and, indeed, as a contribution to education policy-making. Whilst the previous chapter
focused on the process of reflective teaching, this one highlights some of the enduring
issues with which teaching and learning are concerned.
The ten principles were conceptualised by the UK’s Teaching and Learning Research
Programme (2000–12) by reviewing the outcomes of its many research projects, consulting
with UK practitioners in each major educational sector, and comparing these findings with
other research from around the world (see James and Pollard, 2012).
The TLRP funded educational research for over a decade and involved over 100
projects and other initiatives. It represented a new style of social science which insists
on engagement of potential users throughout the research process (Pollard, 2007). TLRP
project teams thus worked closely with teacher practitioners and, in some cases, with
policymakers. TLRP identified major themes, such as learning, teaching, assessment,
etc, to analyse across its projects – and this process finally enabled the distillation of ten
evidence-informed principles. They represent a holistic summary, prepared for appli-
cation, of ‘what we think we know’ about effective teaching, learning and education.
The same period has seen the development of meta-analyses of measured effects of
specific teaching strategies. John Hattie’s work has been groundbreaking (Hattie, 2009,
Reading 4.6; 2012, Reading 10.7), and is complemented by a new programme of randomised
trials in England funded by the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF). This work is
consolidated and presented to schools in the Sutton Trust-EEF Teaching and Learning
Toolkit (educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/toolkit). The Toolkit is particularly focused
on disadvantaged pupils and the improvement of attainment through the use of specific
teaching strategies.
TLRP’s holistic principles and studies of effect sizes complement each other. It is vital
to know which teaching strategies are likely to be most effective, and it is also essential to
be able to interpret and understand teaching and learning processes, and to set them in the
context of more wide-ranging educational purposes. We are thus developing, step by step,
the means of really improving educational standards and life-chances for pupils. In the
final part of the chapter we return to the theme of international knowledge accumulation.

1 Evidence-informed principles
Each of the ten principles which are described in this chapter has an extensive research
base – they are ‘evidence-informed’. They do not, however, seek to tell teachers what to
do. Indeed, each principle is expressed at a level of generality which calls for contextual
interpretation by a teacher in the light of his or her knowledge of the educational needs of
pupils and the circumstances of the school in which he or she works. The principles are

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 Chapter 4 Principles 93

thus intended as a guide and support for teachers in making the professional judgements
which they are uniquely positioned, and required, to make.
TLRP’s approach promotes contextualised, evidence-informed teacher judgement.
Other experts take similar positions:

Bureaucratic solutions to problems of practice will always fail because effective teaching
is not routine, students are not passive, and questions of practice are not simple,
predictable, or standardised. Consequently, instructional decisions cannot be formulated
on high then packaged and handed down to teachers. (Darling-Hammond, USA, 2007)
TLRP ‘insists that the articulation of evidence-informed pedagogic principles, which
can inform teacher and policy-maker judgements rather than detailed instructional
prescriptions that tell teachers what to do, is the most useful way to improve classroom
practice at scale. This is surely right: teaching and learning are deeply contextual and
highly contingent. Certainly our experience in Singapore strongly supports this claim,
particularly if backed up by contextually appropriate, iterative, authentic and extended
professional learning experiences (Hogan, Singapore, 2012, p. 97).
The Teaching and Learning Toolkit will be most useful when in the hands of
professionals. The aim of the Toolkit is to support teachers to make their own informed
choices and adopt a more ‘evidence-based’ approach. The evidence it contains is a
supplement to rather than a substitute for professional judgement; it provides no
guaranteed solutions or quick fixes. (Higgins et al., UK, 2013)

TLRP’s ten principles are an attempt to pick out prominent patterns from the complexity of
teaching and learning, and to shed light on them. They are statements of what we think we
understand, at this point in time. The evidence-informed principles offer reference points,
thus making it easier to take stock and review progress in educationally sound ways. But
when particular classroom dilemmas arise, the principles will not actually determine a
specific decision, for that is the job of the reflective teacher.
Our overarching guide is Principle 1, which is concerned
with the most enduring objectives and moral purposes of Expert question
education. A cluster of principles on curriculum, pedagogy
Principle: is our pedagogy consistent
and assessment then take us to the heart of teacher
with established principles for effective
expertise, whilst a further group highlights the personal teaching and learning?
and social processes which underpin learning. Finally,
This question contributes to a conceptual
two principles draw attention to enabling conditions for
framework underpinning professional
success in practice and policy. expertise (see Chapter 16).
In the following section, we introduce and illustrate
the ten principles as a whole. Issues associated with each
principle are also discussed and elaborated in relevant chapters of the book (as indicated
in Figure 4.1), and we return synoptically to them in new ways in Chapter 16 when
reviewing the various dimensions of teacher expertise.
Figure 4.1, overleaf, represents the ten principles holistically.

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94 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Effective teaching and learning

10 Effective teaching and 1 Effective teaching and

learning demands learning equips learners for
consistent policy life in its broadest sense.
frameworks with support Learning should aim to help
for teaching and learning as people to develop the
their primary focus. intellectual, personal and social
Policies at national, local and resources that will enable them to
institutional levels need to participate as active citizens,
recognise the fundamental contribute to economic develop-
importance of teaching and ment and flourish as individuals
learning. They should be in a diverse and changing
designed to create effective society. This implies
9 Effective teaching and learning learning environments in adopting a broad
depends on teacher learning. The which all learners can view of learning 2 Effective teaching and learning
need for teachers to learn continuously thrive. (Chapters 5, 8, 9, outcomes and engages with valued forms of
in order to develop their knowledge and 14, 16 and 17) ensuring that equity knowledge.
skills, and to adapt and develop their and social justice Teaching and learning should engage with
roles, especially through classroom are taken the big ideas, facts, processes, language
inquiry, should be recognised and seriously. and narratives of subjects so that learners
supported. (Chapters 1, 3, 16 and 17) (Chapters 1, understand what constitutes quality and
9 and 15) standards in particular disciplines.
(Chapters 9 and 10)

8 Effective teaching and learning 3 Effective teaching and learning recognises

recognises the significance of the importance of prior experience and
informal learning. Informal learning, learning. Teaching and learning should take
such as learning out of school, should be account of what the learner knows already in order
recognised as at least as significant as to plan their next steps. This includes building on
formal learning and should therefore be prior learning but also taking account of the
valued and used appropriately in formal personal and cultural experiences of different
processes. (Chapters 2, 5, 8 and 15) groups of learners. (Chapters 2 and 10)

4 Effective teaching and learning

7 Effective teaching and learning fosters
requires teachers to scaffold learning.
both individual and social processes and
Teachers should provide activities which
outcomes. Learning is a social activity.
support learners as they move forward, not
Learners should be encouraged and helped to
just intellectually, but also socially and
work with others, to share ideas and to
emotionally, so that once these supports are
build knowledge together. Consulting
removed, the learning is secure. (Chapters
learners about their learning and giving
6 Effective teaching and 5 Effective teaching and 6, 11 and 12)
them a voice is both an expectation
and a right. (Chapters 3, 6, 7, learning promotes the learning needs
12 and 15) active engagement of the assessment to be
learner. A chief goal of congruent with learning.
teaching and learning should Assessment should help to
be the promotion of learners’ advance learning as well as
independence and autonomy. determine whether learning
Figure 4.1 Ten This involves acquiring a has taken place. It should
repertoire of learning be designed and carried out
evidence- strategies and practices, so that it measures learning
developing positive attitudes outcomes in a dependable
informed towards learning, and way and also provides
educational confidence in oneself as a feedback for future
good learner. (Chapters 2, learning. (Chapters 13 and
principles for 7, 11 and 13) 14)
effective teaching
and learning

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 Chapter 4 Principles 95

2 TLRP’s principles

2.1 Education for life

Commitment to broad educational objectives has existed for a very long time in the UK
and Republic of Ireland. For example, in a recent manifestation, the general requirements
of Section 78 of the Education Act 2002 state that a maintained school in England or Wales
must offer:

A balanced and broadly based curriculum which promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural,
mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society, and prepares
pupils at the school for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life.

Similar statements apply in Scotland and Northern Ireland. However, despite such
affirmation, goals of this type have been historically vulnerable to erosion by the
narrowing effects of high-stakes assessment and accountability.
TLRP also embraced a wide definition of educational values and purposes. The impor-
tance of attainments as measured by national tests and qualifications was recognised, but
there was also interest in other outcomes. These included learner engagement, participation,
skills, dispositions and the development of learning identities and autonomy. Such outcomes
have the potential to contribute to a wide range of educational aims including those linked
to economic productivity, social cohesion, cultural development, personal fulfilment and
environmental sustainability. These are all important in a contemporary developed society.
The UK’s long-standing commitment to broad, rich and inclusive forms of education
thus gave rise to the first of TLRP’s ten principles.

Principle 1: Effective teaching equips learners for life in its broadest sense.
Learning should aim to help individuals and groups to develop the intellectual, personal
and social resources that will enable them to participate as active citizens, contribute reflectiveteaching.co.uk
to economic development and flourish as individuals in a diverse and changing society. features a video on this
principle: Teaching should
This means adopting a broad conception of worthwhile learning outcomes and taking equip learners for life.
seriously issues of equity and social justice for all.

TLRP worked with the Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain to examine
the way in which this principle might inform policy and, by extension, practice. The
philosophers argued that empirical evidence is not sufficient for decision-making in policy
or practice, for it is always complemented by values. For example, Bridges suggested:

We should be more explicit about the educational and wider political values which frame
policy and practice, and be more ready to subject these to careful scholarly, as well as
democratic, scrutiny and criticism. (2009, p. 3)

There are many examples of the influence of values in policy-making at the highest level.
For example, consider the speech made by the English Secretary of State for Education,
Michael Gove, when moving the second reading of the 2011 Education Bill in the
Westminster Parliament:

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96 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

This Bill provides an historic opportunity for this country. It will help to guarantee every
child a high quality education, which will equip them for the technological, economic,
social and cultural challenges of the next century. Throughout history, the opportunities
we give to our young people have far too often been a matter of time and chance.
Accidents of birth or geography have determined children’s fate, but education can
change all that. Education allows each of us to become the author of our own life story.
Instead of going down a path determined for us by external constraints, it allows each
of us to shape our lives and the communities around us for the better. (Hansard, 8
February 2011)

A strong commitment to opportunity is clear, but such rhetoric has to be reconciled

with the realities of the rapidly expanding academies programme in England, which the
bill was designed to promote. It has been predicted by some that this policy will in fact
reinforce inequality (see, for example, Benn, 2011). Time will tell. In any event, as in all
walks of life, the relationship between espoused goals and actual consequences has to be
considered.
Vision and values are arguably even more important at other levels of the education
system. When they engage with pupils, teachers can, without doubt, change lives – as we
discussed in Chapter 1 of this book (see Gu, 2007, Reading 1.1). Qualitative sociologists
have demonstrated how learners perceive and make sense of their school experiences.
For example, one series of projects tracked two cohorts of children from age 4 to age
16 (Pollard and Filer, 1999, Reading 1.2). That work recorded how pupils progressively
develop strategies to cope with the challenges of schooling over time, and how secure
forms of learning become embedded in personal narratives and identities. It suggested that
where school curricula fail to make meaningful connections with the learner, pupil perfor-
mance and capability are likely to be shallow and transitory. Similar ideas were reflected
in other TLRP projects. A developed example was provided by a study of further education
experiences – Transforming Learning Cultures (James and Biesta, 2007) – which recog-
nised the way in which institutional conditions enable or constrain opportunities for
independent learning. Another was that of Crozier and colleagues (2010) who analysed
disjunctions in the experiences of working-class students entering higher education.
However, the analysis was developed most thoroughly by the Learning Lives project
(Biesta et al., 2010) which studied learners across the lifecourse using a combination of
evidence from a large-scale cohort study and case study interviews reviewing learning
careers over time. This study was important for its lifelong reach and demonstration of
the durability of attitudes deriving from early school experiences. In particular, it reported
how narratives about learning and educational experiences are used as frameworks of
interpretation in the development of identity, self-confidence and agency in later life. Other
quantitative studies reinforce this analysis to demonstrate the ‘wider benefits’ of learning
(Feinstein et al., 2008, Reading 1.6).
Education, in other words, makes an enormous difference to the people we become.
Teachers, have a unique privilege and responsibility to shape the next generation. That
is why this principle of ‘education for life’ is so important. Teaching has moral purpose.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 97

Reflective activity 4.1

Aim: To reflect on the moral purposes of education in relation to learner development.
Evidence and reflection: Typically, this issue has particular resonance when applied
to people who we know well – parents, partners or even ourselves. Think deeply
about a person whose early upbringing and school education you know something
about. How did those experiences influence the person they became? Can you see
traces of adult qualities in those earlier experiences, or even identify patterns of
development? Were there any particular critical incidents which made a difference
in the life you are considering? Were there relationships of particular significance?
Thinking of teachers, what specific memories arise? How would you summarise this
review, in relation to the first TLRP principle?
Extension: The next step is clearly to imagine the trajectories through life of some of
the children and young people whom you teach. Consider the potential lifelong
consequences of day-by-day experiences at school.

2.2 Valued knowledge

Principle 2: Effective teaching and learning engages with valued forms of
knowledge. Teaching and learning should engage with the big ideas, facts, processes,
language and narratives of subjects so that learners understand what constitutes quality
and standards in particular disciplines.

There has always been debate about what a curriculum should consist of, how it should be
organised, what constitutes valued knowledge in a subject or field, how such knowledge
can be represented and communicated to learners, and how learners’ knowledge,
understanding and skills can be identified and evaluated (see Chapter 9). Such debates
reflect the priorities in our culture and the capacity of particular stakeholders to promote
their views. Analysts of such processes characterise the curriculum as a contested, social
construction, with any particular settlement being influenced by the balance of power of
the time. The early work of Young (1971) and Bernstein (1971) established this approach
and the history of UK curriculum ‘reform’ in recent years demonstrates the significance
of the perspective.
However, from a different direction, the development of curricula has also involved
philosophers, cognitive psychologists, subject specialists, curriculum developers and
assessment experts – many of whom bring a far greater awareness of the distinctive
character of particular bodies of knowledge. England’s National Curriculum Review
recognised that such experts bring: ‘a view of disciplinary knowledge as a distinct way
of investigating, knowing and making sense with particular foci, procedures and theories,
reflecting both cumulative understanding and powerful ways of engaging with the future.
In this sense, disciplinary knowledge offers core foundations for education, from which
the subjects of the curriculum are derived’ (Department for Education (DfE), 2011).

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 98 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Interestingly, the later work of Young (2008, Reading 9.2) has contributed significantly to
the commitment to ‘bring knowledge back in’.
But the level at which the curriculum is applied is the domain of practising teachers
for it is they who put the ‘curriculum into action’ (Stenhouse, 1975, Reading 3.3). In the
UK, it is common to think of curriculum ‘elements’ such as knowledge, concepts, skills
and attitudes (Her Majesty’s Inspectors, 1985) and a commitment to learning skills as well
as content is firmly established. Indeed, some curricular innovations promote a particular
emphasis on skills or competencies (e.g. the Royal Society of Arts (RSA)’s ‘Opening
Minds’, or Claxton’s ‘Building Learning Power’, 2011). In balancing these elements,
Ryle’s classic distinction between ‘knowing that’ and ‘knowing how’ (1945) has been
particularly influential. Teachers know that both knowledge and skills are vital.
Building on the work of Polanyi (1958), Eraut’s contribution to TLRP (2007) also
argued for the significance of ‘personal knowledge’. This type of knowledge foregrounds
understanding and skills acquired during acculturation, social interaction and reflection on
experience. Eraut argued that: ‘A person’s performance nearly always uses these kinds of
knowledge in some integrated form, and is influenced by both context and feelings.’ Such
informal ways of ‘making sense’ have considerable significance for understanding and misun-
derstanding in schools. We will consider informal learning again in discussion of Principle 8.
TLRP’s emphasis on ‘valued forms of knowledge’ has been described as ‘an immensely
important principle’ by a leading educationalist in the Asia–Pacific region – David Hogan.
However, work in Singapore has:

focused a lot more analytical attention on the intellectual quality of the instructional
and assessment tasks that students are asked to work on, and the extent to which the
knowledge practices they engage in are informed by, and are consistent with, domain
specific forms of disciplinary knowledge and epistemic norms. (2012, p. 103)

Hogan argues that the most important single factor in determining the quality of teaching,
learning and outcomes lies in the nature of instructional tasks (see also Reading 4.2). Hattie’s
meta-analysis of global research makes the same point: ‘what teachers get students to do in
the class is the strongest component of the accomplished teacher’s repertoire, rather than
what the teacher specifically does’ (2009, p. 35, Reading 4.6, also 16.5).
Subject knowledge is undoubtedly of enormous significance in teacher effectiveness
(see Chapter 9). This is one reason why ‘lesson study’ has become so well established
in the Far East and why similarly focused approaches are developing rapidly around the
world (see Chapter 10, Section 5.2).

2.3 Prior experience

Principle 3: Effective pedagogy recognises the importance of prior experience
and learning. Pedagogy should take account of what the learner knows already in
reflectiveteaching.co.uk order for them, and those who support their learning, to plan their next steps. This
features a video on this
principle: Teaching should includes building on prior learning but also taking account of the personal and cultural
build on prior experience. experiences of different groups of learners.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 99

Whilst the nature of knowledge to be learned is important, few people now think that
children arrive at school as ‘empty vessels’ to be filled. The principle of starting where
children are and helping them to move on is widely recognised. The scientific foundation
of this principle lies in the practical philosophy of Dewey and the constructivist psychology
of Piaget and Vygotsky (see Chapter 2 and Readings 2.2 and 2.3). International evidence
is also very extensive, including from synoptic reviews by the American Psychological
Association (1997) and by European researchers (Dochy, Segers and Buehl, 1999). A
famous quote by Ausubel put this clearly:

If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this:
‘The most important single factor affecting learning is what the learner already knows.
Ascertain this, and teach him accordingly.’ (1968, p. vi)

One reason for affirming the importance of prior learning is cognitive, and has been
demonstrated in subjects such as science where early misconceptions create barriers to later
learning. Such misunderstandings need to be identified and addressed. One TLRP project
developed and evaluated sequences for teaching science concepts and complemented this
with banks of diagnostic questions to identify misconceptions (Millar et al., 2006). The
researchers found that carefully designed probes can illuminate pupils’ understanding of
key concepts, and can thus inform judgements about ‘next steps’ in teaching. They also
found that the level of pupils’ understanding of many fundamental science ideas increases
only slowly with age, so that pitching an appropriate level of challenge is essential. Of
course, work of this sort influences the sequencing of content knowledge within national
curricula.
A second rationale for focusing on prior learning is concerned with motivation and
providing appropriate opportunities to learn. Here, it is essential to take account of the
knowledge, understandings, skills and attitudes derived from the other worlds that pupils
inhabit: from their homes, communities and peer groups. For example, a number of
TLRP projects, ranging between those working with young children to others concerned
with further and higher education, found benefits in teachers making more deliberate and
positive use of the informal knowledge and understanding that children and young people
acquire.
However, because of the extent of social inequality and difference within the UK (see
Chapter 5), children and young people have extremely variable experience before and
during their schooling. For some, there are continuities between home and school, whilst
for others there are disjunctions. This has great significance for teaching and learning, and
in building identities. This aspect of effective pedagogy will be revisited in discussion of
Principles 7 and 8 on personal and social processes and relationships.
Whatever the merits of the case, with large classes it can be difficult to determine
each pupil’s prior knowledge. Indeed, some barriers to learning undoubtedly stem
from teachers’ misplaced assumptions about pupils. However difficult, expert teachers
are committed to seeking to understand learners so that appropriate starting points are
identified. In summary, understanding pupils’ prior experience from previous teaching and
learning, from home and from their communities is difficult, but can significantly improve
teacher judgements and thereby enhance pupils’ confidence in learning.

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 100 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

2.4 Scaffolding understanding

Principle 4: Effective pedagogy requires learning to be scaffolded. Teachers,
trainers and all those, including peers, who support the learning of others, should provide
reflectiveteaching.co.uk
features a video on this activities and structures of intellectual, social and emotional support to help learners to
principle: Teachers should move forward in their learning. When these supports are removed the learning needs to
scaffold learning with be secure.
appropriate tools.
Scaffolding in teaching can be compared to building work; scaffolding supports the
construction until the house (or the learner’s understanding) is strong enough to stand on
its own. The idea was implicit in Vygotsky’s work but was taken further in a classic paper
by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976; see also Tharp and Gallimore, 1988, Reading 11.4).
Vygotsky’s conception of learning emphasises the importance of active choice and use
of cultural tools, especially language, in learning. The role of the ‘more expert other’ in
helping the novice to make progress beyond the level of their present understanding is
equally crucial (see discussion of the zone of proximal development in Chapter 2). When
these two elements are brought together, the pertinence of the concept of scaffolding
becomes evident.
A major contribution to such scaffolding derives from teachers’ understanding of both
curricular knowledge and of how children and young people learn. They thus recognise
when they should intervene to help the pupil move on to a higher level of understanding.
For example, the TLRP‘s project on InterActive Education (Sutherland, Robertson and
John, 2009, Research briefing, p. 217) concluded that ICT in the classroom will not help
learning on its own. As the research team put it: ‘without a teacher carefully crafting and
orchestrating learning, the incorporation of ICT into the classroom is likely to tip over into
learning which is at odds with what the school intends students to learn’ (2009, p. 206).
It is also worth drawing attention to the fact that TLRP’s principle picks out provision of
‘intellectual, social and emotional support’. It does this because discussion of these issues
tends to focus on cognitive forms of scaffolding alone. However, the TLRP proposition is
that social and emotional factors are also important, such as those associated with social
expectations and feelings of personal security for example (see Immordino and Damasio,
2007, Reading 6.2). Because learning is intrinsically personal, intellectual progress is
enabled or constrained by such factors and reflective teachers will consider how to provide
for each of the three dimensions (see rows 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 of the conceptual framework
in Chapter 16, and discussion of Maslow in Chapter 1, section 2.4).
A crucial contribution to scaffolded learning derives from dialogue between teacher
and learners, and through the feedback loops that this makes possible. To be effective,
teacher support must be carefully matched to the current understanding or capabilities of
the learner and must thus be informed by feedback from the student. As Hattie puts it, there
should be explicit ‘visibility’ in the teaching–learning process.

The teacher must know when learning is correct or incorrect; learn when to experiment
and learn from the experience; learn to monitor, seek and give feedback; and know to
try alternative learning strategies when others do not work. ... It is most important that

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 Chapter 4 Principles 101

teaching is visible to the student, and that learning is visible to the teacher. The more the
student becomes the teacher and the more the teacher becomes the student, then the
more successful are the outcomes. (Hattie, 2009, p. 25)

Dialogue is the most practical way of creating such visibility. The dialogic approach
proposed by Alexander (2001, 2006, Reading 12.3) comprises a three-part repertoire informed
by dialogic principles (see also Chapters 11 and 12). The repertoire consists of ‘learning
talk’ (narrating, explaining, questioning, answering, analysing, speculating, imagining,
exploring, evaluating, discussing, arguing, justifying and negotiating), ‘teaching talk’ (rote,
recitation, exposition, discussion, dialogue) and ‘interactive strategies’ (whole-class teaching,
teacher-led group work, pupil-led group work, one-to-one pupil discussion, one-to-one
discussion between pupil and teacher). The principles that inform this repertoire are that
genuine dialogue is collective, reciprocal, supportive, cumulative and purposeful. According
to Alexander, the most vital of these is cumulation: that teachers and pupils build on their
own and each other’s ideas and chain them into coherent lines of thinking and enquiry.
The expert teacher facilitates, focuses, listens, analyses, contributes and teaches. This
brings us to the role which assessment can play in learning.

2.5 Assessment for learning

Principle 5: Effective pedagogy needs assessment to be congruent with reflectiveteaching.co.uk
features a video on this
learning. Assessment should be designed and implemented with the goal of achieving
principle: Assessment
maximum validity both in terms of learning outcomes and learning processes. It should should support learning.
help to advance learning as well as determine whether learning has occurred.

TLRPs Learning How to Learn project (James et al., 2007, Reading 2.8, Research
Briefing on p. 356) elaborated the highly influential proposition that assessment should
be used to ‘advance learning’ as well as measure it. The project built on work by the UK
Assessment Reform Group which demonstrated that ‘assessment for learning’ practices
can lead to improved learning and achievement (Black and Wiliam, 1998; Black et al.,
2003). The project found that four clusters of practices were necessary to support such
learning, all of which are based on dialogue. They are: developing classroom talk and
questioning to elicit understanding; giving appropriate feedback; sharing criteria of
quality; and peer- and self-assessment (which incorporate elements of the three previous
clusters). These assessment practices helped teachers to promote ‘learning how to
learn’, which in turn enabled pupils to become more autonomous learners. The project
found that classroom practice thus becomes better aligned with the educational values
expressed by teachers, and less driven by a culture of performativity. Chapter 13, picks
up on this analysis, when guiding principles and practical implications are discussed at
length.
However, changes in practice are not easy to establish and the project demonstrated
that, although advice on specific techniques is useful in the short term, longer-term devel-
opment and sustainability depends on re-evaluating beliefs about learning, reviewing the
way learning activities are structured, and rethinking classroom roles and relationships.

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102 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

A related element of Principle 5: ‘Assessment should be designed and implemented

with the goal of achieving maximum validity both in terms of learning outcomes and
learning processes’ was addressed by other projects and thematic initiatives. Traditionally,
the quality of assessments is judged by their reliability and their validity, which together
indicate whether the inferences drawn from assessment results are dependable (see
Chapter 14, Broadfoot, 2007, Reading 14.1). Often more attention is paid to reliability for
two reasons. First, there are clear technical procedures for enhancing reliability. Second,
the publication of unreliable results can have immediate and far-reaching political and
personal consequences where data is used for accountability purposes. However, there is
a sense in which even reliable assessment results have no worth if they are not valid – if
they do not represent authentic learning.
One of TLRP’s associated projects (Filer and Pollard, 2000, Reading 14.7) focused
on assessment encounters from a sociological point of view. Children and young people
develop their identities through successive experiences as they move through schooling, and
experiences of assessment are shown to be among the most powerful of these. Assessment
can thus be seen as a social process with significant consequences. Indeed, pupil perfor-
mance is strongly influenced by the contexts and circumstances in which assessments
take place, and results take meaning from social and cultural interpretation. If learners’
sense of agency and identity is to be nurtured, the case for maintaining the validity of both
assessment events and the inferences drawn from them is therefore overwhelming. But this
is not easy to do when assessment data is also used as an indicator of school performance.
These problems occur wherever high-stakes assessment exists. For example, Singapore
has testing at the end of Primary school (Year 6), the end of Secondary school (Year 10)
and the end of Year 12. As Hogan explains:

By virtue of the tight nexus between social mobility patterns and national high stakes
assessments, and the commitment of the government to ‘meritocratic’ sorting and
allocation through national high stakes assessments, reliability remains the over-riding
issue for parents and the government. This constrains the ability of the system to develop
assessments that have greater authenticity and validity. At the same time, the character
and logic of classroom instruction is directly shaped by national high stakes assessment
– in Singapore, as they do elsewhere, teachers teach to the test. ... In effect, although
it places a floor on student learning, the national high stakes assessment system in
Singapore places a ceiling on it as well. (2012, p. 105, Reading 4.2)

At the heart of the matter are concerns about fitness for purpose, and TLRP contested
the common view that a single set of assessments could serve several purposes without
distorting one purpose or another (Mansell and James, 2009, Reading 14.5). Above all, it
was argued that assessment systems must be congruent with the overarching purpose of
education systems to advance learning.
‘Assessment should help advance learning as well as determine whether learning has
taken place’, says TLRP’s principle. This may sound obvious, but many teachers know
that assessment requirements can militate against good learning. When staff end up
‘teaching to the test’ rather than teaching to the principles to which they are professionally
committed, something is not right.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 103

Reflective activity 4.2

Aim: To review TLRP’s principles on knowledge, prior learning, pedagogy and
assessment (Sections 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5).
Evidence and reflection: This cluster of four principles represents enduring issues
in teaching – the interaction of knowledge and development, and the crucial
instructional and feedback roles of the teacher. Tracing the linkages between these
elements and applying them in and through practice is enough to fascinate and
challenge most of us throughout our careers in teaching. One way of formalising
that is to review each of the four sections above and pick out from each one or
two key points which are most meaningful to you. How do your key points relate
together? What might they mean for your practice?
Extension: If possible, compare your selection with the judgements of a colleague and
discuss inter-relationships across the principles. Does such comparison enable you
to better understand your own teaching? Are there skills or processes on which you
and our colleague could work together in developing your expertise?

2.6 Active engagement

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Principle 6: Effective pedagogy promotes the active engagement of the learner.
features a video on this
A chief goal of teaching and learning should be the promotion of learners’ independence principle: Learning should
and autonomy. This involves acquiring a repertoire of learning strategies and practices, involve and engage the
learner.
developing positive learning dispositions, and having the will and confidence to become
agents in their own learning.

Almost all TLRP research projects affirmed the importance of developing active
engagement, positive learning dispositions, self-confidence and learning awareness (see
also Chapter 2, section 3). Indeed, the programme developed in an era characterised within
much of the UK by central control over curriculum, pedagogy and assessment, so that the
motivation and engagement of under-performing learners had become an increasingly
pressing contemporary issue. It remains a difficult judgement to ensure that national
requirements provide enough guidance to ensure entitlements whilst also providing
sufficient scope and support for teachers to respond to needs of the particular pupils for
whom they are responsible (see Chapter 9). Concern for the quality of learning experiences
is a further driver of this concern with active engagement.
However, the most pragmatic reason for emphasising active engagement is simply that
it is essential for learning. As we saw in Chapter 3, Piaget’s constructivist psychology
emphasised processes of accommodation and assimilation through which learning takes
place, and the example of Armstong’s work (1980) highlights the ‘appropriation’ of
knowledge. Sociocultural analysts envisage a learner whose capability and confidence are
greatly influenced by others, and who develops independent agency and meaning within
networks of social relationships. This capacity to sustain active engagement in purposive

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 104 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

ways is encapsulated in Guy Claxton’s conception of ‘building learning power’ through

resilience, resourcefulness, reflection and reciprocity (2011, see also Reading 2.9 and the
discussion in Chapter 9, section 2.4)
More traditionally, psychological questions concerning the active engagement of
learners have been framed in terms of motivation, with emphasis being placed on ways of
involving individual learners in particular tasks. The work of Carol Dweck for instance,
on ‘mastery’ and ‘learned helplessness’ as orientations to new learning challenges, has
been very influential (1999, Chapter 3, Section 2.3, Reading 2.6). The promotion of
learner independence and autonomy has thus been seen as essential to the effectiveness
of learning.
In a commentary on TLRP’s ten principles, Allal (2012) highlighted the ways in which
this principle of active engagement links back to the scaffolding of understanding. In
particular, she argued that this requires what she termed, ‘co-regulation’:

Scaffolding is a process that is elaborated on the basis of what the learner does and says
(given his or her current developmental level), rather than a pre-existing support structure
that an expert prepares, introduces and later withdraws. The elaboration of scaffolding
cannot take place without the active engagement of the learner. (2012, p. 65)

There is a resonance here with Hattie’s call for ‘visible’ teaching and learning (2008,
Reading 4.6) and with Alexander’s emphasis on dialogue (2008, Reading 12.3). They each
make the point that the guidance provided by teacher scaffolding can only be accurately
deployed and taken up except through the active engagement of the learner. In this way,
and many more, TLRP principles are interconnected.
Nor indeed, should we forget that when pupils are positively engaged in learning activ-
ities, behavioural problems tend to be very minor. We explore this more fully in Chapter 7.

2.7 Social relationships

Principle 7: Effective pedagogy fosters both individual and social processes

and outcomes. Learners should be encouraged and helped to build relationships
reflectiveteaching. and communication with others for learning purposes, in order to assist the mutual
co.uk features a video
construction of knowledge and enhance the achievements of individuals and groups.
on this principle: Social
relationships are vital to Consulting learners about their learning and giving them a voice is both an expectation
learning. and a right.

Learning is a social as well as an individual activity. It flourishes through interaction with

other minds, when the conditions are right. Good teacher–pupil classroom relationships
underpin such conditions. Or, to put it another way, teacher–pupil respect is the foundation
of discipline, order and learning (see Chapters 6 and 7). More broadly, some TLRP projects
used the concept of social capital (Putnam, 1995) to analyse available opportunities, whilst
noting the formative role that school and classroom processes and peer relations can play
in such accumulation. Social processes, at many levels, create conditions for individual
learning.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 105

TLRP’s studies on group work (Baines et al., 2008), teacher learning (James et al.,
2007) and inclusion (Ainscow et al., 2006), among others, show that when schools
function as genuine learning communities, students and teachers thrive both collec-
tively and as individuals. For example, pupils who worked effectively in groups also
did measurably better on individual exams than those who had other forms of teaching
and learning. The SPRinG (Social Pedagogic Research into Group-work) and Scottish
SPRinG projects found that, in Key Stages 2 and 3, children who worked effectively
together made gains in their inferential thinking and their higher cognitive under-
standing (see the Research Briefing on p. 316). Group work also improved social
relationships among pupils and between pupils and teachers. Experiments carried out
with older students, using concept-mapping software, also showed that opportunities for
students to discuss their maps with others was the significant factor in raising attainment
(Bevan, 2007).
Going further, Principle 7 suggests that ‘consulting learners is both an expectation
and a right’. In parallel with psychological research on pupil agency and learning, this
reflects the humanistic tradition in British education drawing on the practitioner enquiry
movement initiated by Stenhouse (1975, Reading 3.3). TLRP’s network on Consulting
Pupils about Teaching and Learning was a manifestation of this commitment to practical
theorising and improvement. The network directly engaged teachers, children and young
people in reflection on their classroom practices and school experiences (Rudduck and
McIntyre, 2007, Reading 1.3, see the Research Briefing in Chapter 1, p. 17). Indirectly,
it connected with thousands more pupils in building from the UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1989, see also Reading 17.6) to affirming the quality
and constructive nature of feedback about teaching and learning that pupils were able to
offer. Outcomes included enhanced commitment to learning and improved teacher–pupil
relationships. Pupils were more likely to be engaged with schooling when they were
consulted and their views treated with respect.
Here then we see the social awareness of a significant cluster of TLRP projects, and
their attention to the construction of pupil meaning in relation to circumstances. It also
concerns the realisation of rights, formation as a person, manifestation of citizenship and,
ultimately, the contribution of individuals to history.
At its core though, consulting pupils strengthens pupils’ engagement with
learning, gives teachers deeper insights into pupils’ abilities and learning preferences and
strengthens school policy and planning. Giving pupils a ‘good listening to’ challenges old
habits.

2.8 Informal learning

PRINCIPLE 8: Effective pedagogy recognises the significance of informal
learning. Informal learning, such as learning out of school or away from the workplace,
should be recognised as at least as significant as formal learning and should therefore be
valued and appropriately utilised in formal processes.

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106 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

This principle can be stated simply, but has profound implications and challenges.
Recognition of the social and cultural dimensions of learning in many TLRP projects
produced a heightened awareness of learners, relationships and contexts (see also Chapter
2, Section 3). Over several years, researchers struggled with how to study, analyse and
represent the learning that took place beyond formal educational settings.
UK Governments have recognised the significance of social context in relation to
children and young people. For example, in England from 2003, the Every Child Matters
agenda and integration of national health, social and educational provision into Children’s
Services across the whole country were evidence of holistic analysis and of attempts to
promote inclusion through the coordination of services.
TLRP’s own work in these areas was at rather different levels, whether in workplace,
university or school education. Regarding school education, two areas of research stand
out – on home–school relationships and the influence of new technologies.
The Home–school Knowledge Exchange project (see Hughes and Pollard, 2000,
Research Briefing, p. 107), investigated how the home and school environments for learning
might complement each other. Focusing upon literacy and numeracy in these two worlds,
the team helped teachers, parents and children to find new ways of exchanging knowledge
between home and primary school, using videos, photographs, shoeboxes of artefacts, etc.
For example, primary pupils took photos to show the maths and literacy activities they
were doing at home. Maths activities included cooking, shopping, playing board games,
setting timers and consulting timetables. Children were also asked to collect a ‘shoebox’
of artefacts from home, All about Me, which offered teachers and other pupils insights into
their interests and opportunities. The project team then investigated how this process of
knowledge exchange could enhance learning and ease the transition to secondary school.
Explicit home–school knowledge exchange activities produced impact on outcomes
but this was mediated by social class, gender and attainment – factors that underline the
importance of considering the character of informal learning with sensitivity in order to
avoid negative consequences for particular groups of pupils (Thomas and Pattison, 2007,
Reading 2.10).
TLRP’s work on technology began with a project on the integration of ICT into
everyday classroom practices. The InterActive Education project (Sutherland, Robertson
and John, 2009) worked with primary and secondary school teachers to study how
subject-knowledge could be used in teaching through the use of new technologies (see
the Research Briefing at p. 217). The use of mobile and other forms of technology is now
so pervasive and so embedded within the cultures of children and young people that it
provides a very strong illustration of the knowledge and experiential resources that exist
beyond formal educational settings (Buckingham, 2008; Kress, 2010, Reading, 8.6). Access
and knowledge are uneven, however, making the affordances of mobile devices difficult
to harness in schools. The project found that technology could be particularly effective at
enhancing subject knowledge when teachers were able to bridge between the idiosyncratic
and the intended curricular learning using tailored software. The software was seen, in
sociocultural terms, as a mediating tool in support of the teaching–learning process.
Reflecting back on the project, Robertson and Dale (2009) write that there is a ‘tendency
to view schools as islands, loosely connected to society. ... What young people learn in

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 Chapter 4 Principles 107

Research
Briefing
Enhancing home–school knowledge exchange

Engaging parents and carers in their children’s education is expected to make a major contribution to the development of personalised
learning. As 2020 Vision puts it:

Mothers and fathers are children’s first teachers. There is compelling evidence that parental aspirations, expectations and involvement
have a major impact on their children’s attainment. (DfES, 2006, p. 23)

Children learn in two different worlds, home and school. Yet the knowledge which exists in each of these worlds is often not fully
recognised or understood in the other. Martin Hughes and his TLRP colleagues worked with teachers, parents and children to find new
ways of exchanging knowledge between home and primary school. They looked in particular at how this process of knowledge exchange
could enhance children’s learning in literacy and mathematics and through the transition from primary to secondary school. The social
and emotional aspects of learning, and of pupil identity, cannot be separated from academic performance. The child’s home and school
experiences are thus intimately connected in relation to learning.

Key findings: Implications:

Exchange activities: Home–school knowledge exchange activities Greater priority should be given to exchanging knowledge
can have a positive impact on teachers, parents and children, between home and school, as a means of improving home–
and on attainment in literacy and mathematics. At primary– school relationships, raising attainment in literacy and
secondary school transfer, they can help to avoid the common mathematics and facilitating learning during primary–secondary
post-transfer dip in pupil performance. school transfer.

Funds of knowledge: There are substantial ‘funds of knowledge’ Schools need to recognise these funds of knowledge and find
in homes and communities which can be used to support ways of making them more visible in the classroom and in the
children’s learning. They are often embedded in national and school. Exchange of videos, photographs and ‘shoe-boxes’ of
ethnic cultures, and in the experience of family members. significant items can be used to make this knowledge more
Popular culture is an important influence on children’s funds of tangible.
knowledge.

School transfer: Teachers, parents and children all have Parents, teachers and children need to find ways of sharing
significant ‘funds of knowledge’ which can be drawn on to and exchanging their different funds of knowledge. Transfer
support transfer. Parents know about children’s out-of-school ‘passports’, photographs of out-of-school life and videos of
lives while primary teachers have extensive knowledge of the secondary school can all be used. Drama activities can help
children they have taught. This knowledge is often ignored by children and parents share their hopes and fears about transfer.
secondary teachers who want children to have a ‘fresh start’.

At risk children: Some groups of children are particularly likely to Schools need to consider how they will provide support
be ‘at risk’ when transferring from primary to secondary school. for these ‘at risk’ groups. More clearly targeted strategies
These include children who are considered to be ‘gifted and at the start of secondary school can help to prevent later
talented’ as well as children whose families are considered to be disengagement and under-performance.
‘hard to reach’.

Schools which take on the challenges of home-school knowledge exchange are likely to see a range of benefits for teachers, children
and parents. Teachers can appreciate the additional knowledge they acquire about children’s out-of-school lives and can use it to enrich
their curricula. Parents can acquire a greater understanding of what is happening to their children in school, gain a greater appreciation
of teachers’ professional skills, and realise how they can complement the work of the school at home. Children can appreciate when
aspects of their out-of-school lives are valued and respected in school, and when their work at school is better understood at home. As
one parent commented about her child: ‘I think she likes to show people things about herself and I think she really enjoys that…yeah I
think she really liked to do that’.
Further information:
Hughes, M. et al.(2007) Enhancing Primary Literacy and Mathematics through Home–School Knowledge Exchange. TLRP Research Briefing No 22. London: TLRP.
Hughes, M. et al.(2008) Supporting Primary-Secondary Transfer through Home-School Knowledge Exchange. TLRP Research Briefing. London: TLRP. Available at
www.tlrp.org/pub (accessed 18 November 2013).
Feiler, A., Andrews, J., Greenhough, P., Hughes, M., Johnson, D., Scanlan, M. and Yee, W. (2007) Improving Primary Literacy: Linking Home and School. London:
Routldge.
Winter, J., Andrews, J., Greenhough, P., Hughes, M., Salway, L. and Yee, W. (2009) Improving Primary Mathematics: Linking Home and School. London: Routledge.
This project was directed from the University of Bristol.

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108 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

other places and spaces has little currency in the classroom ... and ... schools are repre-
sented as enduring features of the landscape, immune to change’ (p. 155). They suggest
that schools reflect an ‘assemblage’ of social relations, assumptions and organisational
arrangements with significant effects on pupils, teachers, parents and others. Change, they
suggest, is inevitable, as the impact of new technology and of learning beyond school
accumulates. Their book concludes:

Maybe it is time to consider young people’s out-of-school knowledge and cultures not
as ‘distractions’ from the main business of schooling, but as rich, complex, diverse and
powerful sources for learning and as an important place to start in designing education
for the twenty-first century. (p. 176)

There is a significant resonance here with our earlier discussion of the metaphor of
‘learning as participation’ (see Chapter 2, Section 4.2).

Reflective activity 4.3

Aim: To review TLRP’s principles on engagement, relationships and informal learning
(Sections 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8).
Evidence and reflection: This group of principles concern how teaching makes
connections with the learner. Emphasising the construction of meaning, they
acknowledge personal and social influences on children and young people in
schools and beyond – as realised through both formal and informal learning
processes. Once again, these are enduring issues – they are forever with us.
However, such principles imply wide-ranging awareness on the part of teachers, and
speak to recognition of the ‘participation metaphor’ of learning as well as that of
‘acquisition’ (see Chapter 2, Section 4.2). How far do you feel that the role of the
teacher can, or should, embrace such issues? Traditionally, the formal teacher role has
been defined narrowly – though many teachers have stepped beyond this, sometimes
routinely. How though, do you see the role today, and in the future?
Discuss the issues with colleagues. How can teaching and learning in school contribute
to and draw on the learning which takes place beyond school? How can we, as
teachers, make better connections with the frameworks of meaning and relationship
which are of particular importance to the children and young people in our
classrooms?
Extension: An excellent development of this activity would be to explore the issues
directly through discussion with selected pupils or even with parents or other
stakeholders in the community. How do learners’ lives, as a whole, relate to
experiences in and benefits from schooling?

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 Chapter 4 Principles 109

2.9 Teacher learning

Principle 9: Effective pedagogy depends on the learning of all those who
support the learning of others. The need for lecturers, teachers, trainers and
co-workers to learn continuously in order to develop their knowledge and skill, and
to adapt and develop their roles, especially through practice-based inquiry, should be
recognised and supported.

This principle provides the rationale for this book as a whole – we need to be reflective,
and thus commit to our own learning, because this enhances our effectiveness in
supporting pupils.
Teacher learning is concerned with both what we do and how we think (see Wiliam,
2009, Reading 16.4). Put another way, the most effective forms of teaching depends not
only on behavioural change and the acquisition of new knowledge about pedagogy, but
also on the development of values and understanding. With the right school leadership and
support, such learning is particularly effective in the workplace and through participation
in collaborative activities with other teachers (see Chapters 3 and 16, in particular).
These conclusions began to emerge early in the life of TLRP. A summary of common
themes by Mary James suggested:
1 Learning involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills and participation in
social processes. Thus the development of supportive professional cultures is
vitally important. Within schools, especially secondary schools, the focus is often
the department or team. However, the very cohesion of these groups can create
insularity and inhibit change. Rich and dynamic learning environments need to
provide opportunities for boundary crossings, and to encourage learning from
others in different communities of practice (see Chapter 3, Section 2.6).
2 Teachers are most ready to accept ideas for change if they resonate with their
existing or previous beliefs and experience. However, this does not necessarily
make them ‘right’ or appropriate. Teachers need to develop knowledge and
skills to evaluate evidence and the confidence to challenge taken-for-granted
assumptions, including their own. This is difficult (see Hargreaves, 2008, Reading
16.2) and it is often helpful to involve outsiders, perhaps researchers from
universities or visiting teachers from other schools. Teachers need to be assured
that it is acceptable and often fruitful to take risks – so a culture of trust and
openness is crucial.
3 Evidence from research about effective practice is not always sufficiently
accessible for teachers to use as a basis for action. Findings often need to be
transformed into practical and concrete strategies that can be tried out. This may
involve the production of concise and user-friendly materials, although ideas are
often mediated best by talk and personal contacts with other teachers who have
had some success in using them. (James, 2005, pp. 107–8)
Later TLRP studies emphasised the interaction of teacher characteristics (e.g. knowledge,

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110 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

attitudes and behaviour), cultural factors (e.g. school communities or professional

networks) and structural factors (e.g. policy contexts). Where these were seen to be aligned
as, for example, they have been recently in Finland, then teacher learning was likely to be
most effective (see Sahlberg, 2012, Reading 4.3).
The character of teachers’ professional lives was the particular focus of a TLRP
associate project, Variations in Teachers’ Work, Lives, and their Effects on Pupils (VITAE)
(Day et al. 2007, Chapter 1, Section 1.3, Reading 1.1 and the Research Briefing on p. 11).
This longitudinal study of 300 teachers provided a new perspective on teachers’ quality,
retention and effectiveness over the whole of their careers.
The project found that:
1 pupils of teachers who are committed and resilient are likely to attain more highly
than pupils whose teachers are not;
2 teachers’ sense of positive professional identity is associated with wellbeing and
job satisfaction, and this is a key factor in effectiveness;
3 the commitment and resilience of teachers in schools serving more disadvantaged
communities tend to be persistently challenged;
4 teachers do not necessarily become more effective over time – a minority risk
becoming less effective in later years;
5 sustaining and enhancing commitment and resilience is key to teachers’ career
decisions to continue or leave the profession.
The project thus concluded that strategies are needed for meeting the needs of teachers
in each phase of their professional lives, and in particular communities. Learning with
colleagues in school is particularly influential in creating commitment, resilience and
wellbeing. These factors are also correlated with pupil outcomes – thus affirming the
significance of teacher learning in effective education systems.

2.10 Policy frameworks

Principle 10: Effective pedagogy demands consistent policy frameworks with
support for learning as their primary focus. Organisational and system level policies
need to recognise the fundamental importance of continual learning – for individual,
team, organisational and system success – and be designed to create effective learning
environments for all learners.

There is growing international awareness of the significance of the coherence, or otherwise,

of national systems. Curriculum requirements must articulate with assessment processes
and qualifications; these must be supported by teacher education, recruitment, promotion
and retention policies; which in turn must be linked to school priorities, leadership,
organisation and pedagogic culture; and provision for funding and accountability to
parents, community and other stakeholders must contribute appropriately too. Above
all, all of these forms of provision must be focused on the contribution they can make

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 Chapter 4 Principles 111

to effective learning (Schmidt and Prawat, 2006). The system must be an educationally
principled system – simply being tightly controlled is insufficient.
The coherence of national systems is manifested at several levels, and we will here
identify three – school, locality and nation.

At school level
There has been an enormous amount of work in recent decades on school effectiveness and
improvement. MacGilchrist, Myers and Reed (2004) argued that the four most important
characteristics of an effective school are: high quality leadership and management, a
concentration on teaching and learning, a focus pupils’ rights and responsibilities, and
the development of the school as a learning organisation. TLRP projects certainly found
similar patterns. For example, within the Learning How to Learn project, Swaffield and
MacBeath (2005) found that school leaders who prioritised developing a sense of purpose,
supporting professional development, auditing expertise and supporting networking were
significantly more effective in fostering learning how to learn in classrooms. Similarly,
the Pupil Consultation project found that support and commitment of school leaders was
vital to ensure that consultation led to changes in actual classroom practices (Rudduck and
McIntyre, 2007).

In the locality of the school

The work which teachers and schools do is in service of the children, young people,
families and employers within their community – though, of course, this can be a very
complex set of relationships. Indeed, most schools, particularly in urban areas, serve
several communities and provide for social groups in widely different circumstances.
Ideally, connections between schools and their communities are close, because of the
significance of informal learning at home and in other out-of-school settings. Indeed,
teachers are often well known in their communities. The school curriculum may even
be explicitly tailored to local expectations about important knowledge, and those with
significant roles in the community may contribute to the life of the school – for instance,
as helpers, fund-raisers or governors. The RSA has been advocating and trialling just such
an ‘area based curriculum’ (Thomas, 2010, Reading 10.4).
Teachers and schools also have to demonstrate professional accountability and to be
willing to justify pedagogic judgements and decisions. The established way of doing
this is through the governing body of the school and the accountability structures of
the local education authority. However, in England, local authorities now have very
limited powers and most secondary schools, and a significant number of primaries,
have assumed a new status as independent ‘academies’ or ‘free schools’. Many schools
are now directly funded by the DfE. It is not yet clear how this will affect the overall
coherence and quality of national provision.

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Nationally
The case for coherent, principled education policy is strong and there are some excellent
examples of countries which seem to achieve this. Finland is the most often quoted
(Sahlberg, 2012, Reading 4.3) but Section 3, below, illustrates work from New Zealand,
Singapore, Australia and the USA too, amongst many others. However, history suggests
that this is not easy to achieve in large, complex societies.
For example, in 2003 the Labour Government in England published its Every Child
Matters agenda which highlighted the importance of five wide-ranging outcomes for
the education system: being healthy; staying safe; enjoying and achieving; making a
positive contribution; and achieving economic wellbeing. And yet there was a tension
between meeting these broad objectives, with which few disagreed, and focusing on
narrow performance targets which that particular government also prioritised. Indeed,
educationalists sometimes felt that progress was being made despite government policy
rather than because of it. However, there have been exceptions and one might pick
out policy for early years education which has been strongly influenced by research,
including that of TLRP’s associate project, EPPE (Sylva et al., 2010; Siraj-Blatchford
et al., 2013).
There is thus still much work to do to make policy better informed by research
evidence, as the work of the UK Strategic Forum for Research in Education (sfre.ac.uk)
demonstrated. This is an area which is ripe for development and new initiatives can be
anticipated (see the web-links at reflectiveteaching.co.uk).
But values are always contested in a democracy, particularly in very unequal societies
such as those in the UK (see Chapter 5, Green and Janmaat, 2011, Reading 5.2). Further,
our education systems are also complex and only partially integrated across sectors. There
are thus several structural reasons why coherence is difficult to achieve.
We need to be both realistic and optimistic about this goal. Although achieving
principled educational coherence is difficult, incremental progress can be, and is being,
made as governments realise its significance. It remains important that all those with
an interest in effective teaching and learning – pupils, parents, teachers, researchers,
policymakers and the public at large – continue to strive together to establish socially
just policies that truly support learning for the diverse needs of all learners in our
communities.

Reflective activity 4.4

Aim: To consider the roles of teacher learning and public policy development in
educational improvement.
Evidence and reflection: People in particular roles or structural positions tend to
develop shared perspectives, and these perspectives tend to reflect their material
interests. So, politicians must struggle for power and then demonstrate that they
can rule decisively? And teachers must achieve professional status and defend their
authonomy and working conditions? But in fact, of course, both policymakers and
teachers would claim that they: ‘act in the public interest’.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 113

The truth is that the public interest cannot be fulfilled without the complementary
efforts of all stakeholders working together. TLRP’s principles were designed to offer
a simple framework of educationally sound ideas on which to base such cooperation.
What scope do you see, on whatever scale, for developing your own learning as a
teacher, and for constructively engaging with school, local or government decision-
makers? (See Chapter 17 for further ideas on this.)
Extension: Working with some colleagues, consider some recent government policies
on education which you know about. Are they coherent with other contemporary
national policies? How do they relate to the evidence-informed principles proposed
by TLRP?

3 International knowledge accumulation

In this chapter so far, we have reviewed TLRP’s ten evidence-informed principles for
effective teaching and learning. These were developed in and for the UK. However, the
extent of international collaboration in understanding education is now enormous – and
indeed, is part of the role of academic researchers. Teams form, propositions are tested,
papers are exchanged, findings debated, books written, etc, etc. From such processes, new
frameworks of understanding are created.
In North America, there is an extensive and very well established body of work. There
are many contributions from the US in particular. For example, Linda Darling-Hammond
and Ann Lieberman have added to the accumulative understanding over many years, and
their review of Teacher Education Around the World (2012) is simply a recent contri-
bution. See also, in particular, Darling-Hammond (1996, 2008). An influential synthesis
of US work is, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. (Bransford et al.,
2000, Reading 4.1). This was produced by the Committee on Developments in the Science
of Learning for the US National Academy of Sciences. In Canada, innovative efforts to
embed educational research within policy and practice have been made by Ben Levin
and his team. For instance, How to Change 5000 Schools (2008) synthesises evidence
whilst remaining grounded in the quality of teaching and learning in classroom and school
practices.
Research in Australia, New Zealand and parts of the Far East has also made
significant contributions. For example, Bob Lingard and colleagues’ longitudinal
work on school reform and ‘productive pedagogies’ in Queensland, Australia, which
has generated a lot of interest (see Linguard, Hayes, Mills and Christie, 2003). Best
Practice Syntheses from New Zealand have made a great contribution (eg, Alton-Lee,
2003; Timperley et al., 2007, Reading 16.6) and from Singapore, work by David Hogan
and colleagues (2013, Reading 4.2) has codified and measured instructional systems for
improvement of teaching in core subjects. Hong Kong has harvested work from around
the world and introduced its school curriculum through a consultative process over a
ten year period.

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114 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

The case of Finland as documented, for instance, by Hannele Neimi et al. (2012) and
Pasi Sahlberg (2012, Reading 4.3), has been much cited and demonstrates how educational
principles can be applied in a sustained developmental way to achieve coherence across
a national system. Reading 17.4 illustrates such thinking in the case of the Republic of
Ireland’s teacher education.
Comparative study remains a much debated subject with significant concern in relation to
‘policy borrowing’. Robin Alexander’s tour de force, Culture and Pedagogy (2000) provided
an exceptionally rich analysis of the interaction of culture, power, schools, curriculum and
pedagogy in five countries – thus analysing both unique and common features. Reviews by
international agencies, such as The Nature of Learning (Dumont et al. for the OECD, 2010,
Reading 4.4), draw together research from a wide range of disciplines, and PISA survey
analyses provide hugely influential feedback on national performance. However, they also
inevitably mask many inter-cultural subtleties (Sturman, 2012, Reading 14.6). PISA ranks the
performance of countries, subject to significant methodological qualifications, and analysis
of these data has suggested a formula for success requiring high expectations combined
with significant school autonomy to enable improvement practices to become embedded.
The National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) provided a useful ‘mapping
of seminal reports on good teaching’ from 2007–12 (Rowe, Wilkin and Wilson, 2012,
Reading 4.5). The review collates overlapping conclusions in respect of the ‘teaching
environment’, ‘teaching approaches’ and ‘teacher characteristics’ – see Figure 4.2. The
authors draw attention to the need to ‘understand the principles that underpin practice’ and
note that, whilst awareness of strategies and techniques is valuable, ‘they are not enough,
in themselves, to change practice’ (p. 26). Indeed, it is interesting to see how the ‘teaching
approaches’ resonate closely with TLRP’s ten principles.
The most comprehensive and systematic synthesis of recent years has been the work
of John Hattie (2009, Reading 4.6). He has developed techniques to measure ‘effect sizes’
across multiple research studies, thus ranking findings for significance.
This work is now cogently expressed in Visible Learning for Teachers (Hattie, 2012).
Hattie summarises by proposing eight ‘mind frames’ for teachers. If, he suggests, they
were established as ‘theories of practice’, then significant impacts on learning should
follow (see Reading 10.7). These ‘mind frames’ again overlap with TLRP’s principles in
interesting ways.
Three cover dimensions of knowledge, learning, pedagogy and assessment.
●● Teachers/leaders want to talk more about the learning than the teaching.
●● Teachers/leaders engage in dialogue not monologue.
●● Teachers/leaders see assessment as feedback about their impact.
Two others address engagement and relationships, whilst also reaching into informal
settings to draw significant others into the learning process.
●● Teachers/leaders believe that it is their role to develop positive relationships in
classrooms/staffrooms.
●● Teachers/leaders inform all about the language of learning.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 115

Figure 4.2 Key

Teaching Teaching approaches Teacher features in a
environment characteristics repertoire of
●● Calm,well-disciplined, ●● Interactive
(e.g. working ●● Good subject knowledge effective teaching
(Rowe, Wilkin and
orderly and learning together – ●● Self-efficacy and belief Wilson, 2012)
●● Safe and secure social constructivism) ●● High expectations
●● Anethos of aspiration ●● Use of teacher–pupil ●● Motivational
and achievement for all dialogue, questioning
●● Provides challenge
●● Positive emotional climate ●● Monitoring pupil progress
●● Innovative and proactive
●● Purposeful, stimulating (including the use of
●● Calm
feedback)
●● Bright,
attractive and ●● Caring
●● Pupilassessment
informative displays
(including assessment for ●● Sensitive
●● Clean,tidy and well
learning) ●● Gives praise
organised
●● Pupil agency and voice ●● Uses humour as a tool
●● New or redesigned
(active engagement in ●● Engenderstrust and
buildings and spaces
their learning) mutual respect
●● Lower class sizes
●● Enquiry-based ●● Flexible
(where
●● Effective
planning and appropriate)
organisation ●● Buildspositive
●● Scaffolding learning relationships with pupils
●● Building on the prior ●● Self-reflecting
experience and learning
of pupils
●● Personalisation,
responding to individual
needs
●● Home–schoollearning,
knowledge exchange
●● Useof new technology
and ICT
●● Collaborative practice
●● Good use of teaching
assistants
●● Creative use of visits and
visiting experts

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116 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

The final three of Hattie’s ‘mind frames’ relate to teacher learning and commitment.
●● Teachers/leaders believe that their fundamental task is to evaluate the effect of
their teaching on students’ learning and achievement.
●● Teachers/leaders believe that success and failure in student learning is about what
they, as teachers or leaders, did or did not to.
●● Teachers/leaders enjoy the challenge and never retreat from ‘doing their best’.
The overlaps between synoptic studies of different
Expert question sorts give confidence to the process of international
knowledge accumulation. It remains very unlikely that
Warrant: are our teaching strategies
evidence-informed, convincing and
we will ever be able to state exactly ‘what works’ in
justifiable to stakeholders? all specific educational contexts. However, as evidence
accumulates, informed teachers and others can refine
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
their understanding and improve their judgement. We are
expertise (see Chapter 16). progressively able to say ‘what is likely to work’ (see, for
example the EEF Toolkit (educationendowmentfoundation.
org.uk/toolkit). This growing confidence reflects the
development of knowledge and expertise.
It is thus becoming entirely reasonable that we should, as teachers, be able to justify (or
‘warrant’) our practices to others through the use of evidence of various sorts. It is also, of
course, increasingly reasonable to expect governments to take note, so that policy is well
aligned with knowledge about learning and teaching.

Conclusion
In this chapter we have reviewed TLRP’s ten evidence-informed principles which were
developed to support the judgements of teachers and others in working towards high-
quality teaching and learning.
Each principle focuses attention onto particular dimensions of teaching and learning.
However, the principles should be seen as being interconnected. TLRP represented them
‘in the round’ to assert holism and to facilitate consideration of inter-relationships (see
Figure 4.1). The salience of particular principles may change in relation to the specific
circumstances or issues which a teacher faces, but none of them is likely to recede entirely.
The ten principles are used to structure reflection within this book because they tap into
the enduring issues which teachers must face. At various points within the book, the text
thus draws attention to particular principles in relation to the issues under consideration.
The principles offer a framework for our understanding. They are also complemented
through the book by the introduction of powerful concepts and ‘expert questions’ for
analysing teacher expertise. We will take stock of these elements as a whole in Chapter 16.
The principles have a particular cutting edge when used to evaluate or review actual
policy or practice. When that is done, there is often a gap between aspiration and

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 Chapter 4 Principles 117

achievement. This gives pause for thought, and can lead to new insights and develop-
ments. Why not apply the principles to interrogate a government policy document or, at
the other end of the scale, to review some aspect of school provision, or a dimension of
your classroom practice that has been concerning you?
As we have seen, TLRP’s work is part of a continuing international effort to harvest,
evaluate and synthesise global knowledge about teaching and learning. TLRP’s principles
represent a holistic understanding of teaching, learning and education. They complement
more specific analyses of the measured effects of particular teaching strategies.
We conclude this chapter with a statement from the Chief Executive of the General
Teaching Council for England which once again asserts the role of evidence-informed,
principled judgement:

As professionals, teachers use expert judgement to recognise and resolve the dilemmas in
teaching and learning which they face every day in the classroom. At their best, teachers
are able to reflect on and evaluate their practices, and to make rationally and ethically
defensible judgements that go beyond compliance, pragmatic constraints or ideological
preferences. (Bartley, 2010, p. 2)

This book is designed to support the development of such judgement, and TLRP’s ten
principles are offered as contributions to that goal.

Key readings
Simple summaries of TLRP’s findings are available in the form of a teacher guide,
poster, DVD and Commentary at: tlrp.org/findings or on reflectiveteaching.co.uk/links. The
Commentary is:
James, M. and Pollard. A. (2006) Improving Teaching and Learning in Schools.
London: TLRP.

For an extended academic review of the principles and international commentaries see:
James, M. and Pollard, A. (2012) Principles for Effective Pedagogy: International
Responses to Evidence from the UK Teaching and Learning Research Programme.
London: Routledge.

Synoptic reviews of cumulative evidence on teaching and learning include:

Bransford, J. (ed.) (1999) How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. (Reading 4.1)
Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2011) Effective Teaching. Evidence and Practice.
London: SAGE. (Reading 8.7)
Good, T. and Brophy. J. (2008) Looking in Classrooms. Boston: Pearson.
Darling Hammond, L. (1996) The Right to Learn: A Blueprint for Creating Schools
that Work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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118 Part 1 Becoming a reflective professional

Globally influential work drawing on development in Austalia, Canada, Singapore and

Finland is:
Hayes, D., Mills, M., Christie, P. and Linguard, R. (2006) Teachers and Schooling
Making a Difference. Sydney: Allen and Unwin.
Levin, B. (2008) How to Change 5000 Schools. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard Eduction
Press.
Hogan, D., Chan, M., Rahim, R., Kwek, D., Aye, K. M., Loo, S. C., Sheng, Y. and
Luo, W. (2013) ‘Assessment and the logic of instructional practice in Secondary
3 English and Mathematics classes in Singapore.’ Review of Education, 1 (1),
57–106. (see Reading 4.2)
Sahlberg, P. (2012) Finnish Lessons: What Can the World Learn from Educational
Change in Finland? Boston: Teachers’ College Press. (Reading 4.3)

An OECD attempt to summarise the implications deriving from what is known about
learning from across the world is:
Dumont, H., Istance, D. and Benavides, F. (2010) The Nature of Learning. Using
Research to Inspire Practice. Paris: OECD. (Reading 4.4)

A UK synopsis of contemporary studies on effective teaching is:

Rowe, N., Wilkin, A. and Wilson, R. (2012) Mapping of Seminal Reports on Good
Teaching. Slough: NFER. (Reading 4.5)

Two synopses of quantitative research, encouragingly consonant in general with the

results of qualitative research and teacher experience, are:
Hattie, J. (2009) Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Meta-Analyses Relating to
Achievement. London: Routledge. (Reading 4.6)
Marzano, R. J. (2009) Designing and Teaching Learning Goals and Objectives.
Bloomington: Solution Tree.

For a UK website harvesting international evidence on particular teaching strategies and

summarising knowledge from a programme of randomised trials in England, see:
educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/toolkit

For more specialist insights, the handbook below indicates the range of scientific
disciplines engaging with contemporary understanding of teaching and learning, and the
nature of their contributions.
Sawyer, R. K. (2006) The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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 Chapter 4 Principles 119

The insights from international research are also played out in particular ways in relation
to learners of different ages, and thus for each sector of education. Among the most
significant recent sectoral reviews are:

Early Childhood: The Effective Pre-School and Primary Education Project:

Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I. and Taggart, B. (2010)
Early Childhood Matters. London: Routledge.
This book summarises the first large scale multi-level longitudinal study of young
children’s development and underpinned a significant expansion in early years provision
in the UK. See www.ioe.ac.uk/eppse <http://www.ioe.ac.uk/eppse>.

Cambridge Primary Review: Alexander, R. (ed.) (2010) Children, Their World,

Their Education, Final Report and Recommendations. London: Routledge.
The CPR was funded in 2006 by Esmee Fairbairn Foundation to evaluate the current
state of primary education by combining ‘retrospective evidence with prospective
vision’. The final report, based on extensive research, drew together over 30 interim
reports. Its website is can be found at: www.primaryreview.org.uk.

Nuffield 14–19 Review: Pring, R., Hayward, G., Hodgson, A., Johnson, J., Keep,
E., Oancea, A., Rees, G., Spours, K. and Wilde, S. (2009) Education for All: the
Future of Education and Training for 14–19 Year Olds in England and Wales.
London: Routledge.
In 2003, the Nuffield Foundation funded a major Review of every aspect of 14–19
provision to be led by Richard Pring. The final Report was supported by a wide range of
research papers, and these remain available on its website (www.nuffieldfoundation.org/
nuffield-review-14–19-education-and-training-0)

Inquiry into the Future of Lifelong Learning: Schuller, T. and Watson, D. (2009)
Learning Through Life. London: National Institute for Adult Continuing Education
(NIACE).
This Inquiry was set up in 2007 by the National Institute of Adult Continuing
Education, and informed by over 250 evidence submissions. The Report is ‘nested’ in
30 supplementary papers published on www.lifelonglearninginquiry.org.uk. The primary
focus is on adult learning but the crucial continuity with early childhood and schooling
is drawn out.

Mental Capital and Well Being Report: Feinstein, L., Vorhaus, J., Sabates, R.
(2008) Learning through Life: Future Challenges. London: Government Office for
Science. (Reading 1.6)
The Office for Science’s Foresight Programme advises the Government on how to
achieve the best possible intellectual development for everyone. This Report considered
factors which could affect ‘learning through life’ in future decades. The report is
available at foresight.gov.uk.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
part two 2
Creating
conditions for
learning
5 Contexts What is, and what might be?

6 Relationships How are we getting on

together?

7 Engagement How are we managing

behaviour?

8 Spaces How are we creating environments for

learning?

This part concerns the creation of classroom environments to

support high-quality teaching and learning.

We begin by considering the circumstances which impinge on

families and schools (Chapter 5) – and we note the ways in
which people contribute to and challenge such circumstances
through their actions.
We then move to the heart of classroom life with a focus on
teacher–pupil relationships and classroom climate (Chapter
6). Because ‘good relationships’ are so enabling, this is an
extremely important chapter.

Chapter 7 builds further and illustrates how positive cycles

of behaviour can be created through firmness, fairness and
engaging pupils in the curriculum.

Finally, we consider a range of learning spaces (Chapter 8)

in school and beyond and we consider affordances they
offer for formal and informal learning. As well as the basic
dimensions of classroom organisation, this chapter also
addresses the use of technology, pupil organisation and
teamworking with teacher assistants.
Contexts
What is, and what
might be?

5
Introduction (p. 124)

1 Social context (p. 125)

1.1 Ideology (p. 125)

1.2 Culture (p. 128)
1.3 Opportunity (p. 131)
1.4 Accountability (p. 135)

2 People and agency (p. 138)

2.1 Teachers (p. 138)

2.2 Pupils (p. 140)

Conclusion (p. 143)

124 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Introduction
This chapter provides a brief review of some of the contextual factors which are important
in education, and of how teachers, children and families respond. The influence of social
context pervades everything that happens in schools and classrooms, and awareness of
such issues is therefore an important contributing element of reflective teaching. This
influence is felt at many levels – from the ‘big picture’ of government policies in Scotland,
Wales, England, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland or elsewhere, to the detail of
community, school and family cultures and particular individual circumstances.
A second purpose of the chapter is to establish some principles concerning the relation-
ships of individuals and society. Indeed, the chapter is very deliberately in two parts.
The first, ‘Social context’, emphasises the ideas, social structures and distribution of
resources which structure action in various ways. The second part, ‘People and agency’,
is concerned with the factors which, in various senses, enable action by individual teachers
and children.
A particular theoretical position thus underpins this chapter and, indeed, the book
as a whole. At its core is the conception of a dialectical relationship between society
and individuals. This suggests the existence of a constant interplay of social forces and
individual actions (see, for example, Giddens, 1984). On the one hand, the decisions and
actions which people make and take in their lives are constrained by social structures and
by the historical processes which bring about such structures. On the other hand, each
individual has a unique sense of self, derived from his or her personal history or biography.
Individuals have a degree of free will in acting and in developing understandings with
others. Sets of these understandings, which endure over time, form the basis of cultures.
Such understandings can also lead to challenges to established social structures and thus
to future changes.
The ways in which these processes play out is significantly influenced by the circum-
stances of various social groups in terms of power, wealth, status and opportunities (Reid
1998, Halsey, 1986). Individuals, each with their own background and sense of self, will
react to such factors in a variety of ways. Some in powerful positions might wish to close
ranks and defend themselves by suggesting that their position is inherited by right or
earned by merit. Some among those who are less fortunate may accept the social order
or even aspire to success in its terms. Others may try to contest it – for of course, to be
able to question existing social arrangements is a fundamental right in our democratic
societies.
The particular historical era in which we happen to live also makes a significant
difference. Following the Second World War, the UK economy was still the third largest
in the world (after the US and Soviet Union). Since then our living standards have trebled
and life-expectancy has steadily risen. However, relative to some other countries such
as Germany and the US, our growth has been relatively faltering and unbalanced. In
the future, growth and competition from countries such as China, India and Brazil will
continue to force structural changes in our economy. In recent decades, these global
forces have resulted in increasingly interventionist education policies from governments

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 Chapter 5 Contexts 125

of both left and right. The form of intervention differs, but intervene they do. Educational
provision, in other words, cannot escape its circumstances.
There is thus an enduring ebb and flow in social change – a process of tension and
struggle. It is the product of a constant interaction between agency and circumstance,
voluntarism and determinism, biography and history (Mills, 1959, Reading 5.1).
New priorities may emerge in future (see Collarbone, 2009, Reading 16.1). For instance,
given the environmental challenges facing the world, it would not be surprising if schools
were one day required to play a major role in introducing more sustainable ways of life to
new generations. At the moment, governments sometimes appear to merely pay lip service
to this issue, but events could make it a much higher priority. We cannot predict the future
and the roles which education may be called upon to fulfil.
A reflective teacher has responsibilities within this process which should not be avoided.
The interaction of structure and agency can thus be seen in education, as in other
fields of life. Amongst the many ways in which they may be realised, they can be seen to
influence both national policy frameworks and everyday informal learning.

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on the broader contexts in
which teaching and learning take place:
Effective teaching and learning recognises the significance of informal
learning. Informal learning, such as learning out of school, should be recognised
as at least as significant as formal learning and should therefore be valued and used
appropriately in formal processes. (Principle 8)
Effective teaching and learning demands consistent policy frameworks
with support for teaching and learning as their primary focus. Policies at
national, local and institutional levels need to recognise the fundamental importance
of teaching and learning. They should be designed to create effective learning
environments in which all learners can thrive. (Principle 10) See Chapter 4

1 Social context
We now consider four aspects of the social context which are particularly significant for
practice in schools: ideology, culture, opportunity and accountability. The influence of
each can be traced at national, regional, local and school levels so that, although such
issues sometimes seem distant, they shape classroom activity in very real ways.

1.1 Ideology
A dictionary definition of ideology states that it means a ‘way of thinking’. However,
particular sets of ideas are often used, consciously or unconsciously, to promote and
legitimise the interests of specific groups of people. Indeed, if a particular way of thinking

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126 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

about a society is dominant at any point in time, it is likely to be an important influence

on education and on teachers’ actions. It may determine the types of schools which are
created, produce a particular curriculum emphasis and even begin to frame the ways in
which teachers think about their work and relate with children and young people.
For instance, in the US of the 1950s and the Cold War, anti-communist feeling was so
great that it not only led to the now discredited inquisitions of the McCarthy Committee
but also to a range of nationalistic practices in schools, re-interpretations of history
and pressures to compete with the ‘enemy’, particularly after the 1957 launch of the
Russian Sputnik satellite. Similarly, in the USSR and Eastern Bloc countries, before the
revolutionary changes which swept Eastern Europe in 1989, pupils were taught highly
selective views of history, of the values and achievements of their societies. They too were
encouraged to compete, particularly to sustain exceptional international achievements in
areas such as science and sport. In both cases, despite widely differing circumstances, it
can be seen that the ideologies of key political elites interacted with the ‘commonsense
thinking’ of the wider population to create particular ideological climates (see the work of
Gramsci, 1978, for an analysis of such hegemonic phenomena). Although the influence of
these ideological periods was enormous, they passed.
International comparison also enables us to place the ‘taken for granted’ into perspective
and consider alteratives. A study by the LLAKEs research centre in London (Green and
Janmaat, 2011, Reading 5.2) analysed the values and assumptions underpinning education
policies in the western world. They identify three main positions:
●● Liberal – with core beliefs in individual opportunities and rewards based on merit
(English speaking countries, particularly UK and US);
●● Social Market – with solidarity depending more on the state and less on civil
society (North West continental Europe, including Belgium, France, Germany,
Netherlands);
●● Social Democratic – with egalitarian and solidaristic values and higher levels of
social and political trust (Nordic countries, such as Denmark, Finland, Norway,
Sweden).
Particular beliefs and values permeate perception and decision-making in these societies,
and throw up a wide range of issues. For instance, a common question in some parts of the
UK is: Why do we widely admire the achievements of the Nordic countries but in reality
do so little to emulate them?
The ideologies which influence education in the UK also come and go.
For example, there have been very different beliefs over the years about what kinds
of schools should be provided and who should go to them. After the Second World War,
it was thought that the most appropriate way of organising secondary education was
to have different types of school – grammar schools, technical schools and secondary
moderns. Pupils would be selected for each of these schools on merit, based on how
they performed in ‘11-plus’ tests. However, it was not long before this ‘tripartite’ system
came to be criticised for favouring well-off families rather than widening educational
opportunities. This led to proposals for the introduction of a system of secondary schools,

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 Chapter 5 Contexts 127

which would be ‘comprehensive’ in that there was to be no selection of students. By

the 1960s this view had become the new orthodoxy and, with support from all major
political parties, comprehensive schools supported by local education authorities became
the norm in most of England, Scotland and Wales. The commitment to the meritocratic
ideal of ‘opportunities for all’ was distinctive, but comprehensives were criticised in the
1990s for being too complacent or, as an English Minister once put it, ‘bog standard’. The
Coalition Government in England from 2010 urged that schools should become responsive
to their clientele by breaking free from local authorities and establishing themselves as
independent ‘academies’. A mix of competition and collaboration between such schools is
expected to improve the performance of the system overall.
Some historians have argued (for example, Simon, 1992) that forms of school organi-
sation can best be understood in terms of the reproduction of social class structures and
patterns of advantage and disadvantage. Indeed, authors such as Althusser (1971) saw
education systems within capitalist societies as forms of an ‘ideological state apparatus’
designed to achieve broader social control in the interests of powerful elites. On the other
hand, sociologists such as Collins (1977), Kogan (1978) and Archer (1979, Reading 17.1)
have argued that educational policies and provision are the product of competing interest
groups and that control and power is more diffuse.
Unfortunately, ideologies flourish in education about the curriculum, teaching methods,
assessment requirements and many other issues. In the postwar years, civil servants had
tended to moderate political manifestations of popular ideas – though this was, in itself,
a reflection of their own ‘assumptive world’ (McPherson and Raab, 1988). However, in
more recent decades there has been a considerable struggle for control between politi-
cians, civil servants and professionals over education policy (Ball, 1990; Bowe, Ball and
Gold, 1992, Reading 17.7). As they should in democracies, politicians gradually prevailed
– but the tension can still be seen in animated media debates and moral panics about
education issues, uneasy relationships between researchers and policymakers, and regular
‘shake ups’ of government education departments. In recent years politicians have taken
to claiming that their policies are ‘evidence based’ – though the academic community
is sometimes rather sceptical of this assertion. However, the commitment in principle
to the use of evidence to inform policy and practice is a very important development.
Significant work has been done on this through organisations such as the Economic and
Social Research Council, the British Academy and, in education, the UK Strategic Forum
for Research in Education (SFRE), Campaign for Evidence-Based Education (CEBE) and
British Educational Research Association (BERA).
Even at national levels, ideologies interact with
culture and identity as well as with material interests. For Expert question
example, in England, as we will see in the discussion of Warrant: are our teaching strategies
accountability later in this chapter, the big story of the evidence-informed, convincing and
last 30 years has been the growth of centralised control justifiable to stakeholders?
over the education system. But this is not quite the same This question contributes to a conceptual
in Scotland, Northern Ireland or Wales, where devolution framework underpinning professional
has enabled the centralist tendencies of the English expertise (see Chapter 16).
system to be significantly moderated. No ideology is

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128 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

all-powerful, and countervailing ideas emerge over time, based on their own power-bases
and social movements.
The Scottish Parliament now ensures that education policy responds to Scottish, rather
than English, priorities. Similarly, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern
Ireland Assembly, with more limited powers, act to interpret primary legislation and
to develop their own new policy initiatives. However, such measures are influenced
by different sets of beliefs and power relations. In Wales, for instance, the Curriculum
Cymreig and the compulsory teaching and learning of the Welsh language are particularly
distinctive. Debate over the future of Northern Ireland’s grammar schools continues, as
it has for decades, though the 11-plus transfer test has recently been abolished. Although
integrated education has been expanding, over 90 per cent of Northern Ireland’s pupils still
attend either Catholic or Protestant schools. Meanwhile, as we will see in more detail later
in this chapter, Scotland has taken distinctive positions, for instance on student fees, the
Curriculum for Excellence and professional development matters. The Republic of Ireland
has been fully independent since 1922, and its education system has evolved considerably
over the period.
The relationships between the four major parts of the UK have always been complex
and, of course, they will continue to evolve. Whilst such complexity has increased since
devolution, the basic educational issues to be tackled remain much the same. Education
is inevitably concerned with the future, with opportunities and life-chances, with produc-
tivity, wealth, community, identity and fulfilment. It is not surprising that it is contested.
If possible, reflective teachers should develop their understanding at this enduring level.
In summary, the ideas, perspectives or beliefs which prevail at a particular point of time
are likely to be reflected in public debate and education policy. Whilst the basic issues
being contested are likely to remain much the same, the settlements reached will change
and change again over a teaching career. At some point in time, critique and experience
lead to evaluation, counter proposal, development and change (Bowe, Ball and Gold,
1992, Reading 17.7). Societies and dominant ideologies are never static, but awareness
of the concept of ideology makes it more likely that reflective teachers will be able to
evaluate the values or interests that may lie behind new ideas, policies or practices.
It is important to remember that no one, including ourselves, is immune to the influ-
ences of ideologies. For instance, professional ideologies are always likely to remain
strong among teachers – they represent commitments, ideals and interests. Reflective
teachers should be open-minded enough to constructively critique their own beliefs, as
well as those of others.

1.2 Culture
Cultures can be seen as sets of shared perspectives. They often develop from collective
activity and from the creative responses of groups to situations. Furthermore, cultures
endure over time and thus represent sets of perspectives, values and practices into which
individuals are likely to be socialised. The playground cultures of young children provide
an example here. In one sense, children in friendship groups develop unique and particular

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ways of perceiving school life. Indeed, they use these as a means of understanding school
and coping with it (Clarricoates, 1987; Davies, 1982; Pollard, 1987b). Yet at the same
time, continuities in children’s culture, from generation to generation, provide a context
which young children absorb (Opie and Opie, 1959; Sluckin, 1981). For older students,
pupil cultures are strongly influenced by films, television, games, popular music, mobile
phones and other styles and technologies – but they are played out through students’
collective agency.
The community within the school provides another cultural context. This will influence
and be influenced by the perspectives of parents, children and teachers. However, few
communities can be characterised as single, united entities. Among the many divisions
which may exist are those relating to ethnicity, language, religion, social class, gender,
sexuality and to political or personal values. The existence of such cultural diversity is
particularly important in many inner-city schools and reflective teachers are likely to
explore the relationship between cultures in young peoples’ homes, communities and
school very carefully indeed (Vincent, 2000). A great deal of research has shown problems
arising when working-class cultures are regarded as being deficient by those in schools
(for example, Lareau, 1989; Sharp and Green, 1975; Ball, 1981a). Similarly, institution-
alised forms of racism are likely to result if teachers fail to appreciate the perspectives of
ethnic groups (Troyna and Hatcher, 1992; Wright, 1992; Mac an Ghaill, 1988; Gillborn,
1995). Stereotypical perceptions of teachers may also have gender or sexuality dimensions
that could impinge in a number of ways on the educational opportunities of both girls and
boys (for example, Thorne, 1993; Kehily, 2002; Skelton, 2001, Mac an Ghaill, 1994).
There are also likely to be cultures among the adults within each school. Primary
school staffrooms provide a backstage area where tensions are released, feelings are
shared and understandings about school life are developed. This is the territory of the
classroom teacher, and the resulting relationships usually provide a source of solidarity
and sympathy when facing the daily pressures of classrooms (Nias et al., 1989). While
colleagues may be stimulating and supportive of experimentation, they can also become
protective of existing practices and inhibit innovation (Pollard, 1987a; Sedgwick, 1988).
Within secondary schools, teachers’ allegiances and identities tend to be strongly influ-
enced by subject departments, but may also reflect the pastoral system of year group
teams or a range of sporting or supplementary school activities (Power, 1996). Whilst the
complexity of secondary schools creates more opportunities for sub-groups to form within
the staff, headteachers will be concerned to maintain a shared understanding of ‘the way
we do things here’.
Devolution has had a particularly significant effect as cultural differences become
reflected in education policies. After 1999, with the establishment of the Scottish
Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly, a high
degree of political autonomy was established in each home country. Scotland and Northern
Ireland took responsibility for legislation for education and training, and Wales took
executive control for the implementation of shared English–Welsh legislation. There were
initially many similarities between the four systems (Raffe et al., 1999) with the same
broad institutional structure of schools and many other arrangements. As time has passed,
notable differences have developed. Of particular note is the role of the Welsh language

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and the Curriculum Cymreig in asserting a strong Welsh identity. In Scotland, education
has been seen as ‘lying at the heart of Scottish identity’ (Paterson, 1998), with teachers as
significant cultural leaders. The Curriculum for Excellence is a uniquely Scottish creation
for 3 to 18-year-olds (see also Reading 14.2). It has strong recognition of lifelong learning
and identifies ‘four capacities’ to complement ‘curriculum areas and subjects’. In Northern
Ireland, the challenge of achieving political agreement delayed the creation of a stream-
lined Education and Skills Authority and selective secondary education has been retained
despite the fact that the 11-plus exam has been abolished. The influence of the churches
also remains an enduring feature of education. However, the Council for the Curriculum,
Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) has developed an innovative Northern Ireland
Curriculum and has facilitated some exceptional uses of new technologies to support
schools. There are thus both important differences and enduring similarities in educational
provision across the UK. Particular priorities and institutional arrangements are likely to
become increasingly distinct.
Cultures have a huge impact on learning and behaviour, as is being progressively
demonstrated by the rapidly developing field of ‘cultural psychology’ (Wells, 2011,
Reading 2.4; Bruner, 1986, 1990, Reading 11.1; see also Chapter 2). For instance, Wertsch
(1991) argues that the thinking of any learner is dependent on the ‘cultural tools’ that
they deploy. These concepts and artefacts frame and mediate understanding and thus
shape development. They will thus certainly have a direct impact on school performance.
Similarly, new learning may affect, or even change, the sense of identity of individuals,
and such changes may or may not feel viable to them within their home culture. For
instance, a classic study (Jackson and Marsden, 1962) showed the unease of working-class
boys on being sent out of their communities to a grammar school, and similar problems
may affect the performance of children from minority ethnic groups today. It has been
argued that organisations like schools can helpfully be seen as ‘communities of practice’
(Wenger, 1999) which evolve and maintain strong norms of behaviour and thought. New
members must learn how to conduct themselves and there may be a process of ‘cognitive
apprenticeship’ (Rogoff, 1990) as new understanding is
acquired. However, depending on the social, cultural and
Expert question economic background of a new pupil or teacher, such
Culture: does the school support induction may or may not be comfortable. Cultures can
expansive learning by affirming learner thus be exclusive as well as inclusive, particularly when
contributions, engaging partners and organisations feel the need to assert a narrow range of
providing attractive opportunities? goals. Sadly, exclusion from school has become a signif-
This question contributes to a conceptual icant issue in recent years.
framework underpinning professional There is thus a sense in which cultures can both
expertise (see Chapter 16). enable and constrain learning. Indeed, they are likely to
afford different opportunities for particular individuals
and groups. It is to these issues that we now turn.

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1.3 Opportunity
It has been said that ‘education cannot compensate for society’ (Bernstein, 1971) – and
yet the opportunities which teachers and others aspire to create for their pupils make an
important contribution to the meritocratic ideal to which most contemporary societies
subscribe. However, the challenge of creating such opportunities through education is not
to be underestimated.
Although there are substantial differences in Scotland,
Wales, Northern Ireland and in England’s regions, the UK Expert question
as a whole is very wealthy in terms of global criteria – Consequence: do assessment outcomes
but at the same time there is significant inequality in the lead towards recognised qualifications
distribution of income and wealth. For instance, in 2008/9 and a confident sense of personal
the bottom fifth of households received under £5,000 in identity?
annual income before tax and benefits, whilst the top fifth This question contributes to a conceptual
had £73,800 or more – 15 times higher. Such differences framework underpinning professional
have existed for many centuries and tangible evidence of expertise (see Chapter 16).
this is available in the contrasts of our buildings, estates
and landscape in both urban and rural settings – or even in
the windows of estate agents (bearing also in mind that increasing numbers of households
do not own their homes). Indeed, it may seem extraordinary, but 3.8 million UK children
(29 per cent) live in poverty as defined by the Department for Work and Pensions (2011).
In many instances, these children are concentrated in particular communities in which
‘cycles of disadvantage’ (Rutter and Madge, 1976) are remarkably resistant to change
(DCSF, 2009, Reading 5.4).
International comparison shows that health, social and educational problems are closely
related to inequality within wealthy countries (Wilkinson and Pickett, 2009), as illustrated
in Figure 5.1 below.
Worse USA Figure 5.1
Health and
social problems
in relation
Index of health and social problems

Portugal to inequality
(Wilkinson and
UK
Pickett, 2009)
Greece
Ireland New Zealand
Austria France
Australia
Denmark Germany Canada Italy
Belgium Spain
Finland
Switzerland
Norway Netherlands
Sweden

Japan

Better
Low High
Income inequality

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132 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

These relative positions are measured regularly by international agencies and draw
from data within each country on issues such as social relations, life expectancy, mental
health, obesity and, not least, educational performance.
In the case of the UK, there was a substantial rise in inequality during the 1980s and
in recent years the incomes of top earners have continued to race away (Sibieta, 2011).
Economists speculate about the causes of these trends and debate factors such as changes
in employment opportunities, returns from high-level skills and education, regional differ-
ences and demographic patterns. The direct consequences of government policies on tax
and benefits may moderate such structural factors, but the UK’s recent experience is of
a low level of inter-generational mobility (Blanden, Gregg and Machin, 2005). In other
words, the circumstance of parents tends to be reproduced for their children.
In summary, affluence and poverty are both growing and becoming ‘locked in’
(Crawford et al., 2011; DCSF, 2009, Reading 5.4). The social differences in our societies
tend to be reproduced from generation to generation. How then does this process of repro-
duction occur?
An illuminative analysis of this has been provided by a French sociologist, Pierre
Bourdieu (1977). Whilst recognising exceptional cases, he argued that overall social status
is significantly affected by three forms of ‘capital’ – each of which can be transferred
from one generation to another. ‘Economic capital’ concerns access to material assets.
‘Social capital’ focuses on relationships in the family, community or wider society which
offers contacts, networks and support. ‘Cultural capital’ relates to the understanding,
knowledge and capabilities of individuals to act within particular social settings. The
seeds of difference are sown in the ways in which young children are brought up (see
Ball, 2003, Reading 5.3). For instance, Lareau (1989) contrasts the ‘concerted cultivation’
of middle-class families with the assumption of ‘natural growth’. The latter causes less
aware families to interact with their children in quite different ways – with particularly
significant consequences for language development. Reay (2000) illuminates how mothers
in different circumstances deploy ‘emotional capital’ to support their children, and she
suggests that generational reserves are built up over time.
Families thus provide economic, social, cultural, linguistic and emotional resources.
These affect the experiences, opportunities and expectations which are made available to
the next generation.
These factors are particularly transparent in relation to school choice, with the private
sector offering to reinforce advantages for the children of parents who can afford their
fees. Sociologists fear that the quasi-market in schooling, which has been extended in
England through the roll-out of independent academies, will further embed inequality
(Ball, 2008). Whilst the Government promotes the ‘freedom’ of such schools from local
authorities, the new structures of provision are expected by others to undermine education
as a public good and render it as a ‘market-controlled commodity’ (Benn, 2011).
Using very large data-sets and innovative statistical techniques, it is now possible to
measure the relative influence of neighbourhood, school, family and personal influences
on a child’s education (Leckie, Pillinger, Jenkins and Rasbash, 2010). This shows that
family and personal factors are by far the most significant, which puts the work of schools
into perspective (see the Research Briefing on p. 133).

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 Chapter 5 Contexts 133

Research School, family, neighbourhood: which is most important to a

Briefing child’s education?
Children grow up in complex social environments. The influences on a child’s development are many, and many-layered. The school they
go to, the family around them, and the neighbourhood they grow up in are often highlighted as particularly important for children’s
educational achievements. But, which is the most important?

• f amilies account for 40% of the overall variation between children in their academic progress during secondary schooling;
• the wider shared environments of primary school (9%), secondary school (10%), neighbourhood (2%) and Local Education Authority
(LEA) (1%) account for a total of 22%;
• children themselves account for the remaining 38%.
From a school effectiveness point of view it is interesting that the family effect is just as important as the child effect. However, this does
not necessarily imply that interventions to improve child academic outcomes are best implemented at the family level. While primary
and secondary schools appear less important than families, they still make reasonably substantial contributions; and it is at these levels
that many educational policies are likely to be most effective. It is easier for governments to intervene in the running of schools than to
change parenting practices within families.

The research
Our knowledge of the impact of schools, 50
neighbourhoods and families comes from studies
% of total variation in educational progress

that look at each of these influences separately,

and therefore little is known about their relative
importance. For example, school effectiveness 40
studies attempt to measure the importance of
schools on children’s academic progress, but
nearly always ignore the role of family. Family 30
research using siblings, on the other hand,
attempts to quantify the importance of genetic
and environmental family influences, but nearly
always ignores the role of the wider shared 20
environment of schools and neighbourhoods.
Knowledge of the relative effects of schools,
neighbourhoods and families is needed to 10
help inform decisions about the allocation of
government resources to programmes and
policies that will support children’s learning.
0
The importance of different influences on LEA Secondary Primary Neighbourhood Family Child
educational progress, with 95% credible intervals.
Research design
We follow half a million English school children through secondary schooling. We use cross-classified multilevel statistical models to
estimate the impact of the different influences of children’s complex social environments on their academic progress.
Our final model decomposes the variation in children’s progress into effects attributable to six influences: Local Education
Authorities (LEAs), secondary schools, neighbourhoods, primary schools, families and children. This is an improvement on previous
school effectiveness studies because it differentiates, for the first time, between the effects of the family and of the pupil; and it is an
improvement on previous family research because it estimates the influence of the family-shared environment separately from those
of the wider shared environments of schools and areas. Thus, we unite school effectiveness studies and family research under a single
framework and therefore disentangle the various influences on children’s progress.
Further information
References for practitioners, journalists and policymakers
Leckie, G., Pillinger, R., Jenkins, J. and Rasbash, J. (2010). School, family, neighbourhood: which is most important to a child’s education? MethodsNews:
Newsletter from the ESRC National Centre for Research, Summer, 4.
Leckie, G., Pillinger, R., Jenkins, J. and Rasbash, J. (2010). School, family, neighbourhood: which is most important to a child’s education? Significance, 7, 67–72.

This work was carried out at the University of Bristol.

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134 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

It is absolutely clear then, that it is impossible for education to ‘compensate for

society’. And yet the particular needs of the pupils before us still have to be met, and
this is a moral imperative as well as a professional responsibility. Whatever the nature
of the overall context around us, teachers must focus on providing the best possible
educational opportunities for their pupils. Indeed, beyond the overarching statistics,
there are many examples of people whose lives have been transformed through the
influence of teachers.
The resources which are available in a school make a big difference in the creation
of learning opportunities, and we will distinguish four types here: people, buildings,
equipment and materials.
Many people are involved in the life of a successful school and, for this reason collabo-
ration and teamwork are needed, irrespective of status. Apart from the head and the
teaching staff, there are many others, such as cleaners, dinner supervisors, cooks, secre-
taries, classroom ancillaries and caretakers, who all have very important supportive roles
to play. However, from the educational point of view, the expertise of classroom teachers
is the key factor in determining the quality of provision. Teachers themselves are the most
important resource, which puts a premium on the recruitment, development and retention
of excellent staff. Class size is perceived as a major factor in determining practice and
research has supported this proposition for many years (e.g. Glass, 1982; PateBain et al.,
1992; Blatchford, 2003).
Buildings are also an important influence on what goes on in schools. At its most
obvious, buildings constrain decisions about numbers and types of classes because of the
number and nature of the classrooms which are available. This often affects class sizes and
forms of curriculum and teaching organisation. The quality of the school environment will
also be influenced by aesthetic considerations, and schools vary considerably in terms of
the degree of consideration that is given to this issue. Reflective teachers are likely to be
concerned about the quality of the learning environment within their classrooms, depart-
ments and school and will aim to maximise the learning potential of the spaces which they
have available (see Chapter 8).
Equipment and materials enable teachers to provide learning experiences of various
sorts. For example, for primary schools maintaining a broad and balanced curriculum
across all subjects, the needs range from hall and playground requirements to instru-
ments for music-making, artefacts for historical work and specific resources associated
with curriculum progression in English, mathematics and science. In secondary school
subject departments, equipment and materials are even more specialised and are likely
to be tuned to particular exam syllabi as well as reflecting more generic educational
objectives.
The most challenging form of equipment for schools to maintain relates to information
technology. This is fast moving in terms of both hardware and software, and variation in
provision between schools is often considerable.
UK schools have locally managed budgets in which income from national taxation is
distributed annually on the basis of a formula. This allocates a certain amount for each
pupil on roll, plus allowances in respect of social disadvantage or special educational
needs. The way this is organised varies. For instance, in Scotland three year budgets are

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managed through the 32 local authorities that are responsible for provision in their areas,
whilst in England secondary academies receive an annual grant directly from the national
government. The total cost of such funding is very considerable. For example, during
2010/11 English schools had expenditure of £35.8 billion. Of this, 0.7 per cent (£263.8
million) was spent by local authority maintained nursery schools; 47.8 per cent (£17.1
billion) by primary schools; 46.1 per cent (£16.5 billion) by secondary schools and 5.4 per
cent (£1.9 billion) by special schools.
Expenditure is the responsibility of the headteacher and governors. However, once
fixed costs are taken out of the overall budget, school managers often have relatively small
sums to spend at their discretion. Indeed, the salaries of teachers and other staff often
amount to around 75 per cent of the budget, followed by costs of building maintenance
and school running costs. Only a relatively small percentage is left for books, equipment,
materials and discretionary expenditure.
The key factor in school budgets remains the number of pupils on roll. Each school’s
position in the quasi-market for pupil enrolments in its area is thus crucial to its resource
base – hence the pressure for performance in formal assessments and in developing a
positive local reputation.
Resources thus structure the material conditions in which teachers work and the oppor-
tunities they can provide for pupils. However, the actions they take are also likely to be
influenced by the degree of autonomy which they feel they have. For this reason, we now
focus on the issue of accountability.

1.4 Accountability
Teachers are paid to provide professional services. However, the degree of accountability
and external control to which they have been subject has varied historically.
In the early years of state provision, education was managed through ‘payment by
results’. Teacher salaries were dependent on the results of annual visits by inspectors
to test pupils in reading, writing and arithmetic. Indeed, when introducing the Revised
Code for Education of 1862, its proposer Robert Lowe made the famous boast that: ‘If it
is not cheap, it shall be efficient, if it is not efficient, it shall be cheap’. Although super-
seded in the first part of the nineteenth century, the approach left a legacy in the form of
imposed performance requirements. However, from the 1920s teachers began to develop
greater professional autonomy (Lawn and Ozga, 1986). In particular, the independence of
headteachers within their schools and of class teachers within their classrooms emerged
to become established principles. After the Second World War, as professional confidence
grew, this independence extended into the curriculum to the extent that, in 1960, the
curriculum was described by Lord Eccles, Minister for Education, as a ‘secret garden’ into
which central government was not expected to intrude. Such confidence was probably at
a high point in the early 1970s.
In 1977, a speech at Ruskin College, Oxford, by Prime Minister Callaghan reflected
a changing ideological, economic and political climate. This resulted in teachers coming
under increasing pressure to ‘increase their accountability’ and to demonstrate competent

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performance against centrally defined criteria. These developments were presented by

Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative government during the 1980s as a necessary reduction
in the influence of the ‘producers’ (seen as teacher unions, administrators and theorists)
and thus to enable educational provision to be shaped by the ‘consumers’ (seen as parents
and industry, though with little direct reference to children and young people themselves).
Later, under Tony Blair’s New Labour administration, the emphasis was in terms of
applying modern personnel and performance management systems so that nationally
prescribed curricula and pedagogies could be delivered – for instance, as set out in
England through the National Curriculum and Literacy and Numeracy Strategies.
In the contemporary, devolved UK and in Ireland, a wide range of approaches is now
evident. Each country has its national curriculum and inspection system but the form and
role of these vary considerably.
With effect from 2014, England adopted a new National Curriculum which requires
primary schools to focus on core knowledge in English, mathematics and science, whilst
also expecting provision of a ‘broad and balanced’ education. Subject to these constraints,
schools are to make their own judgements about the ‘school curriculum’ as a whole.
Secondary schools have been particularly encouraged to leave the state system to become
independent ‘academies’, for which the statutory requirements of the National Curriculum
do not formally apply. In relation to assessment and qualifications, formal testing remains
at age 11. GCSEs were ‘reformed’ to increase rigour and A Level exam syllabi continue to
frame school provision but now with input from universities. The accountability measure
for secondary schools was expanded to include progress in eight subjects, thus endorsing
the value of a broad curriculum. League tables will continue to be produced – despite
the technical difficulties of doing so (Leckie and Goldstein, 2009). The English model
remains one of schools being required to directly account for themselves to stakeholders,
in competition with other schools in their locality. The direction of policy by successive
governments has been to use market forces to hold schools to account.
However, England retains a powerful interventionist
capacity in the form of the Ofsted inspection system (e.g.
Expert question Ofsted, 2012). Ofsted contracts teams of inspectors to make
Effectiveness: are there improvements in a structured report on every individual school in a regular
standards, in both basic skills and other cycle. Comparative data from schools serving similar
areas of curricular attainment, to satisfy
socio-economic communities and baseline data from the
society’s educational goals?
school being inspected are used to evaluate levels of perfor-
This question contributes to a conceptual mance and improvement. The strongest sanction available
framework underpinning professional
to Ofsted is that a school be placed in ‘special measures’.
expertise (see Chapter 16).
This means that it is deemed to have been failing to
meet expected performance standards under the present
management. Support or even an alternative leadership
team may be provided. ‘Failing schools’ can be closed by order of the Secretary of State.
Scotland has taken a very different approach and, in 2011, established Education
Scotland which aims to coordinate almost all of Scotland’s provision for curriculum,
pedagogy, assessment, leadership, self-improvement, professional development and
inspection. It seeks to support quality and improvement by working ‘in partnership

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alongside the full range of bodies and organisations active in Scottish Education’.
In addition to schools themselves, this includes local authorities, further and higher
education, third sector organisations and parent groups. Improvement is thus expected to
come from processes of personal and institutional self-development, local collaboration
and a collective sense of national purpose.
In 2011, as if to highlight these differences, England’s General Teaching Council was
abolished whilst GTC Scotland was granted full independence from the government
(effective April 2012) as a self-regulating, professionally-led body – the first in the world.
The establishment of the GTCS was strongly influenced by the model provided by the
General Medical Council. It is thus based, at root on trust in the teaching profession’s
capacity to regulate and improve its own professional standards.
The GTC for England published a policy paper on these issues just before their
abolition (2011, Reading 5.5). They argued that accountability is by nature ‘relational’
because it is associated with actions by both the account-holder and the account-giver.
Particular forms of accountability thus influence behaviour and provision. A question
then arises about the effects of accountability in relation to overarching educational
objectives. On this, the GTCE argued that in England there had been insufficient focus
on teaching quality. Rather, the foundations of professional collaboration and enduring
school improvement had been undermined by measurement of narrow, short-term perfor-
mance and by punitive inspection. In place of this, they suggested, the teaching profession
needs systems which support the development of expertise and record how professional
responsibilities are discharged. Ultimately, the profession needs to regulate itself. On
this latter point, at the time of writing, a Royal College of Teaching in England is being
actively discussed.
In Wales, Northern Ireland and Ireland, GTCs maintain professional standards of
conduct and practice, register teachers and support professional development. Like
the GTCE, they were established by legislation in the late 1990s and are largely
reliant for core functions on income from annual teacher registration. However, since
numbers of registered teachers are relatively small in Wales and Northern Ireland, this
is challenging. It raises a question about the extent to which teachers should themselves
pay for professional regulation or whether it should be funded by governments in the
public interest.
The issue of accountability thus crystallises many issues concerning the relationship
between education and society. Should education be a relatively autonomous system or
should it be under tight forms of control? Should teachers simply carry out centrally
determined instructions, or should they develop and exercise professional judgement?
What, indeed, is the role of local democratic institutions in this? And who should pay for
the accountability system? The history of our education system provides many fascinating
instances of attempts to reconcile such dilemmas (Silver, 1980) and there are plenty of
related current issues which a reflective teacher might consider.
In particular, though, and following the dialectical model of social change which we
discussed at the beginning of this chapter (Readings 5.1 and 17.5), the issues of account-
ability, autonomy and control pose questions of a personal nature for reflective teachers.
How should each individual act? To whom do you feel you should be accountable – to

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children, parents, colleagues, your headteacher, local or national government, the media,
inspectors, or yourself?

Reflective activity 5.1

Aim: To review and explore the significance of ideology, culture, opportunity and
accountability.
Evidence and reflection: Arrange to meet with a small group of work colleagues. In
preparation, share out study of each section of Chapter 4 so that ideology, culture,
opportunity and accountability are each covered.
In a meeting, each sub-group should explain the issues raised in their section of the
chapter, and should relate them to your work context. How, in particular, is your school
affected by the context in which it exists?
Extension: What other contextual factors are particularly significant in determining the
circumstances of your school?

2 People and agency

We now turn to the individual and personal factors which are the second element in the
dialectical model which underpins this book. For instance, classroom life can be seen as
being created by teachers and children as they respond to the situations in which they find
themselves. Thus, as well as understanding something of the factors affecting the social
context of schooling, we also need to consider how teachers and children respond. Such
responses reflect subjective perceptions, beliefs, values, commitments, identities, life
narratives and imagined futures. This is the exercise of agency and voice – and recognition
that our actions are not simply determined by our circumstances.
We begin by focusing on teachers.

2.1 Teachers
The importance of high-quality teaching is now understood by governments across the
world (Barber and Mourshed, 2007; OECD, 2005; Chapter 4). This has significantly
increased the attention being given to teaching as a profession, and to the individuals
within it.
Teachers are people who happen to hold a particular position in schools. No apologies
are made for asserting this simple fact, for it has enormous implications as we saw in
the first chapter of this book. Each person is unique, with particular cultural and material
experiences making up his or her ‘biography’ (Sikes, Measor and Woods, 1985). This
provides the seedbed for their sense of ‘self’ and influences their personality and perspec-
tives (Mead, 1934; Gu, 2007, Reading 1.1). The development of each person continues

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throughout life, but early formative experiences remain important. Indeed, because
personal qualities, such as having the capacity to empathise and the confidence to project
and assert oneself, are so important in teaching. Indeed, much of what particular teachers
will be able to achieve in their classrooms will be influenced by them. Of even greater
importance is the capacity to know oneself. We all have strengths and weaknesses
and most teachers would agree that classroom life tends to reveal these fairly quickly
(Turnbull, 2007). Reflective teaching is, therefore, a great deal to do with facing such
features of ourselves in a constructive and objective manner and in a way which incorpo-
rates a continuous capacity to change and develop.
The particularly human capability of being able to review the relationship of ‘what is’
and ‘what might be’ is one which teachers often draw on when considering their aims and
examining their educational values and philosophies. While there has always been a good
deal of idealism in commitment to teaching, there has also always been a concern with
practical realism. Indeed, a very important factor which influences teachers’ perceptions
in the classroom is that the teacher has to ‘cope’, personally as well as professionally,
with the classroom situation (Pollard, 1982; Woods, 1990; Sachs, 2003). For this reason,
we would suggest that a fundamental element of classroom coping, or survival, is very
deeply personal, for it involves teachers, with a particular image of their self, acting in the
challenging situation which classrooms represent. In this, it is important to remember that
what it is possible to do in classrooms is constrained by the basic facts of large numbers
of children, limited resources, compulsory attendance, curriculum and assessment frame-
works and other external expectations which exist about what should and should not
take place. The ‘social work’ role of teachers in supporting children, young people and
their parents or carers in some communities is also considerable – particularly in primary
schools (Webb and Vulliamy 2002).
In such circumstances, teachers face acute dilemmas between their personal and profes-
sional concerns and the practical possibilities (Berlak and Berlak, 1981; Eaude, 2012,
Reading 16.3). They are forced to juggle with their priorities as they manage the stress
which is often involved (Cole and Walker, 1989; Dunham, 1992; Sikes, 1997) and as they
come to terms with classroom situations.
And yet the espoused goal of contemporary policy is for the lightening of constraint
on teachers so that they are enabled to exercise professional judgement in a wider range
of circumstances. This is particularly significant in England where, at the time of writing,
Government Ministers have declared an intention to rely on teacher judgement in respect
of the ‘school curriculum’ (excepting, e.g. the core subjects), pedagogy (excepting,
e.g. phonics for early reading) and assessment (excepting, e.g. end of Key Stage tests
and formal examinations). The exceptions are extremely important qualifiers of course.
Diversity of school provision will reflect innovation by teachers as they exploit new oppor-
tunities. Reflective teachers will of course want to consider the nature of this innovation
and its social as well as educational consequences.
In recent years considerable attention has been paid to providing stronger continuity
in professional development, so that the situation of a trainee, newly qualified teacher,
established teacher, advanced skills teacher and headteacher is now well defined. This may
offer a sense of continuity for a career professional, and certainly enabling governments

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140 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

to provide more systematic forms of support and direction. Arguably the most cogent UK
example of such thinking is ‘Teaching Scotland’s Future’ (Donaldson, 2010).
We also need to consider the position of teachers as employees, for as such they have
legitimate legal, contractual and economic interests to maintain, protect and develop
(Lawn and Grace, 1987). For example, as we saw in Chapter 1, teachers in England and
Wales are contracted to work up to 1,265 hours per year ‘directed time’ over 195 working
days. Morning and afternoon breaks count as directed time, and a midday break for lunch
is also protected. Teachers may be required to undertake activities which are additional
to basic classroom teaching such as attendance at staff planning meetings and parents’
evenings, and extracurricular activities such as sport, clubs, choirs, orchestras and drama
productions. Given such activity, surveys of working hours regularly record that teachers
work far in excess of their contractual obligation. Such efforts may not be sustainable and
a balance has to be struck between educational expectations and what it is reasonable to
ask of people who happen to earn their living from teaching. Indeed, headteachers have
a duty to manage the school’s workforce with regard to their wellbeing. It should never
be forgotten that teachers also have their own personal lives outside the classroom and
their own independent identities – however challenged these may be by work and the
complexities of modern society (Maclure, 2000). Many
teachers also have significant family responsibilities, as
Expert question well as other interests which may be important to them.
Empowerment: is our pedagogic repertoire Notwithstanding such considerations, teaching attracts
successful in enhancing wellbeing, people to it who have a sense of moral purpose. There is
learning disposition, capabilities and thus, in general terms across the profession, a principled
agency? commitment to providing high-quality education that
This question contributes to a conceptual meets the needs of learners. It is this value commitment
framework underpinning professional which causes teachers to ‘go the extra mile’ on behalf of
expertise (see Chapter 16). children and young people.

2.2 Pupils
As with the personal factors associated with teachers, the most important point to make about
children and young people is that they are thinking, rational individuals (Corsaro, 2011;
James, Jenks and Prout, 1998; Jones, 2009, Reading 1.5). Each one of the ten million UK
school pupils has a unique ‘biography’, and the ways in which they feel about themselves,
and present themselves in school, will be influenced by their understandings of previous
cultural, social and material experience in their families and elsewhere (Bruner, 1986).
Through their compulsory education, from age 5 to 16, most children develop a relatively
clear sense of their identity as learners (Warin, 2010; Pollard and Filer, 1996, Reading
1.2). Indeed, preschool experience and social processes in the primary school lead them
to perceive themselves as relative school failures or successes. The foundations of their
‘learning disposition’ and stance as a ‘lifelong learner’ become established, and there is no
doubt that this is the crucial age phase for educational investment (Karoly et al., 1998) as
demonstrated by initiatives such as Sure Start and the development of Children’s Centres.

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 Chapter 5 Contexts 141

As children progress through secondary schools, with

their complex systems of setting, banding, options and Expert question
‘pathways’, these self-perceptions are further reinforced Development: does formative feedback
or modified (see also Lawrence, 1987, Reading 6.6). At and support enable learners to achieve
the point of leaving schooling and entering the worlds of personal learning goals?
college or work, children’s life trajectories are thus likely This question contributes to a conceptual
to be well established. Teachers should thus not lose framework underpinning professional
sight of the fact that, in their daily work, they are shaping expertise (see Chapter 16).
long-term life-chances and identities, as well as working
towards immediate targets for performance (Feinstein
et al., 2008, Reading 1.6).
Pupils at school embody and are influenced by a huge range of circumstances and prior
experiences. These include factors, such as sex, social class, race, language development,
learning disposition, health and type of parental support. As we saw earlier in this chapter
in the discussion of opportunities, patterns of advantage and disadvantage are very signif-
icant. However, such factors do not determine consequences.
The key issue is how children and young people respond to their circumstances – and
in this, teachers can have a crucial role in supporting them.
Pupils have to survive in classroom situations in which they may well feel insecure
(Jackson, 1968, Reading 6.1). Peer culture and the support of friends are considerable
resources in this. However, this can also pose dilemmas in class when pupils attempt to
please both their peers and their teacher. Creative strategies are called for and these may
cover a range from conformity through negotiation to rejection. The agency of young
learners is thus played out in the immediacy of the classroom and teachers thus have
unique opportunities to influence factors such as motivation, approaches to learning and
to subject knowledge (Rudduck and McIntyre, 2007; see also Reading 1.3).
Above all, though, we must never forget that children are placed in the role of ‘pupils’
for only part of each day. It is no wonder that families, friends, relationships, television,
film, computer games, music, fashion, sport, etc., are important to them. A reflective
teacher, therefore, must aim to work with an understanding of the culture of young people.
Indeed, it is very unwise to try to do otherwise and, if connections can be made, then pupil
culture can itself provide an excellent motivational hook into schoolwork.
Parents and carers can play a particularly important role in supporting the learning of
children and young people. They are often thought of as
supplementary teachers, with an advantageous one-on-
one teaching ratio, and such support is certainly a major Expert question
factor in pre-school development and early literacy. Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
However, perhaps the most important role for parents classroom organisation and consultation
and carers today is in providing a source of stable enable learners to actively participate in
emotional support for each child as he or she encounters and enjoy their learning?
new challenges in school. Reay (2000) has provided a This question contributes to a conceptual
fascinating analysis of this as a form of ‘emotional capital’. framework underpinning professional
Schools are increasingly pressured places, and there is a expertise (see Chapter 16).
need for someone to really nurture the developing child

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142 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

from day to day, year to year. It is not necessary to be

Expert question well off financially to do this, indeed, the most valuable
Connection: does the curriculum engage contributions are probably time, patience, understanding
with the cultural resources and funds- and affection. There is also an increasing understanding
of-knowledge of families and the that all families and communities, including those that
community? may seem disadvantaged, have ‘funds of knowledge’ that
This question contributes to a conceptual should be tapped to enhance children’s learning (Moll
framework underpinning professional and Greenberg, 1990). Social circumstances do, however,
expertise (see Chapter 16). radically affect participation (Crozier and Reay, 2005;
Ball, 2003, Reading 5.3; Vincent, 1996, 2000) and the
voices of young people can sometimes be inadequately
recognised (Crozier, 2000). However, if processes for supportive knowledge exchange
between such parents and teachers could be established, the potential for enhancing
learning is enormous (Hughes and Pollard, 2000; Desforges with Abouchaar, 2003).

Reflective activity 5.2

Aim: To consider the meaning and significance of ‘agency’, both for teachers and for
learners.
Evidence and reflection: Reflective activity 5.1 reviewed circumstances, and this
activity focuses on how people respond and act in relation to these. In particular,
it is about the human spirit and the possibilities which always exist whatever the
circumstances.
An interesting way of approaching this is to share one’s educational biography with
a colleague with whom one feels secure. Taking it in turns, take time to provide a
narrative of how you moved through your education, meeting different teachers,
growing up, finding some learning difficult but succeeding in others … Identify and
focus on some key episodes or turning points which enabled you to progress. Explore
if you can the actions you took and the encouragement or support you received from
others.
Does consideration of such narratives and key moments enable you to see the
significance of agency, in the form of your determination to succeed or the judgement
by others to encourage you?
Extension: You might like to consider the learning of a small number of pupils you
know at school. To what extent are they able to exercise agency in relation to their
circumstances and goals, and might you be able to help?

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 Chapter 5 Contexts 143

Conclusion
The intention in this chapter has been to discuss the relationship between society as a
whole and the people who are centrally involved in education. This is because school
practices and classroom actions are influenced by the social circumstances within which
they occur. However, it has also been argued that individuals can, and will, have effects
on future social changes as they exercise their personal agency – though the degree of
influence ebbs and flows depending on the roles occupied and at different phases of
history.
A theoretical framework of this sort is important for reflective teachers because
it establishes the principle that we can all ‘make a difference’ within our society.
Professional commitment is therefore very important and we should not accept an
ascribed position as passive receptors of externally determined prescription. The
provision of high-quality education is enhanced when social awareness complements
high levels of teaching skills, and when individual responsibilities for professional
actions are taken seriously.
This fundamental belief in the commitment, quality and constructive role of teachers
underpins the book. The analysis is optimistic. High-quality education depends on the
professionalism of teachers.

Key readings
We begin with the theoretical framework which informs this book, with its juxtaposition
of social context and individual agency.
Mills, C. W. (1959) The Sociological Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Reading 5.1)

The English Department for Education and Science exercised its own imagination to
produce:
Teaching and Learning Review Group (2006) 2020 Vision: Report of the Teaching
and Learning in 2020 Review Group. London: DfES. (Reading 10.7)

For a comparative analysis of educational values in different countries, their effects on

provision and on what seems possible, see:
Green, A., Preston, J. and Janmaat, J. G. (2006) Education, Equality and Social
Cohesion: A Comparative Analysis. London: Palgrave. (see also Reading 5.2)

Devolution has enabled distinctive policies to develop in each part of the UK. For an
authoritative account, see:
Mitchell, J. (2012) Devolution in the United Kingdom. Manchester: Manchester
University Press.

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144 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

For comprehensive reviews of contemporary issues facing primary and secondary

education in England see:
Alexander, R. (ed.) (2010) Children, Their World, Their Education. Final Report and
Recommendations of the Cambridge Primary Review. London: Routledge.
Pring, R. (2012) The Life and Death of Secondary Education for All. London:
Routledge.

The work of Pierre Bourdieu has influenced ways of understanding different forms of
cultural, social and emotional capital, alongside the economic, though which social
differences are perpetuated. See:
Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J. C. (1977) Reproduction in Education, Society and
Culture. London: SAGE.

Stephen Ball has documented policies and practices in the reproduction of social class
and other forms of differentiation, with particular reference to secondary education. A
collection is:
Ball, S. (2006) Education Policy and Social Class. London: Routledge. (see also
Reading 5.3)

On the challenges of working in schools to overcome disadvantage, see:

Department for Children, Schools and Families (2009) Breaking the Link between
Disadvantage and Low Attainment. Nottingham: DCSF Publications. (Reading 5.4)

An important international study of the consequences of inequality is:

Wilkinson, R. and Pickett, K. (2010) The Spirit Level: Why Equality is Better for
Everyone. London: Penguin.

The contextual factors which affect education so significantly are the central focus of the
field of Education Studies. See, for example:
Ward, S. (ed.) (2012) A Student’s Guide to Education Studies. London: Routledge.
Bates, J. and Lewis, S. (2009) The Study of Education: An Introduction. London:
Continuum.
Bartlett, S. and Burton, D. (2012) Introduction to Education Studies. London: SAGE.

To review the contemporary challenges and pleasures of being a teacher, see:

Day, C. and Gu, Q. (2010) The New Lives of Teachers. London: Routledge. (see also
Reading 1.1)

For an understanding of modern childhoods and schooling, and an appreciation of the

value of engaging with pupils, take a look at:
Blundell, D. (2012) Education and Constructions of Childhood. London: Continuum.
(see also Reading 1.5)

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 Chapter 5 Contexts 145

Rudduck, J. and McIntyre, D. (2007) Improving Learning Through Consulting Pupils.

London: Routledge. (see also Reading 1.3)

The challenges of parents and teachers working together in partnership to support

learners are explored in practical ways in:
Crozier, G. and Reay, D. (2005) Activating Participation: Parents and Teachers
Working Towards Partnership. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links, and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Relationships
How are we getting
on together?

6
Introduction (p. 148) 3 Teacher thinking and
professional skills (p. 160)

1 Classroom relationships (p. 149) 3.1 Teacher perspectives (p. 160)

1.1 The working consensus (p. 149) 3.2 Expectations of others (p. 161)

1.2 Rules and ‘initial encounters’ (p. 150) 3.3 Professional skills (p. 162)

1.3 Classroom routines (p. 150) 3.4 Classroom authority (p. 163)

1.4 Identifying routines and

understandings (p. 151) 4 Enhancing classroom climate
1.5 Being ‘fair’ (p. 152) (p. 163)

4.1 Classroom climate and emotional

2 Relationships for learning (p. 153)
security (p. 163)
2.1 Curriculum and relationships (p. 154) 4.2 Supporting children’s confidence and
2.2 Pupil perspectives of teachers (p. 155) self-esteem (p. 167)

2.3 Teacher and pupil actions (p. 155) 4.3 Developing an inclusive classroom
(p. 168)
2.4 Patterns in pupil actions (p. 156)
2.5 Positive and negative cycles (p. 157)
Conclusion (p. 170)
148 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Introduction
The existence of teacher–pupil relationships in classrooms is extremely important.
Basically, it underpins and enables both ‘order’ and ‘learning’ – and is thus the foundation
for success as a teacher. However, a ‘good relationship’ is not something which can be
assumed.
The basic problem is that classrooms tend to be potentially threatening to both teachers
and pupils because of their very structures and purposes, as Waller’s classic study of ‘latent
conflict’ illustrated so vividly (1932). In simple terms, the teacher faces relatively large
numbers of children and is expected to educate them, while each child faces the evaluative
power of the teacher and is expected to learn (see Jackson, 1968, Reading 6.1). There are
significant challenges for both parties, so that teachers and pupils put considerable efforts
into developing ways of coping with the situation.
How then, is a way forward found? There are only two basic possibilities: either order
is imposed by teachers using their power, or there is negotiation between teachers and
pupils so that understandings to define ways of collaborating together are constructed.
These understandings are the basis of ‘good relationships’.
As we have seen, for instance in Chapter 1, teachers normally have a strong moral
purpose and place great emphasis on establishing good relationships with children.
However, it is not unusual for teachers or student teachers who lack negotiating skills
to attempt to impose themselves. Although the strategy may work in the short term, it
can have unfortunate side effects. When teachers ‘become angry’, ‘go mad’ or ‘get eggy’
they may be seen by children as being unfair. Children then report being ‘picked on’,
‘shown up’, ‘done over’ and humiliated – and such feelings do not create appropriate
conditions for effective learning (Immordino-Yang and Damasio, 2007, Reading 6.2).
Pupils are quick to discern when the expectations of them and the sense of order in the
classroom begin to be based more on the use of teacher power than on a sense of fairness
and respect.
Fortunately however, a shared sense of the moral order of the classroom, with social
conventions, expectations and tacit rules, and thus a sense of what is ‘right’, is the normal
outcome of a successfully conducted round of classroom negotiations. Such codes and
principles of interaction have wider and longer-term significance in contributing to
the social, ethical and moral education of children. In a sense, good relationships and
‘citizenship’ in the classroom can act as a model for responsible, active citizenship in
later life.

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 Chapter 6 Relationships 149

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on classroom relationships as a
foundation for learning:

Effective teaching and learning requires teachers to scaffold learning. Teachers

should provide activities which support learners as they move forward, not just
intellectually, but also socially and emotionally, so that once these supports are
removed, the learning is secure. (Principle 4)
Effective teaching and learning fosters both individual and social processes
and outcomes. Learning is a social activity. Learners should be encouraged and
helped to work with others, to share ideas and to build knowledge together.
Consulting learners about their learning and giving them a voice is both an
expectation and a right. (Principle 7) See Chapter 4

This chapter is structured in four main parts.

It begins with detailed discussion of classroom relationships and the roles of rules,
routines and fairness. This understanding is then directly applied to teaching and learning
processes through consideration of curriculum, teacher and pupil actions, and devel-
opmental cycles in class relationships over time. We then move on to discuss teacher
expectations and professional skills – particularly for maintaining classroom authority.
Finally, the outcome of all this is considered in terms of ‘classroom climate’. This includes
specific sections on emotional security, self-esteem and inclusion.
Then, In Chapter 7, we focus more directly on managing classroom behaviour.

1 Classroom relationships
Classroom order and discipline should be based on good relationships and a sense of
engagement in learning. The concept of ‘working consensus’ focuses on such ‘agreed
ways of getting on together’ (Hargreaves, 1972).

Expert question
1.1 The working consensus Relationships: are teacher–pupil
relationships nurtured as the foundation
Good classroom relationships are based on recognition of good behaviour, mutual wellbeing and
of the legitimate interests of others and on a mutual high standards?
exchange of dignity between the teacher and pupils in This question contributes to a conceptual
a class. There evolves, in other words, a reciprocal, but framework underpinning professional
often tacit, recognition of the needs of the other in coping expertise (see Chapter 16).
with classroom life (Pollard, 1985, Reading 6.3).

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150 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

In a classroom, teachers and pupils have the capacity to make life very difficult for each
other and a pragmatic basis for negotiation thus exists. However, shared understandings
about working together will not just appear. To a very great extent, the development and
nature of relationships will depend on initiatives made by teachers, as they try to establish
the rules, understandings, routines and rituals which will structure behaviour in their
classrooms.
Children and young people expect such initiatives from teachers and they are unlikely
to challenge their teacher’s authority, as long as the teacher acts competently and in ways
which pupils regard as ‘fair’.

1.2 Rules and ‘initial encounters’

Pupils will normally expect the teacher to set boundaries and expectations, and these may
helpfully be expressed in a small number of formal, overt rules – tailored, of course, for
the age of the pupils. Often, these can (and should) be derived from whole-school policy
and practices. We might, for instance, promote three overarching rules on:
●● treating others as we would want to be treated (e.g. respect, support, empathy);
●● committing ourselves to learning in school (e.g. positive thinking, effort, resilience);
●● behaviour in school and classroom (e.g. noise levels, movement, teacher respect).
Chaplain (2003, Reading 6.4) makes the important point that such overarching rules offer
pupils a sense of personal and psychological safety. They should demonstrate and affirm
that the classroom will be secure, thus contributing to the conditions for future learning
(Immordino-Yang and Dmasio, 2007, Reading 6.2). They also provide a foundational
form of moral principles for interpersonal relationships in the classroom – and should be
expressed in a forward looking, positive way.
The first few weeks of contact with a class, the period of ‘initial encounters’ (Ball,
1981b), is a particularly important opportunity during which a teacher can take initiatives
and introduce rules and understandings. This is often a ‘honeymoon period’ when teachers
attempt to establish their requirements and the children opt to play a waiting game.
However, both the behavioural expectations and the teacher’s capacity to enforce them are
normally tested by the pupils before long, for children usually want to find out ‘how far
they can go’ and ‘what the teacher is like’ when pressed.

1.3 Classroom routines

Classroom routines enable us to operationalise overarching rules and apply their principles
to concrete activities. Each teacher will have their own favoured routines and they will
certainly vary by age of pupil in primary and by subject in secondary schools. Chaplain
offers secondary examples such as:
●● entering the classroom

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 Chapter 6 Relationships 151

●● getting attention
●● getting out materials
●● changing activities
●● going to the toilet
●● dealing with interruptions
●● dealing with latecomers
●● keeping pupils on-task
●● finishing the lesson.
Routines to manage versions of the same issues will be found in primary settings.
Additionally, among many others, are likely to be routines for:
●● register
●● carpet time
●● asking and answering questions
●● tidying up time
●● play time
●● getting ready for assembly
●● changing for PE
●● story time
●● going home time.
Routines, in other words, are multi-purpose procedures which put rules and understandings
into practice. When they are established, a switch-signal may be given (maybe a teacher
announcement, a sound, or hand-signal) and hardly anything needs to be said! But the
expectations which are embedded in the routines do always need to be patrolled and
maintained. If this is not done, then understandings will decay and children may take
advantage of the situation. Routines are thus a major focus of negotiation as the working
consensus develops.

1.4 Identifying routines and understandings

Awareness of routines and tacit understandings is particularly important for a trainee
teacher who is likely to be working with children who have already established a set of
understandings with their normal class teacher. Reflective activity 6.1 is designed to help
with this.

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152 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Reflective activity 6.1

Aim: To identify the overt and tacit content of classroom rules, routines and
understandings.
Evidence and reflection: Asking the pupils is an obvious first step. With care, this can
be done either in discussion or might be introduced as a written activity. Young
children might be asked to make up stories about ‘naughty children at school’ and
to explain things that they might have done or ‘should have done’. Students usually
enjoy such activities, and they may make it possible to increase awareness of tacit
understandings. Another interesting method is to focus notes on key routines, for
instance, at transitions points in classroom processes through the day. Try to identify
the ‘switch signals’ and notice the way the teacher monitors the effectiveness of the
routine and renegotiates or asserts if it begins to fray.
Extension: A further way to gather information on tacit expectations is to study the
patterns which exist in what people do. Observation, using a notebook to record
such patterns, is one possibility. A more explicit method is to record the events
which lead to pupils being reminded of ‘the way we do things here’ or to being
‘told off’. These could be noted during observation, or a video recording could be
made of a session for later analysis.

Having developed an understanding of key expectations, we may of course wish to review

and evaluate them. Do they enable us to fulfil our educational intentions and to teach in
the ways which we favour? Which need reinforcement, or adjustment – and how might we
prioritise such developments?
However, notwithstanding any future developments we may anticipate, a basic and
prior requirement is that teacher actions are regarded as being fair.

1.5 Being ‘fair’

In the negotiation of the working consensus and establishment of ‘good relationships’,

there is nothing more important than being seen, by pupils, to have acted with fairness.
This occurs because of their ultimate vulnerability to teacher power, and they therefore
need to be assured that teachers will act reasonably. Children have to survive the
challenges of the classroom – the crowds, praise and power, as Jackson (1968, Reading 6.1)
put it.
If a teacher or student teacher acts without consideration of existing rules, routines and
understandings this is likely to produce a negative response from the children and young
people, because actions which they regard as incompetent or unfair will almost inevitably
be made.

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 Chapter 6 Relationships 153

Reflective activity 6.2

Aim: To check that we are acting in ways which are regarded as being ‘fair’.
Evidence and reflection: Again, the only really valid source of information on this is
from the pupils themselves. Whilst it is possible to discuss the issue openly with
them or to approach it through story or drama, it is probably less contentious
and as satisfactory to watch and note their responses to teacher actions. This
should be a continuous process for teachers who are sensitive to the way their
children feel about school, but it is worthwhile to focus on the issue from time to
time. Both verbal and non-verbal behaviour could be noted and interpreted – the
groans and the expressions of pleasure, the grimaces and the smiles. From such
information, and from the awareness to be gained from such an activity, it should
be possible to analyse classroom actions in terms of the classification which is
discussed below.
One obvious point to note here is that not all the children will feel the same about
teacher actions. Patterns in such responses may be significant (see section 2.4, p. 156
below).
Extension: The feedback which this activity should produce could contribute to
the smooth running of the classroom and to the maintenance of the working
consensus. If rules and understandings which were previously established are being
broken by a new teacher, then the children may become resentful if change is not
explained. If classroom routines are not being maintained and enforced by the
teacher, then the pupils may well consider the teacher to be ‘soft’ and may try some
‘playing-up’ at his or her expense.

The discussion above highlights the development of mutually shared understandings about
classroom life and emphasises their legitimacy. This, whilst acknowledging the leadership
role of the teacher, is the basis of a good classroom relationship.

2 Relationships for learning

Perhaps the most important strategy in establishing good relationships with pupils is to
establish some sort of connection with them as people. Each of us welcomes recognition
of our individuality and responds to a smile, a kind word, or any other expression of
interest – and so it is with children and young people in schools. Many teachers have
these ‘soft skills’ and an authentic interest in the children for whom they have responsi-
bility – after all, significant personal fulfilment in teaching comes through the success of
others. If pupils feel this open, positive regard (Rogers, 1961) and understand that it has
to be framed by the requirements of school, then the foundations for good relationships
for learning exist.

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154 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

2.1 Curriculum and relationships

Teaching can only be regarded as successful if the learners
Expert question are learning. When this happens, both teachers and
Engagement: do our teaching strategies, pupils feel fulfilled and the quality of their relationship
classroom organisation and consultation is enhanced. Good relationships thus contribute to the
enable learners to actively participate in conditions which make learning possible, but are also
and enjoy their learning? reinforced by success.
This question contributes to a conceptual A major contribution to good classroom relationships
framework underpinning professional is thus the provision of an interesting and appropriate
expertise (see Chapter 16). curriculum, with suitable learning experiences and high-
quality feedback. Issues concerning curriculum, pedagogy
and assessment are thus never far away. However, the
way in which such provision is made is particularly significant for the development of
relationships.
Educationalists taking stock of such issues and looking to the future, such as those
contributing to 2020 Vision (Teaching and Learning Review Group, 2006, Reading 10.7),
recommend a more ‘personalised’ curriculum in which learners are directly involved.
Research on ‘pupil voice’ has made a valuable contribution to this (Rudduck and McIntyre,
2007, Reading 1.3; see also the Research Briefing, p. 17).
It is thus valuable to consult children on how they feel about classroom activities. This
information supplies a basic type of feedback on children’s motivation and can be set
alongside other diagnostic information about learning achievements and difficulties.
The method suggested in Reflective activity 6.3 below involves direct comparison
between classroom activities in different areas of the curriculum. Such comparisons are
useful because they often highlight hidden issues.

Reflective activity 6.3

Aim: To gather information on how pupils feel about curricular activities which they
undertake in school.
Evidence and reflection: One method, suitable for children or young people for whom
writing is not difficult, is simply to ask them to write a comparison of two activities
which you choose. It may be worth structuring this at the beginning by suggesting
notes are made under headings such as the ones below:

Good things Bad things

Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3, etc.

An alternative method would be to carry out a similar exercise verbally. There is no

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 Chapter 6 Relationships 155

reason why even very young children cannot participate in discussions about the
activities which they like and dislike. Fairly open questions might be used, such as,
‘Can you tell me about the things that you like doing best at school?’ and ‘Can you
tell me about the things which you don’t like doing?’. These, if followed up sensitively
by further enquiries to obtain reasons (and the results recorded), should soon show
up the children’s criteria and patterns in their opinions about your provision. The
recording is important, for when there is no record to reflect on it is very easy to fail to
fully appreciate the messages one may be being offered.
Extension: This activity should yield data of considerable importance for future
planning and provision, and should be analysed to identify any patterns in
the children’s perspectives. If some children seem to be poorly motivated, to
lack interest or to dispute the value of an activity, then the situation must be
reconsidered and remedial measures taken.

2.2 Pupil perspectives of teachers

Another aspect of pupil perspectives is their views on their own teacher. This is a fairly
well-researched issue and enquiry into it can yield good summary data on the way young
people feel about the quality of relationships and education in their classroom. Obviously,
for professional and ethical reasons, teachers should only collect such information in their
own classroom, or with the permission of other people who may be concerned (Wilson
and Powell, 2001).
Research has consistently shown that students like teachers who are kind, consistent,
efficient at organising and teaching, patient, fair and who have a sense of humour. They
dislike teachers who are domineering, boring, unkind, unpredictable and unfair. Strict/soft
are two common constructs which children use, with ‘strict but fair’ often being positively
valued. ‘Softness’ is usually regarded as a sign of weakness.
Predictability is also usually important and children and young people are often expert
interpreters of the ‘moods’ of their teachers. Indeed, more generally, pupil feedback to
teachers has been found to be both relatively accurate and reliable.

2.3 Teacher and pupil actions

Figure 6.1 provides a simple model for reflecting on the types of action which teachers and
children make in classrooms when a working consensus exists.
The most important distinction is between actions which are bounded by the under-
standings which have been negotiated and those which are not. Five basic ‘types of action’
can be identified.

Conformity. These actions, by teachers or children are ‘as expected’. They are according
to the tacit conventions and agreements of the working consensus.

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Figure 6.1
A classification
Teacher Acts Pupil Acts
of types of Unilateral Within the working consensus Unilateral
teacher and pupil
classroom action Non-legitimate Legitimate Conformity Legitimate Non-legitimate
censure routine routine rule-framed
censure deviance disorder

Routine deviance. This is the type of mischief or petty misdemeanour which is accepted as
being part of normal pupil behaviour. Talking at inappropriate times, ‘having a laugh’ and
‘day dreaming’ might be examples. Such activities are partly expected by teachers and are
not normally intended as a challenge. They are thus within the bounds of the working
consensus. It is important for support staff to also be aware of such boundaries.

Routine censure. This is the typical teacher response to routine deviance – a mild
reprimand. It will be regarded by the pupils as legitimate, in so far as such a reprimand
will not threaten the dignity of a child nor be employed inappropriately. Censures of
this type are also within the bounds of the working consensus – they are expected. The
teacher is doing his or her job.

Non-legitimate disorder. This is a type of pupil action which teachers dislike and find
hard to understand. It often occurs when a child or a group of pupils seek to disrupt a
classroom situation. They are particularly prone to do this if pupils perceive themselves to
have been treated ‘unfairly’ or feel that their dignity has been undermined. Action of this
type usually reflects the cultural rules of peer groups and can be used to build up a type
of ‘solidarity’ or an alternative source of positive self-esteem.

Non-legitimate censure. This is the type of adult action which pupils dislike and cannot
understand. It often occurs when a teacher loses his or her temper or feels under great
pressure. The effect of such actions is that the children feel attacked and unable to cope.
They perceive teacher power being used without justification. Such actions lie outside the
bounds of the working consensus and are likely to lead to a breakdown in relationships.

The central argument is that ‘good relationships’ are based on the existence of a negotiated
sense of acceptability and fairness which teachers and children share.

2.4 Patterns in pupil actions

We suggested above that children’s actions might range from conforming to rules,
engaging in routine deviance and mischief or, by stepping beyond this, to acting in
unilateral and disorderly ways.
These patterns are indeed commonly found in classrooms – as in other walks of life.
After all, they simply reflect strategies of agreement, negotiation or challenge. Etzioni
(1961), in a classic analysis of compliance, documented how these dimensions recur in
most social settings as people interact together.

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In a teacher-research study, Pollard (1985) identified three types of friendship groups

among 11-year-olds. ‘Goodies’ were very conformist, fairly able but considered rather dull.
‘Jokers’ liked to negotiate and ‘have a laugh’ with their teachers. ‘Gang’ group members
were willing to disrupt classes, had low levels of academic achievement and were thought
of as a nuisance. If we relate characteristic pupil actions to such types of pupil friendship
group, then we can represent the range of behaviour, as indicated in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2
Actions outside Parameters of
Actions within the working consensus classroom pupil behaviour
understandings
Conformity Routine deviance Disorder

Goodies

Jokers

Gangs

Figure 6.2 simplifies significant complexities, but it does highlight some important social
consequences of classroom relationships. If the quality of both interpersonal relationships
and curriculum provision is high, then the parameters of pupil actions are likely to move
to the left of the diagram and both behaviour and engagement are likely to improve. If
interpersonal relationships are poor and curriculum provision is inappropriate, then the
parameters are likely to move to the right of the diagram. The result is likely to be an
increase in disruption, a decrease in learning and the growth of dissatisfaction with school.
Overall, social differentiation and exclusion are likely to increase, as the teacher acts to
deal with disruptive children – who may then become ‘labelled’ as such.

2.5 Positive and negative cycles

Changes in relationships with a class can be felt through day-to-day experience over a
period of time in one’s work with a class. They can also be represented for reflection. For
instance, consider the model of a positive cycle of teaching and learning in Figure 6.3, a
model seen from the pupil perspective.
In this model it is first suggested that teacher initiatives lead to learners enjoying a
sense of their own dignity and value. Second, it is postulated that children are stimulated
by the curriculum or learning activities provided for them by the teacher. These are judged
to be interesting and appear likely to satisfy their interest-at-hand in learning. Third, the
situation is regarded as being fair. There are two aspects of fairness here, relating to the
way the children are ordered and controlled and to the nature of the tasks which they
are presented with. Regarding the first, let us assume that the students and teacher are
operating within established organisational and social frameworks and that thus they

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Figure 6.3
A positive cycle of
teaching, learning Dignity
and relationships Stimulation
Interest

Learning Employment

have both negotiated and both understand the parameters

Expert question of permissible action. Order thus has a secure base. The
Relationships: are teacher–pupil other aspect of fairness concerns the appropriateness of
relationships nurtured as the foundation the match between the task which the children are faced
of good behaviour, mutual wellbeing and with and their ability and motivation to do it. If the task
high standards? is well matched and attractively presented, then pupils
This question contributes to a conceptual are likely to accept its challenges and attempt to grapple
framework underpinning professional with them vigorously. The result of the existence of this
expertise (see Chapter 16). sense of dignity, stimulation and fairness is postulated
in the model as being enjoyment and learning. This is
brought about essentially because the children’s interests
are satisfied by teacher provision and action from the start. The further, and crucial, result
of this child enjoyment and learning is that teacher interests are thereby satisfied. Order
is maintained, instruction is effective and teacher self-esteem can flourish, with the likely
result that the teacher will feel able to inject further energy and care with which to again
project the dignity, stimulation and fairness to fuel another cycle. A cyclical process of
reinforcement is created which can then spiral upwards into a higher and higher quality of
learning experiences. Sometimes teaching goes just like this.
On the other hand, we must also recognise the existence of negative cycles which,
instead of spiralling upwards, can lead to a decline into suspicion, hostility and unpleas-
antness. Again this can be represented by a model seen from the child perspective
(Figure 6.4).
In this model it is suggested that teacher initiatives threaten children’s interests on three
counts. First, they represent an affront to children’s dignity as people. Teacher actions
may be seen as being dismissive, high-handed or even aggressive. Second, the learning
activities provided for the children are seen as being boring. In other words, they are badly
matched to the ability and concerns of the children. They are too hard, too easy or too
disconnected from children’s interests to provide significant motivational attraction. Third,
teachers may be seen to be acting unfairly. In other words they do not abide by negotiated

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Figure 6.4
Affront A negative cycle of
Boredom teaching, learning
Unfairness and relationships

Misbehaviour Frustration

understandings about their behaviour or that of the children. They use their power to act
unilaterally. The children will, in a situation of this sort, feel and express a great deal of
frustration. Their interests, far from being satisfied, are being ignored or threatened while
at the same time they are relatively powerless to defend themselves. And yet they do have
a degree of defensive power which comes from their numbers. friendships and peer-group
membership, and this collective solidarity is likely to be used to neutralise the damage
done by their teacher (with a shrug of the shoulders or a wink to ‘mates’) or to respond in
kind with forms of resistance such as mischief, mucking about and having a laugh at the
teacher’s expense. Work evasion, rather than learning, is a probable outcome.
Ironically, the further result of this, which completes the cycle, is likely to be damage
to the teacher’s interests. Order in the classroom will constantly be challenged if it is
essentially oppressive. Attempts at instruction will not be matched by quality in learning
if children have not been offered an appropriate motivation to learn. The children’s deviant
responses will constantly threaten the teacher’s self-esteem and autonomy. Such resistance
is likely to further reduce the teacher’s enjoyment but increase the stress and the potential
workload which that teacher faces.
Fortunately there are not many classrooms where this situation endures, but it is worth
being watchful and monitoring one’s own provision. In such reflection on classroom
relationships, if things seem to be deteriorating, it is tempting to perceive the causes of
disruption as being exclusively to do with particular children. However, reflection on our
own actions in respect of the working consensus and the quality of curriculum provision
may provide another set of issues for consideration. These issues are, to a great extent,
within our own control as teachers.

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3 Teacher thinking and professional skills

3.1 Teacher perspectives

So far in this chapter, a number of suggestions have been made about how a teacher can
take account of the perspectives, feelings and position of pupils. Now it is time to change
the focus onto ourselves as teachers for, as was discussed in Chapter 5, the self-image of
a teacher is just as important to maintain as the self-image of the child. Good teaching has
never been easy, for to some extent it has always meant placing the learner’s needs before
our own. However, classroom relationships are a very special and subtle phenomenon.
On the one hand, the nature of the working consensus is related to disciplinary issues and
problems which are likely to confront the teacher. On the other hand, the quality of the
relationships can, potentially, provide a continuous source of personal pleasure and self-
fulfilment for a teacher.
If our own feelings as teachers are also an important factor in maintaining a positive
working consensus, then ways of monitoring our feelings may be useful. Reflective activity
6.4 suggests keeping a personal diary. This has been used by classroom researchers over
many years (Dadds, 1995) and is a tried and tested way of reflexively taking stock of life
as it unfolds. Talking with colleagues and friends can also be immensely valuable and
supportive. The point is a simple one – to care for others, we must also look after ourselves
(see also the Research Briefing on teacher commitment and resilience, Chapter 1, p. 11,
and Turnbull, 2007).

Reflective activity 6.4

Aim: To monitor and place in perspective our own feelings on classroom relationships.
Evidence and reflection: Probably the best way to do this is by keeping a diary. This
does not have to be an elaborate, time-consuming one, but simply a personal
statement of how things have gone and of how we felt.
The major focus of the diary in this case will obviously be on relationships. It is very
common for such reflections to focus in more detail on particular disciplinary issues
or on interaction with specific individuals. It should be written professionally, with
awareness of ethical issues and the feelings of other classroom participants.
Diary-keeping tends to heighten awareness and, at the same time, it supplies a
document which can be of great value in reviewing events.
Extension: Once a diary has been kept for a fortnight or so, you might set aside
some time to read it carefully and to reflect upon it with a view to drawing
reasonably balanced conclusions regarding yourself and your future planning for
the classroom. It would be better still to discuss the issues which are raised with a
colleague or friend.

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3.2 Expectations of others

The expectations of teachers for the learners in their charge have long been recognised
as contributing to pupil achievements in school. The classic study of this, by Rosenthal
and Jacobson (1968), suggested that a ‘selffulfilling prophecy’ could be set up, in which
children who were believed to be ‘bright’ would do well but, where negative expectations
existed, then children would underperform. Indeed, although the ways in which teacher
expectations influence pupil behaviour and attainment is highly complex, there is a broad
consensus that high expectations can have a very positive effect (Gipps and MacGilchrist,
1999, Reading 6.5).
However, other research has shown differences in teachers’ expectations of children
from different social class backgrounds (e.g. Hartley, 1985; King, 1978; Sharp and
Green, 1975). Similar issues have been raised in relation to gender (Delamont, 1990)
and race (Wright, 1992). This raises a very important issue for reflective teachers who
will want to ensure that they do not unwittingly favour some children over others. Two
particularly comprehensive studies of links between expectations, behaviour and perfor-
mance were carried out in London and considered differences in terms of gender, social
class, race, etc. (Mortimore et al., 1988; Tizard et al., 1988, see also Richardson, 2009,
Reading 15.1).
Whilst teachers should aim to raise their expectations and look for positive points
for potential development in their pupils, there are also dangers from the existence of
negative expectations. For instance, stereotyping is the attribution of particular charac-
teristics to members of a group, and is often used negatively. Thus sex role stereotyping
might be found, say, in an infant classroom with girls
being encouraged to become ‘teacher helpers’. Perhaps
they might also play domestic roles in the ‘home corner’ Expert question
while boys engage in more active play such as using Expectation: does our school support high
construction equipment. Some research (e.g. Murphy, staff and student expectations and aspire
2001) suggests that gendered play might be related to later for excellence?
differences in learning styles. However, as Walkerdine This question contributes to a conceptual
and other feminists have shown, girls in such situations framework underpinning professional
can assert power through the adoption of an appropriate expertise (see Chapter 16).
discourse (Walkerdine, 1981). Stereotyping should be
avoided, but it is never absolute in its effects.
Bias is a further source of unequal treatment of pupils. It might refer to images and
ideas in books and in other resources which suggest the superiority or inferiority of certain
groups of people (see Chapter 8). However, educational procedures can also be biased in
themselves. For example there has been a longstanding debate about bias in intelligence
tests and such questions are recurring with regard to aspects of national assessment
procedures. This debate has focused on class, gender and cultural bias at various times
and is closely associated with the ways in which disadvantages can be ‘institutionalised’.
The institutionalisation of disadvantage refers to situations in which social arrangements
and procedures are established and taken for granted, despite the fact that they may

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systematically disadvantage a particular social group. Epstein has provided a particularly

clear analysis of this with regard to racism (Epstein, 1993).
For a practical enquiry to try at this point, you could revisit Reflective activity 1.7. This
explores teacher perceptions of children in class and the possibility of patterned differ-
ences in the ways in which particular groups of children are viewed.

3.3 Professional skills

The specific ways in which teachers act, and their effectiveness, are a focus for profes-
sional learning and refinement over many years. An experienced teacher can seemingly act
with minimal effort, and the extent of practice and reflection may not be apparent.
There are several levels at which such skills may be considered (Chaplain, 2003a/b).
At the most basic, we might focus on non-verbal behaviour such as facial expression,
use of eye contact, posture, gesture and movement. Pupils in classrooms monitor their
teachers almost continuously for indications of their intentions or to pick up on changes
in mood which might be of consequence. A skilful teacher thus is thus aware of, and
manages, their non-verbal behaviour as a form of communication to pupils. It is thus
possible, without saying a word, to convey confidence or anxiety, calmness or tension,
satisfaction or displeasure through the ways in which we present ourselves.
Verbal capabilities represent another group of skills. Most obviously there is the
capacity to project one’s voice within a classroom environment. This is not necessarily
to do with volume, but is certainly related to clarity in both the form and content of what
is said. Pitching one’s voice appropriately, so that it is not strained but can be heard, is
extremely important and can be developed to improve effectiveness. When under pressure
or anxious, people tend to speak more quickly and with a higher pitch – and this may need
to be explicitly countered. Voice training should certainly be considered if difficulties are
encountered. Through the ways in which we speak, we are also able to convey feelings of
enthusiasm, confidence, concern, etc. so that the form of the presentation will, hopefully,
reinforce the substantive message we intend to communicate.
An equally important skill is the ability to listen to and interpret what is said by pupils.
The most significant dimension of this is to maintain openness to what is said, rather than
‘hearing what we expect to hear’. This is by no means easy. But it is an essential skill if
an effective feedback loop from pupils to teacher is to be
maintained. Without it, we cannot learn from pupil perspec-
Expert question tives and the appropriateness of our teaching will inevitably
Reflection: is our classroom practice
be impaired.
based on incremental, evidence- The ways in which teachers behave, speak and listen
informed and collaborative improvement must, in aggregate, combine authority and accessibility. It
strategies? is essential that pupils respect the role and knowledge of
This question contributes to a conceptual their teachers, but also that they feel able to engage openly
framework underpinning professional with them.
expertise (see Chapter 16). Expert teachers monitor this balance and are able,
drawing on their professional skills, to make ongoing and

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contextually appropriate adjustments. In such ways, they establish classroom climates

which are effective for learning.

3.4 Classroom authority

Teachers enact their role on behalf of parents and others in society more broadly. In that
sense, the powerful position we hold is socially ascribed. But the main point of developing
good relationships with the class as a whole is that this authority should be accepted by
the children and young people themselves (Bennett, 2012, Reading 7.3). Only then, can
the power of a teacher be converted into an authentic and practically useful ‘authority’.
Authority, in other words, is based on acceptance of the superior role of the teacher by
those who are subject to them – on the legitimation of teacher power.
The understandings of the working consensus provide the moral foundation from which
teacher power can be asserted and classroom authority can be established. This is vital to
the work of every teacher and we therefore refocus on it in Chapter 7, Section 2. There,
in the context of managing pupil behaviour, we review the role of positive expectations,
confident self-presentation, measured use of language and the development of a repertoire
of strategies.
Classroom authority will be most secure when good relationships (as discussed in this
chapter) are combined with constructive strategies for managing behaviour and building
engagement (as discussed in Chapter 7).

4 Enhancing classroom climate

In this chapter so far, we have focused on classroom relationships from pupil and teacher
perspectives, on the interaction between them and on the professional capabilities which
are called for. It is now time to consider overall outcomes in terms of the classroom as an
environment for learning. This is summarised through the concept of ‘classroom climate’.
In this section, we will also review how the classroom environment can support pupil self-
esteem and make inclusive provision for all children.

4.1 Classroom climate and emotional security

The influence of classroom environments on teachers and children has been a research
topic for many years. One obvious question which emerged was how to define the
‘environment’. In a classic study, Withall (1949) answered this by highlighting the ‘socio-
emotional climate’ as being particularly significant.
Contemporary advances in neurobiology draw connections between social, emotional
and cognitive and biological factors. For example, authors of an article entitled: ‘We feel,
therefore we learn’ explain that:

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Modern biology reveals humans to be fundamentally emotional and social creatures.

… The relationship between learning, emotion and body state runs much deeper than
many educators realise. It s not that emotions rule our cognition, nor that rational
thought does not exist. It is rather, that the original purpose for which our brains
evolved was to manage our physiology, to optimise our survival and to allow us to
flourish. … But there is another layer to the problem of surviving and flourishing, [for]
as brains and the minds they support became more complex, the problem became not
only dealing with one’s own self but managing social interactions and relationships.
… The physiology of emotion and its consequent processes of feeling have enormous
repercussions for the way we learn. (Immordino-Yang and Damsio, 2007, pp. 3–9,
Reading 6.2)

Put another way, the feelings which pupils develop about classroom life, about their
teachers and about learning itself have profound educational implications (Hascher, 2003).
We are unlikely to ‘open up’ for learning unless we feel personally secure.
Building on such ideas and in work on school and community networks, West-Burnham,
Farrar and Otero (2007) have argued that ‘all learning is relational’ and that new ways of
thinking about learning relations in local communities are necessary. In this perspective,
relationships both within and beyond the school make social, emotional and cognitive
contributions to learning. The significance of this is attested by the strength of the associ-
ation of home circumstances and pupil outcomes, as we saw in Chapter 5. And yet, despite
what is known about such relational factors, ‘life in classrooms’ remains dominated by the
themes of ‘crowds, praise and power’ (Jackson, 1968, Reading 6.1).
There are thus good reasons why reflective teachers attend to the social and emotional
dimensions of pupil experience. They are a foundation for the development of a sense of
belonging and they engender constructive approaches to learning.
Attempts have been made to measure classroom climate by studying the percep-
tions of teachers and children (see Frieberg, 1999). Indeed, Fraser and Fisher (1984)
developed a ‘My Classroom Inventory’ for teachers to use in their own classrooms
(see Reflective activity 6.5). This can give structured feedback on pupil feelings about
classroom life and might be used, for example, at the beginning and end of a school
year. However, such techniques arguably fail to grasp either the subtleties of the inter-
personal relationships to which many school teachers aspire, or the dynamic complexity
of teacher–pupil interaction. Asking pupils to simply ‘draw a picture of important things
in their classroom’ can also be extremely revealing, and may be more appropriate for
younger children.

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Reflective activity 6.5

Aim: To ‘measure’ overall classroom environment at a particular point of time.
Method: Each child will need a copy of the inventory below. As a class (or in a
group) pupils should be asked to circle the answer which ‘best describes what
their classroom is like’. The items could be read out in turn for simultaneous, but
individual, responses. Scoring of answers can be done using the teacher’s column.
‘Yes’ scores 3 and ‘No’ scores 1 except where reversed scoring is indicated (R).
Omitted or indecipherable answers are scored 2.
There are five scales, made up by adding various items, as follows:
Satisfaction (S) Items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21
Friction (F) Items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22
Competitiveness (CM) Items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23
Difficulty (D) Items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24
Cohesiveness (CH) Items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25
Follow-up: Mean scores for each scale will indicate the nature of the overall classroom
climate and may raise issues for further consideration, particularly if repeated some
time later. (It should be noted that the inventory reproduced here is a short form of
a longer instrument and is not a reliable measure of the feelings of individuals.)
NAME …………………….
What describes your classroom? Circle your answer
1 The pupils enjoy their school work in my class Yes No
2 Children are always fighting with each other Yes No
3 Children often race to see who can finish first Yes No
4 In our class the work is hard to do Yes No
5 In my class everybody is my friend Yes No
6 Some pupils are not happy in class Yes No R
7 Some of the children in our class are mean Yes No
8 Most children want their work to be better than their friend’s Yes No
9 Most children can do their schoolwork without help Yes No R
10 Some people in my class are not my friends Yes No R
11 Children seem to like the class Yes No
12 Many children in our class like to fight Yes No
13 Some pupils feel bad when they don’t do as well
as the others Yes No
14 Only the smart pupils can do their work Yes No
15 All pupils in my class are close friends Yes No
16 Some of the pupils don’t like the class Yes No R
17 Certain pupils always want to have their own way Yes No
18 Some pupils always try to do better than others Yes No
19 Schoolwork is hard to do Yes No
20 All of the pupils in my class like one another Yes No
21 The class is fun Yes No
22 Children in our class fight a lot Yes No
23 A few children in my class want to be first all of the time Yes No
24 Most of the pupils in my class know how to do their work Yes No R

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Enduring insights on the social and emotional foundations of secure relationships are
provided by the work of Rogers on counselling (1961, 1969, 1980). He suggested
that three basic qualities are required if a warm, ‘person-centred’ relationship is to be
established – acceptance, genuineness and empathy. If we apply this to teaching, it might
suggest that acceptance involves acknowledging and receiving children ‘as they are’;
genuineness implies that such acceptance is real and heartfelt; whilst empathy suggests
that a teacher is able to appreciate what classroom events feel like to pupils. Rogers
introduced the challenging idea of providing ‘unconditional positive regard’ for his clients
and perhaps this can also provide an ideal for what teachers should offer children and
young people. Good relationships are, according to Rogers, founded on understanding
and on ‘giving’.
Rogers’ three qualities have much in common with the three key attitudes of the
reflective teacher, discussed in Chapter 3. Being able to demonstrate acceptance and
genuinely empathise requires ‘open-mindedness’ and a ‘wholehearted’ commitment to the
children in our care. It also necessitates ‘responsibility’ when considering the long-term
consequences of our feelings and actions. However, this analysis is not really adequate as
a guide to classroom relationships because additional factors are involved. For a number of
reasons, the warmth and positive regard which teachers may wish to offer their class can
rarely be completely ‘unconditional’. In the first place, we are constrained by our respon-
sibility for ensuring that the children learn adequately and appropriately. Second, the fact
that teachers are likely to be responsible for relatively large numbers of pupils means that
the challenges of class management and discipline must always condition our actions.
Third, the fact that we ourselves have feelings, concerns and interests in the classroom
means that we, too, need to feel the benefit of a degree of acceptance, genuineness and
empathy if we are to give of our best.
Good relationships in classrooms and schools must
then be based on each teacher having earned the respect
Expert question of children and young people by demonstrating empathy
Culture: does the school support and understanding and by establishing a framework of
expansive learning by affirming learner order and authority. It is a finely judged balance between
contributions, engaging partners and
two necessary elements.
providing attractive opportunities?
If, as reflective teachers, we are to take full account of
This question contributes to a conceptual the social and emotional climate in our classrooms, we
framework underpinning professional
need a form of analysis which recognises this subtlety.
expertise (see Chapter 16).
It must recognise both the importance of interpersonal
understandings and also the inevitable power struggle
between teachers and pupils.

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4.2 Supporting children’s confidence and

self-esteem
Children often feel vulnerable in classrooms, particularly because of their teacher’s power
to control and evaluate. This affects how children experience school and their openness to
new learning. Indeed, it is often suggested that children only learn effectively if their self-
esteem is positive (Roberts, 2002). A considerable responsibility is thus placed on teachers
to reflect on how they use their power and on how this use affects children.
There are two basic aspects of this. First there is the positive aspect of how teachers
use their power constructively to encourage, to reinforce appropriate child actions and
to enhance self-esteem (Lawrence, 1987, Reading 6.6: Merrett and Wheldall, 1990,
Reading 7.6). Indeed, the importance of maintaining ‘high expectation’ of children cannot
be over-emphasised (Gipps and MacGilchrist, 1999, Reading 6.5). Second, however, there
is the potential for the destructive use of such power. This particularly concerns the manner
in which teachers act when ‘rules’ are broken. This can be negative and damaging, but
skilful and aware teachers will aim to make any necessary disciplinary points yet still
preserve the dignity of each child. Activities are suggested below to monitor each of these
aspects, starting with ‘being positive’.
‘Being positive’ involves constant attempts to build on success. The point is to offer
suitable challenges and then to make maximum use of the children’s achievements
to generate still more. This policy assumes that each child will have some successes.
Sometimes a child’s successes may be difficult to identify. Such difficulties often reveal
more about the inability of an adult to understand and diagnose what a child is experi-
encing. As the psychologist Adler argued many years ago (Adler, 1927), irrespective
of the baseline position, there is always an associated level of challenge – a target for
learning achievement – which is appropriate and which can be the subject of genuine
praise (Butt, 2011, Reading 14.3). It may range from correctly forming a letter of the
alphabet to producing a vivid story; from sustaining personal lesson concentration to
beginning to master the subject as a whole; from joining in sporting activities to breaking
a school record, etc. The appropriateness of the achievement is a matter for a teacher to
judge, but the aim should be to encourage all children to accept challenges and achieve
successes (Merrett and Wheldall, 1990, see also Chapter 10, Section 4 on lesson planning
for differentiation).
This brings us to ‘avoiding destructive action’. This
is the second aspect of the teacher’s use of power – the
way in which control is used. On this issue, we want Expert question
to focus on the dangers of ‘flashpoints’ in classrooms –
Authenticity: do learners recognise routine
situations in which teachers ‘lose their head’ and start to
processes of assessment and feedback as
act unilaterally. All teachers would probably agree that being of personal value?
a class of children has to be under control if purposeful
This question contributes to a conceptual
and productive activities are to take place. However, a
framework underpinning professional
teacher’s power can be exercised in many ways. In most expertise (see Chapter 16).
situations teachers try to be calm, firm and fair – they act

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within the bounds of the working consensus and use positive statements and various types
of legitimate ‘routine censure’ to maintain discipline.
Unfortunately, there is a well-documented tendency for teachers to reprimand children
over-personally when telling them off in the heat of the moment, rather than focusing
positively on the activity in which they should have engaged. The effect of this reactive
strategy can be that the children may feel attacked and humiliated so that, rather than
conforming more, the children ‘want to get back at’ the teacher who has ‘picked on’ them
‘unfairly’. Here, the problem is that the teacher’s action is ‘unilateral’ and lies outside the
understandings of the working consensus. A recommended way of enforcing authority,
whilst at the same time protecting the self-esteem of each child, is to focus on the action
or behaviour of the children for condemnation rather than on the children themselves
(Hargreaves, Hestor and Mellor, 1975; Robertson, 1996). Reprimands can then be firmly
given, but the self-image of each child is left relatively intact. Each child can then conform
with dignity if he or she so wishes, and the incident is contained within the bounds of
the working consensus. This will be discussed further in Chapter 7 where we focus on
classroom management and other aspects of discipline and behaviour.
Thus, reflective teachers are likely to attempt to use their power positively and
constructively, and they will be particularly aware of the potential damage to relationships
which can be done by overhasty reactions to some classroom crises.
A further type of reflection on relationships concerns the degree of involvement
by children, which brings us to the notion of what we have called the ‘inclusive
classroom’.

4.3 Developing an inclusive classroom

An inclusive classroom is one which is consciously designed to enable each child to act as
a full participant in class activities and also to feel themselves to be a valued member of
the class (Kershner, 2009, Reading 15.6). This is what all of us wish for but there is plenty
of evidence that, in the context of curriculum pressures, relatively large class-sizes and the
requirements of many assessment procedures, it is difficult to achieve.
One feature which often causes problems is that there are variations in both the
quantity and quality of teacher attention that is given to different categories of children.
Sadly, this is a clear example of variations in expectation (Gipps and MacGilchrist,
1999, Reading 6.5). There are many categories around which such differentiation is often
found (West and Pennell, 2003; see Chapter 15, Section 1) – for example: ability (e.g.
Alur and Hegarty, 2002; Iveson and Hallam, 2001; Mortimore et al., 1988), gender (e.g.
Delamont, 1990; Francis, 2000), race (e.g. Connolly, 1998; Troyna and Hatcher, 1992)
and social class (e.g. Rist, 1970; Sharp and Green, 1975; Reay, 1998). Age could also
be an important factor particularly in mixed-age classes. In addition, it is necessary to
analyse and to be aware of the responses to school life of individual children. It is very
understandable if teachers tend to deal first with children whose needs press most or
whose actions necessitate an immediate response. However, the problem which then
arises is that some other children may be consistently passed over (Collins, 1996). Whilst

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 Chapter 6 Relationships 169

we may have to accept that the needs of all the children in

a class cannot be satisfied simultaneously by any teacher, Expert question
they may be met more consistently through the skilled Inclusion: are all learners treated
work of support staff. Croll and Moses (2000) provide respectfully and fairly in both formal and
a challenging analysis of this in relation to children with informal interaction?
special educational needs, but we have a responsibility to This question contributes to a conceptual
ensure that teacher effort is distributed in proportion to framework underpinning professional
the needs of all the pupils. expertise (see Chapter 16).
Classes also vary in the degree to which differences
between children and their abilities are valued. Such
differences between people must inevitably exist (see Pollard, 1987a, Reading 15.2), but a
contrast can be drawn between classes in which the strengths and weaknesses of each child
are recognised and in which the particular level of achievement of each child is accepted
as a starting-point (see, for example Thorne, 1993, Reading 15.5), and classes in which
specific qualities or abilities are regarded as being of more value than others in absolute
terms. Sadly, in the case of the latter, the stress is often on levels of attainment rather than
on the effort which children may have made. Indeed, relative attainments become insti-
tutionalised through inflexible ‘ability’ grouping systems; the ethos becomes competitive
rather than cooperative; and the success of some children is made possible only at the
cost of the relative failure of others. The overall effect is to marginalise and exclude some
children whilst the work of others is praised and regarded as setting a standard to which
other children should aspire. This can have very negative consequences for children’s
perceptions of themselves as learners (Dweck, 1986, 1999, Reading 2.6).
Quality of work and standards of achievement are crucially important considerations,
but there are also many other factors to bear in mind. For instance, we would suggest
that an inclusive classroom will produce better classroom relationships and more under-
standing and respect for others than one which emphasises the particular success of a few.
Such issues are particularly significant when specific assessment knowledge is gathered.
In the United Kingdom the outcomes of both teacher assessment and national testing now
produce relatively formalised ‘results’ and must be handled very carefully if they are not to
threaten the self-esteem of lower achieving children (Reay and Wiliam, 1999). Of course,
children who are less academically successful may have considerable other strengths and
achievements and these can be recognised and celebrated.
Thus, there are some central questions about how children are valued which should be
answered by a reflective teacher. Among them are those which are suggested in Reflective
activity 6.6 below. This time they take the form of a checklist.

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170 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Reflective activity 6.6

Aim: To evaluate progress towards an inclusive classroom.
Evidence and reflection: There are many indicators which might be considered. For
instance:
1 Are children helped to learn to respect each other? Does any unnecessary and
divisive competition take place? Which is emphasised most, the achievement of
children or the learning efforts that are made?
2 How flexible and responsive are classroom organisational groupings? Do they reflect
the diversity of children’s capabilities?
3 In decisions about the curriculum, are the interests of each of the children
recognised and given appropriate attention? Is the children’s previous experience
drawn on as National Curriculum requirements are adapted?
4 How are the products of the class represented – in classroom displays, in
assemblies, in more public situations? Are there some children whose work features
more often, and others whose work is seen less often?
5 How wide-ranging are the pupil achievements which are valued? Does every child
experience at least some success to reinforce their self-belief and commitment to
learning? Is formal assessment activity and its reporting handled sensitively?
Extension: Having completed your review, what can you do to increase the sense of
inclusion of all pupils? How could you develop the classroom climate to increase
children’s confidence as learners?

Overall then, teachers wishing to sustain an inclusive classroom will set out to provide
opportunities for children to feel valued, to ‘join in’ and to believe in themselves as learners.
At the same time they will attempt to eliminate any routines or practices which would
undercut such aims by accentuating the relative weaknesses of some children (Putnam and
Burke, 1992; McDermott, 1996; see also Clegg and Billington, 1994, Reading 8.3).
For more extensive elaboration of issues associated with inclusion, please see Chapter 15.

Conclusion
Good relationships are intimately connected to pupil wellbeing, classroom learning and
effective discipline. They give pleasure to the participants, provide a foundation for
learning and pre-empt trouble. No wonder that positive classroom relationships are a
considerable source of teacher and pupil fulfilment.
Perhaps, too, an expectation of being caring towards each other may spread among the
children and young people and be of longer-term benefit for society more generally.
We end this chapter with a note of caution, of particular relevance to trainee teachers.
There are sometimes children with whom very specific efforts to develop good relation-
ships may need to be made. Such cases might include particularly able children who may

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 Chapter 6 Relationships 171

become bored; children who find schoolwork difficult and may become frustrated; children
who have special educational needs; children who are new to the class or school; and
children who have been upset by events in their lives over which they have little control,
such as a bereavement, a breakup of their parents’ marriage, parental unemployment or
even sexual or physical abuse. Such children need very sensitive and empathic attention
and may require special help to express their feelings, to place these in perspective, to
realise that their teacher and others care about them and to feel that they have tangible and
appropriate targets to strive for in their lives. Such care may enable a child to take control
of the situation, with the support of their teacher, to the extent that this is possible.
However, teachers should guard against being amateur therapists. Child psychologists
and social workers are available and they should be invited to give advice if circumstances
require their help.

Key readings
Philip Jackson’s classic text featuring ‘crowds, praise and power’ in classrooms is:
Jackson, P. (1968) Life in Classrooms. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
(Reading 6.1)

The interpretive approach to classroom relationships which has informed much of this
chapter is discussed in detail in:
Pollard, A. (1985) The Social World of the Primary School. London: Cassell.
(Reading 6.3)

For helpful advice applying psychological knowledge on a wide range of issues in

classroom relationships and management including professional social skills and
classroom rules, routines and rituals see:
Chaplain, R. (2003) Teaching Without Disruption in the Primary School. London:
Routledge.
Chaplain, R. (2003) Teaching Without Disruption in the Secondary School. London:
Routledge. (Reading 6.4)

The best book on ‘pupil consultation’ and ‘voice’ is:

Rudduck, J. and McIntyre, D. (2007) Improving Learning Through Consulting Pupils.
London: Routledge. (see also Reading 1.3)

One of a number of classic books by Carl Rogers on ‘person-centred’ theory is:

Rogers, C. (1969) Freedom to Learn. New York: Merrill.

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172 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

The significance for learning of relationships within and beyond the school is described
in:
West-Burnham, J., Farrar, M. and Otero, G. (2007) Schools and Communities:
Working Together to Transform Children’s Lives. London: Continuum.

More general overviews of research on classroom relationships are provided by:

Watkins, C. (2004) Classrooms as Learning Communities. London: Routledge.
Humphreys, T. (1995) A Different Kind of Teacher. London: Cassell.
Pianta, R. C. (1999) Enhancing Relationships Between Children and Teachers.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Ingram, J. and Worrall, N. (1993) Teacher–Child Partnership: The Negotiating
Classroom. London: David Fulton.

On children’s confidence and self-esteem, Lawrence provides a research review and

practical ideas:
Lawrence, D. (1987) Enhancing Self-esteem in the Classroom. London: Paul
Chapman. (Reading 6.6)

A fascinating and impressive research guide to ‘classroom environment’ is:

Fraser, B. (1986) Classroom Environment. London: Routledge.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, Web Links and Download
Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Engagement
How are we
managing
behaviour?
7
Introduction (p. 174) 3 Skills for engagement (p. 187)

3.1 Gaining attention (p. 187)

1 Understanding classroom 3.2 Framing (p. 188)
behaviour (p. 175)
3.3 Withitness (p. 189)

1.1 Children and young people (p. 176) 3.4 Overlapping (p. 189)

1.2 Providing an engaging environment 3.5 Pacing (p. 189)

(p. 176) 3.6 Orchestration (p. 190)
1.3 Progression in behaviour (p. 177) 3.7 Consistency (p. 190)

4 Managing classroom episodes

2 Establishing authority (p. 178)
(p. 191)
2.1 Expectations (p. 180)
4.1 Beginnings (p. 192)
2.2 Self-presentation (p. 181)
4.2 Development (p. 192)
2.3 Language (p. 182)
4.3 Transitions (p. 193)
2.4 Strategic repertoire (p. 184)
4.4 Endings (p. 193)
4.5 The unexpected (p. 194)

5 Cycles of behaviour (p. 196)

5.1 Towards engagement and

independence (p. 196)
5.2 Managing challenging behaviour (p. 197)

Conclusion (p. 200)

174 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Introduction
Behaviour management is of perennial concern to all teachers because of the numbers
of children in a typical classroom, as Jackson (1968, Reading 6.1) indicated. This means
that, in a sense, the teacher is always dealing with a ‘crowd’. Control of that crowd must,
therefore, be a priority. For many student teachers in particular, this concern initially
displaces almost all other aims as they take on the challenge of coping with ‘the class’.
In such circumstances, relationships with individuals – a vital building block – may even
be displaced.
‘Good behaviour’ is most easily obtained and maintained by establishing appropriate
relationships (Chapter 6), providing clear expectations and ensuring that pupils are fully
engaged in learning activities. The focus of attention should therefore be directed at
achieving a positive climate for learning and at the prevention of managerial problems,
so that crises are avoided. This is by no means easy, since classrooms are such complex
places where events can unfold very quickly. Doyle’s analysis of the ‘multi-dimension-
ality, simultaneity and unpredictability’ of this is excellent (1977, Reading 7.1).
It is easy, and understandable, for classroom management objectives to take prece-
dence over learning requirements. Moreover, even where teachers have control of the
classroom, pupils may remain unclear about the aims of learning tasks set for them. As
Galton (1989), suggests, the consequence is a sense of ambiguity and risk, which then
undermines the quality of children’s engagement with learning. Holt (1982) made this
idea more controversial by suggesting that pupils ‘learn to be stupid’ in schools. They
do this when teachers’ requirements for conformity with managerial rules, structure and
order override the pupils’ need for understanding and engagement in high quality learning
tasks. The vital message for us is that classroom management is a necessary means to an
end – but it is not the end itself. TLRP’s principles on pedagogy build on, and extend,
this point.

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on achieving an ordered class-
room through pupil engagement:

Effective teaching and learning promotes the active engagement of the

learner. A chief goal of teaching and learning should be the promotion of learners’
independence and autonomy. This involves acquiring a repertoire of learning
strategies and practices, developing positive attitudes towards learning, and
confidence in oneself as a good learner. (Principle 6)

Effective teaching and learning fosters both individual and social processes
and outcomes. Learning is a social activity. Learners should be encouraged and
helped to work with others, to share ideas and to build knowledge together.
Consulting learners about their learning and giving them a voice is both an
See Chapter 4 expectation and a right. (Principle 7)

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 175

Before starting work in a new school, reflective teachers will ensure that they know and
understand something about the ethos and values of the school and department/s they are
about to join. At the very minimum they will ask to see copies of the school’s behaviour
policies and talk with mentors and other teaching and support staff about how those
policies are put into practice.
This chapter has been structured in six sections. We begin by affirming the significance
of behavioural issues both for teachers and policymakers, and also review some sources
of professional support which are available. Section 2 analyses how to establish classroom
authority. Section 4 focuses on practical teaching skills for engaging pupils, whilst Section
5 looks at how to manage typical classroom episodes. Finally, we consider positive and
negative cycles, tying back to Chapter 5 on relationships, and provide a summary.

1 Understanding classroom behaviour

There are a great many explanatory theories about children’s behaviour, whether in or out
of school. Three elements are typically posed:

Figure 7.1 Child,

environment and
Child
behaviour

Environment Behaviour

The terminology above is that of Chaplain (2003) who draws on the social learning
theory of Bandura (1995). Bronfenbrenner (1979, Reading 8.1) has a similar conceptuali-
sation (see Chapter 8, Section 1). Symbolic interactionist sociology would tend to speak
of ‘children’, ‘contexts’ and ‘strategic action’. Such nuanced distinctions can certainly be
drawn.
The basic point though, is that the actions taken by anyone relate both to the person they
are and to the situation they are in.
From the teacher perspective then, to understand classroom behaviour, we must first
appreciate the circumstances of the children and young people for whom we have respon-
sibility; and we must then really think hard about the educational provision which we

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176 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

make for them in school. The latter constitutes the environment – the context, to which
pupil behaviour is a response.

1.1 Children and young people

We need here to take stock of the issues raised in
Expert question Chapters 1, 2 and 4 of this book and to recognise that
pupils in the same classroom may have very different
Connection: does the curriculum engage
with the cultural resources and funds-
home circumstances. Contemporary societies are seeing
of-knowledge of families and the extreme differences in wealth and in the associated forms
community? of cultural capital. Many families maintain a conven-
This question contributes to a conceptual
tional, two-parent structure, whilst others sustain more
framework underpinning professional diverse relationships. Some children will start school
expertise (see Chapter 16). with great eagerness to learn, whilst others may feel
deeply uneasy or even be frightened. As they get older,
some pupils will receive significant support and interest
from parents or carers, whilst others will find that their efforts may be treated as being of
little consequence. Many will find that the language of instruction is their mother tongue
and will be familiar with typical teacher discourse. Others may find that they need to adapt
to the use of their second language in the school setting, or that some patterns of their
home language are frowned upon at school.
It is very easy to succumb to stereotypes in seeking to make sense of the complexity of
children’s lives, but this really should be resisted. Being ‘poor’ does not denote a lack of
commitment to one’s children, just as being ‘well off’ certainly doesn’t in itself produce
valuable support. Each form of social difference – social class, gender, ethnicity, disability,
etc. – is simply a circumstance which needs to be understood. The question then, despite
the patterns which research and experience might suggest, becomes: ‘What do people
make of their circumstances?’.
In summary, teachers need to do what they can to understand prior experiences of the
children and young people that they teach.

1.2 Providing an engaging environment

The school environment is crucial to establishing positive behaviour amongst pupils.
Watkins has suggested that this is associated with proactive policies, a strong sense of
community, teacher collaboration and promotion of pupil autonomy (2011, Reading 7.2).
There are four dimensions of the classroom environment which teachers must review
with particular care:

Curriculum – it is clearly crucial that pupils find the curriculum of interest. If they do, then
that commitment will engender more engaged behaviour. If they don’t, then they may
seek diversions. This can be particularly tricky where basic skills need to be mastered over

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 177

many years, and teacher creativity to find interesting ways of teaching these is imperative.
Chapters 9 and 10 focus on curriculum.

Pedagogy – pupils tend to be particularly aware of how they are being controlled – of
the rules, routines and rituals of the classroom, the fairness which should underpin them
and the security which they offer. Beyond this, they will hope for pedagogies which are
participatory, make the subject matter interesting, support success in learning and enable
fun, laughter and enjoyment. Chapters 11 and 12 address such issues.

Assessment – anxiety about being judged by others is commonplace, and for children and
young people school may be the first place in which they experience formal assessment.
On the one hand, feedback which enables progress in learning is likely to be greatly
welcomed. It indicates that the teacher has taken an authentic interest (see Chapter 13).
On the other hand, the experience of more formal assessment may not be a happy one,
and certainly needs to be managed with great care (as discussed in Chapter 14).

Relationships with others – this dimension is essentially

about relationships between peers, which can be
Expert question
fraught and challenging for some children. Feeling
accepted by a peer group is very important for surviving Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
classroom organisation and consultation
in school and is manifested in ‘having friends’. But
enable learners to actively participate in
children can also be unkind and some children may
and enjoy their learning?
become isolated or even be bullied. Teachers need to
This question contributes to a conceptual
create classroom rules and a climate in which everyone
framework underpinning professional
is valued, but must then be watchful to ensure that the
expertise (see Chapter 16).
experienced environment lives up to these expectations
(see Chapters 1 and 6).

Where a classroom environment provides for such high-quality curriculum, pedagogy,

assessment and relationships, poor behaviour is likely to be minimised.
Or, to put this another way, if poor behaviour arises, as well as thinking about the needs
and perspectives of the child or children themselves, it is very valuable to review one’s
classroom provision. Might it be possible to engage the children more effectively?

1.3 Progression in behaviour

In principle, an effective teacher will expect to make progress during the school year in
classroom control and the stability of pupil behaviour. And a similar progression may be
experienced when a student teacher takes a class over a sustained period of time. It is
helpful to try to see this positively in terms of ‘leading learning activities’, so that control
itself is a by-product.
Figure 7.2, on p. 179 overleaf, comes from Chaplain (2003, see also Reading 6.4) and
highlights some of the characteristic processes which are likely to be found in ‘early
encounters’ and ‘later stages’.
The model shows how pressures of establishment and active negotiation are gradually

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178 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

replaced by greater levels of trust. With this, most importantly, comes teacher encour-
agement for pupils to take more control of classroom situations and exercise more
self-control. Of course, such agency remains framed by the understandings which
have been established and honed over time. For many teachers, a summer term, unless
dominated by tests or examinations of one sort or another, is a time when they feel able to
give pupils more freedom to explore their interests and potential.
Reflective activity 7.1, below, invites a ‘stock take’ on classroom behaviour and
engagement.

Reflective activity 7.1

Aim: To understand pupil behavior in our classroom circumstances.
Evidence and reflection: Reflect on the proposition that pupil actions relate both to the
person they are and to the situation they are in (as discussed above).
●● Review Section 2.1 and consider: how far do you really understand, and make
connections with, the circumstances of your students’ lives?
●● Review Section 2.2 and consider: do pupils feel engaged by the curriculum,
pedagogy, assessment and relationships you are providing?
●● Review Sections 2.3 and consider: how are things going in terms of the progression
of classroom relationships and behaviour over time?
It would be very valuable to discuss these issues with a colleague, so that there is an
exchange of insights.
Extension: It would be excellent to make a visual recording of some periods of
classroom practice to review and discuss in terms of the questions above.
Having developed a deeper understanding, the question becomes: What to do next? It
is often helpful to map scenarios for consideration. Such analysis provides a foundation
for successful behavioural strategies.

But this is an endpoint, and we must always start with establishing authority.

2 Establishing authority
Establishing authority over a class is partly about self-belief, in the sense of acting with
confidence as a teacher – and it is also partly about capability, in the sense of being profes-
sionally competent in the core skills of teaching and, in particular, in being able to interpret
and analyse classroom events as they develop so that adjustments are possible. Underlying
these qualities, as we saw in Chapter 6, is the relationship which one develops with pupils
and, in particular, being seen to act fairly.
The best teachers are competent, reflective and understanding – and thus become
confident. Pupils respect these qualities and thus trust their teacher. Bennett suggests that
these qualities are associated with justice, courage, patience, wisdom and compassion

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reflectiveteaching.co.uk

Making first
impressions Looking and Modifying Adjusting
count sounding routines to conditions for
confident suit changed learning to
Providing a setting
needs and reflect
where feedback Making clear
Increasing nature of developing
from pupils is what you
levels of relationship relationships
encouraged expect from Encouraging
Setting rules personal with the class with class
pupils wider and
Deciding who responsibility deeper
sits where Ensuring given to pupils appreciation
pupils know of subject and
who you are Increasing
Establishing Early mutual trust Later of each other
routines encounters stages
Engaging in Encouraging
formal, whole- Monitoring a shared
‘Basic’ learning
class lessons and reinforcing perspective
activities
rules through group
Specifying the Establishing interaction
conditions for Assessing Extending Engaging in
and expressing
learning learning more informal
pupil’s existing your authority requirements teaching
knowledge of methods
the subject
Teacher emphasis

Encouraging pupils to:

Making pupils feel safe Academic learning
· reflect
and secure Building pupil confidence (self-efficacy)
· appreciate others
Facilitating teachers’s and esteem

Chapter 7 Engagement
· take on board increased
confidence and security Building class’s social identity
responsibility for their actions

Teacher Pupils self-

control of Pupil’s control of control at its
pupils at its selves increases highest
highest

Teacher
monitoring
Figure 7.2
Progression
in classroom
management
(Chaplain, 2003)

179
180 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

(2012, Reading 7.3) and that there is a need for visualisation and self-belief. One has to
‘take the stage’.
The difficulty is that competence and understanding take time to develop – and whilst
advice can support such processes, there is no substitute for direct experience. So trainee
teachers face the difficult challenge of working on their competence and understanding
whilst groups and classes still need to be taught.
In this section, we focus on four issues which support the establishment of classroom
authority – expectations, self-presentation, use of language and strategic repertoire.

2.1 Expectations
Children and young people are, just like most of us, extremely good at sensing the beliefs,
motivations and dispositions of others. Teachers who appear to presume that pupils are
‘up to no good’ and ‘cannot be trusted’ are likely therefore to engender similarly guarded
responses. On the other hand, if a teacher is able to convey a set of expectations which
presumes capability and projects realistic goals towards success, then it is likely that pupils
will try to respond. A classic study by Hargreaves, Hester and Mellor (1975) characterised
the former as ‘provocative’ teachers, and the latter as ‘insulative’.
Teachers therefore need to take control of their own expectations, and to review these
carefully – particularly in relation to personal theories about pupil behaviour. Beliefs of any
sort evolve in the light of experience, but can also be culturally and personally embedded.
Indeed, as we saw in Chapter 1, section 3, contrasting ideas of children as inherently ‘good’
or ‘bad’ have long histories within contemporary cultures – and may also be found within
some staffrooms. To establish authority, teachers need to be cautious about unquestioned
beliefs, in whatever form they may emerge. In the long term, neither being too ‘soft’ nor
being too ‘strict’ will work. The most realistic and effective strategy is to consistently convey
presumption of the best from pupils, whilst watching carefully for signs of the worst.
Expectations for behaviour in respect of classroom rules should thus be made explicit
through discussion and then reinforced. Whenever things begin to slide, or if established
understandings are challenged, then such rules need to be reasserted. But the trick here
is to achieve the reassertion in an incorporative way, without precipitating a negative
reaction. As discussed in Chapter 2 on learning, it helps
to ‘credit’ pupils with what they do, rather than focus on
Expert question deficits and failures.
Expectation: does our school support high Setting high expectations about behaviour, as for
staff and student expectations and aspire learning, is thus an important foundation for establishing
for excellence?
teacher authority. This is greatly helped if the expectations
This question contributes to a conceptual we seek to establish are congruent with whole-school
framework underpinning professional policies and culture, and Reflective activity 7.2 suggests
expertise (see Chapter 16).
ways of exploring this.

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 181

Reflective activity 7.2

Aim: To explore and understand a school’s policies and practices with regard to
behaviour management.
Evidence and reflection: Answers to the following sequence of questions may be found
by studying your school’s behaviour policies and through talking to staff at various
levels within the school.
1 What are the school’s primary aims and values?
2 What principles about discipline and bahaviour are derived from these?
3 What are the implicit and explicit ‘school rules’?
4 What reinforcements and sanctions are accepted?
5 What are the greatest challenges in implementing the school’s policies?
6 How can I appropriately reflect the schools disciplinary principles and rules in my
classroom organisation?
7 Where and in what way should I ask for support if things go wrong?
Add other questions to the list as they occur to you.
Extension: Having gathered information, the next process is to relate this to your own
expectations and strategic repertoire for managing behaviour. How does the school
support you, or qualify your original intentions?

2.2 Self-presentation
In this section, we consider self-confidence, judgement and various professional skills
including an ability to ‘act out’ the teacher role.
Teachers who are able to project themselves so that pupils take for granted that they are
‘in charge’ have a valuable capability. There is an important element of self-confidence in
this and student teachers, in particular, may sometimes find it difficult to enact the change
from the student role to the teacher role. Perhaps this is not surprising, for a huge transition
in rights and responsibilities is involved. The first essential, then, is to believe in oneself
as a teacher.
Judgement is needed about self-presentation because the process of establishing
authority, as we saw in Chapter 6, is essentially one of negotiation between the teacher and
the class. Authenticity is an important contribution to any negotiation and it is likely that,
in the challenges of the classroom, attempts by novice teachers to bluff, and to pretend that
they are hugely experienced, will be found out. Whilst necessary skills and understanding
develop, it is therefore normally wise to progress carefully and ‘with’ the students if at all
possible. This does not mean that one should not act the part and fulfil the ‘teacher role’
(see below) – indeed, the pupils will expect this. But it is best to recognise that establishing
authority requires careful reflection on, and management of, the complementary roles and
relationships between teacher and pupils.
Professional skills, as reviewed in Chapter 6, Section 3.3, come into their own here –
for they are all related to demonstration of classroom competence. Non-verbal skills relate

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to such things as gesture, posture, movement, position in the room, facial expression, etc.
These will be actively interpreted by children. The intended impression might be one of
confidence and competence, but the reflective teacher will need to consider how effec-
tively this is achieved. How do you feel? How do you move within the classroom? Voice
control is particularly crucial, for changing the pitch, volume, projection and intensity can
convey meaning. If one’s voice is to be used in this way then it will require some training
and time to develop. Teachers, like singers and actors, can learn to use their diaphragm to
project a ‘chest voice’, to breathe more deeply and speak more slowly so that their voice
and their message is carried more effectively. And, of course, the skill of really listening
to pupils and understanding what they have to say is also critical to the establishment
of authority – for this is the basis of its legitimacy. Learning pupil names is extremely
important. It helps the build-up of confidence and establishes the groundwork for positive
relationships with individual children.
A final and more general area of presentational skill is that of ‘acting’ – as though on a
stage. In this sense it is the ability to convey what we mean by ‘being a teacher’, so that
expectations are clear and relationships can be negotiated. Do not underestimate the power
of turning your class into an audience when appropriate. As an audience they will feed
your self-presentation and, if you actively observe and listen to your audience, you will
know exactly where your efforts are succeeding or misfiring.
Acting is also an enormous strength for teachers for one other particular reason. When
one is acting, one is partially detached from the role. It is possible therefore to observe
oneself, to analyse, reflect and plan. Acting, in other words, is controlled behaviour which
is partially distanced from self. In the situations of vulnerability which sometimes arise in
classrooms this can be a great asset.
The skills which have been reviewed above are necessary but are not sufficient. They
have no substantive content or merit in their own right. A self-confident performer who
lacks purpose and gets practical matters wrong (for example has ill-defined objectives,
mixes up children’s names, plans sessions badly, loses books, acts unfairly, etc.) will not
be able to manage a class. A teacher has to be purposive as well as skilled and must under-
stand the ends of education as well as the means.

2.3 Language
Sometimes, our primary purpose in speaking to pupils is to ensure that they correct some
aspect of their behaviour. We may, quite simply, need to be assertive. But in so doing,
as the adult and as the teacher, we also need to bear in mind our broader educational
purposes. Every time we speak to pupils, for whatever purpose, we have educational
opportunities. In relation to behaviour, the aim is to keep them ‘on track’ as effectively as
possible as a means to educational ends.
Rogers (2011, p. 83) identifies seven ways in which language should be used to support
good discipline:
1 keep corrective interaction as ‘least-intrusive’ as possible;

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2 avoid unnecessary confrontation;

3 keep a respectful, positive tone of voice wherever possible;
4 keep corrective language positive where possible;
5 restore working relationships with a reprimanded pupil as quickly as possible;
6 follow up with children on matters beyond the classroom context;
7 if we need to communicate frustration, or even anger, do so assertively rather than
aggressively.
In his final point, Rogers is warning teachers not to get ‘out of control’. Pupils do have
ways of describing this – the teacher has ‘flipped’, ‘gone mad’ or ‘lost it’. This is the
‘non-legitimate censure’ discussed in Chapter 6, Section 2.3 – and the images of teacher
insanity are not there by chance. Such uncontrolled use of power is a long way from
establishing legitimated authority and respect.
Standing back from this a little, the basic point is that to establish our authority as
teachers, even with the pressure of the busy classroom, we must carefully think about
what we say and how we say it. In principle, teacher language to build good discipline
should:
●● connect personally with relevant pupil/s;
●● identify the behaviour which needs to change;
●● encourage re-engagement with curricular intentions;
●● minimise disruption to others;
●● follow through to ensure conformity.
For example:
●● A simple, routine and individual primary example might be: ‘Sally’ (teacher gains
her attention with a neutral tone of voice and then sustains eye contact), ‘that’s
enough talking for now’, ‘let’s see if you can complete your story before playtime’
(teacher watches beneficially, and makes that clear, to see that Sally goes back on
task).
●● Scaling this up a little in a secondary context: ‘Sean’ (teacher moves to stand
closer to pupil, but without threatening), ‘it really isn’t fair to take Alan’s book
without asking him’, ‘please give it back and we will find you another’ (teacher
checks return of Alan’s book, provides another and checks that Sean understands
the activity and is able to begin his work).
●● In a routine whole-class, primary situation the teacher might say: ‘Now everybody’
(gain attention, perhaps with a clap or other sign), we have been becoming rather
noisy this afternoon and this isn’t good for concentrating on our work’, ‘I’d like
us to try really hard now so that we can all focus on what we have to learn’,
‘and then nobody will fall behind’ (teacher presents the learning goals for the
session and moves actively within the classroom to reinforce the request using
proximity).

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●● If secondary students become more challenging, which should not be assumed,

a more assertive strategy may be necessary – but the five points above remain a
sound guide. For example, the teacher might try: ‘4C, we need to talk about those
of you who are arriving late to lessons. This is not acceptable because it is making
it impossible to cover the syllabus and, in the end I’m afraid, you may all suffer
from that’, ‘we need to review the reasons, and then agree how to avoid lateness
in future’ (teacher and pupils discuss issues and agree ways forward. Teacher
monitors progress over successive lessons to establish a new expectation).
Put another way, measured and constructive assertiveness combined with provision of
an interesting curriculum can sustain and reinforce good order – and thus help in the
establishment of authority (Canter and Canter, 1992). Intemperate use of language can fuel
poor discipline by undermining authority.
Although audio recordings never seem flattering, recording a lesson introduction or
some other whole-class episode can be a useful way of seeing how much your verbal
repertoire is developing.

2.4 Strategic repertoire

 xperienced teachers are aware of a repertoire of strat-
E
Expert question egies on which they can draw to establish and maintain
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise appropriate pupil behaviour. Rogers (2011) reviews a
sufficiently creative, skilled and wide- range of strategies and suggests that teachers should
ranging to teach all elements of learning? minimise their ‘intrusion’. The proposal is closely tied
This question contributes to a conceptual to the existence of tacit classroom understandings, as
framework underpinning professional described in Chapter 6. So good classroom relationships
expertise (see Chapter 16). provide a sort of ‘moral order’ in the classroom which
underpins behaviour. When this exists, it seems almost
invisible – but don’t be taken in! Teachers work continu-
ously to maintain such relationships.
Teacher strategies become more intrusive when we feel the need to draw on our
authority and assert our power. They are least intrusive when we are able to rely on the
tacit understandings of the ‘working consensus’.
Strategies identified by Rogers can be considered in three groups. These reflect
minimal, routine and assertive levels of teacher action.

Minimal intrusion strategies

The efficacy of these strategies rests on the existence of well understood rules and good
classroom relationships. Good behaviour can thus be achieved with simple reminders.
Three of Rogers’ minimal strategies are:
●● Tactical ignoring – the teacher is aware of, but temporarily ignores, minor
misdemeanors whilst focusing on and affirming positive behaviours. Pupils then
come into line.

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●● Incidental language – reminders of classroom rules are given without attributing

blame to anyone. Because rules are established and accepted, pupils self-adjust to
conform. ‘We have a rather messy classroom at the moment, and we can’t go out if
it’s like that can we?’
●● Take-up time – after a rule reminder or request, the teacher moves away to give
pupils time to cooperate. In so doing, she communicates trust (though she might
also keep an eye on progress!)

Routine strategies
This group of strategies reflects the ebb and flow of teacher–pupil interaction and the
fact that relationships are always dynamic. A little jostling and testing of boundaries is
thus to be expected. The strategies below are typical of those which teachers use to frame
and control classroom situations, particularly when children or young people may have
non-curricular activities in mind.
●● Behavioural direction – expected behaviours are directly, positively and briefly
communicated. ‘All paying attention to me now please.’
●● Rule reminder – rather than ‘picking on’ a particular transgressor, the teacher
reminds everyone of a rule. ‘Now what are our rules about getting ready for PE?’
●● Prefacing – with awareness of potential misbehaviour, this strategy can be used
to anticipate and frame activities without being too heavy-handed. At appropriate
moments, the teacher interacts with relevant pupils to show awareness, to nip
unwanted aspects in the bud, and to redirect attention back to curricula goals.
●● Distraction – this contrarian strategy involves deliberately drawing attention
to something that is going well and thus by-passing something which might be
problematic. With the class refocused, the difficulty fades away or can be quietly
dealt with.
●● Direct questions – such questions challenge pupils to justify themselves and to
take responsibility. ‘What should you be doing now? Where should you put the
...?’ Such questions may be the starting point for discussion and clarification of
rules.
●● Directed ‘choices’ – these are pupil options which are circumscribed by established
rules and routines. ‘Yes, you can go in the play area once you’ve finished your
story.’ ‘When you have made notes on your homework, you can certainly go out
for break.’

Assertive strategies
The strategies in this group depend on the teacher asserting their authority and ‘standing
up’ to pupils in various ways. Whilst, they are more categoric, they still make reference
to established understandings and rules. However, they leave pupils in no doubt that the
teacher is in charge.

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●● Blocking – this is an important strategy to maintain focus on important behavioural

issues in the face of all sorts of distraction tactics which may be deployed by
pupils. ‘Hold on. Now let’s get to the point about what really happened – and I’ll
hear you one at a time. John. … Sam …’
●● Assertion – this strategy calmly deploys verbal and non-verbal skills and draws
on reserves of self-confidence to defend and promote a principle about behaviour
which has been threatened. ‘It is not OK to hit people in school, at any time at
all.’ ‘Language of that sort is unacceptable.’ The stance should be non-aggressive,
so that the teacher is clearly holding the moral high-ground. We thus demonstrate
to the class as a whole that our action is responsible and legitimate – which
erodes support for transgressors, re-asserts more routine expectations and
gradually calms things down. It is quite possible, in some situations, that there
may need to be a sequence of blocking and assertion moves as the complexity of
pupil feelings, explanations and actions is worked through. Judgement is needed
in what to block so that progress can be made, whilst also dealing with the issues
which are felt to be important. From the pupil perspective, an overall judgement
will eventually be made about the ‘fairness’ of the teacher in dealing with the
incident.
●● Command – a direct instruction. To be effective, a command needs to be delivered
with clarity and confidence, and to be followed up immediately. ‘Louise, put
down the hose pipe NOW.’ Eye contact, proximity and firm tone of voice will
all convey the seriousness of teacher intentions. This strategy is one of direct
intervention and should not be common in classroom use. If it is, it may be a sign
that relationships are breaking down. The plight of a student teacher ineffectually
demanding things from an alienated class of children is not a pretty sight. Thus, to
be effective, commands still draw on mutual respect, for pupils will conform best
when they trust the teacher – just as army officers command the respect of their
troops.
We have reviewed a repertoire of strategies for managing behaviour and Cowley (2010,
Reading 7.4) offers yet more. The moral foundation of these strategies rests, in all
cases, on classroom relationships, as described in Chapter 6. Teachers’ power is always
circumscribed but, as responsible adults, we have the task of analysing and interpreting
what is going on – and taking action if necessary. To do this, it is important to be able
stand back a little.

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Reflective activity 7.3

Aim: To review the repertoire of strategies for managing behaviour which we typically
use.
Evidence and reflection: Brainstorm, perhaps with a group of colleagues, on the
strategies which you use to manage behaviour – just get a list. Use the ideas above
from Rogers, or harvest from other sources if this is helpful. Then maybe refine it a
bit, to eliminate overlaps.
Now see if you can sort your strategies into categories based on the degree of
intrusion. Which rest on tacit understandings? Which contribute to routine patrolling?
Which demand really assertive activity?
Extension: Having expanded and analysed your strategic repertoire for managing
behaviour, it is good to try it out. Acting mindfully, look for opportunities to
experiment! In the light of your experience, refine your repertoire.

3 Skills for engagement

In this section, we look at a magnificent seven management skills which relate to
the maintenance of classroom engagement: ‘gaining attention’, ‘framing’, ‘withitness’,
‘overlapping’, ‘pacing’, ‘orchestration’ and ‘consistency’. Such skills enable lesson plans
to be put into action successfully (see Chapter 10, Section 4).

3.1 Gaining attention

This is often one of the first problems to confront a student teacher. With children in the
classroom, talking, moving around, playing or whatever, how do you get them to stop what
they are doing and turn their attention to you? Established teachers are likely to have at
least one routine for this. Thus a single, sharp clap of the hands may cut through the noise
and produce a short pause which creates an opportunity to take the initiative. On a sports
field where speech may not carry well, a whistle is the conventional tool. In some primary
contexts, teachers use a signal requiring children to raise both arms and face the teacher.
This has the considerable merit of making it very obvious which children are now paying
attention, and which are not. An equivalent in a very ordered secondary classroom might
be to establish a routine in which students file into the room, move to their established
places, take out their books for the subject and look to the front. Sadly, things are not
always so simple and gaining attention often has to be worked for.
To understand why this is, it is worth considering what is at stake. When children or
young people are milling about, talking and playing amongst themselves, they are free of
adult constraints and able to indulge in all the excitements and diversions of peer culture.
The switch signal given by the teacher is an interruption in this freedom. It is an assertion,

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based on the teacher’s authority, that the time has now come for the children to assume
the role of ‘pupils’ again. They are to set aside what they were previously doing, and must
now accept the rules, routines and expectations of the classroom.
As with so many aspects of teaching, it is helpful to think of building up a repertoire
of ways of gaining attention so that various strategies are available. Whilst a clear, firm
command may be effective from time to time, is important to avoid uncontrolled shouting,
or indeed, to take any other action which could be interpreted as desperation or weakness.
Pitch of voice and speed of talking need to be watched. For student teachers, it is very good
practice to study the strategies used by established teachers and to discuss their routines
with them. Acting confidently, which such consultation will enable, will communicate
competence so that, hopefully, success builds on success.
Gaining attention is a crucial test of authority. If we have earned the respect of the
pupils as their teacher, and they know that we are likely to offer them an interesting
curriculum, then they will normally pay attention when asked appropriately.

3.2 Framing
Understandings about classroom behaviour are not static. Indeed, even if an expected
behaviour is well established, pupils are expert at gauging the degree to which they need
to conform and the extent to which they might be able to ‘get away’ with something. To do
this, they interpret the mood and intent of their teacher by monitoring their actions, state-
ments and movements. For example, an active, purposeful entry to a classroom is a clear
signal that a teacher ‘means business’ and will normally tighten the frame immediately. As
long as something substantive and interesting follows, things should be fine. Conversely,
acting rather casually, or withdrawing into conversation with a visiting adult, will usually
cause behavioural expectations to weaken and may result in children relaxing in their
approach to activities
Framing thus indicates the extent to which situations or events are structured by expecta-
tions. It may apply in particular settings, or from moment to moment within a lesson. For
instance, one might compare the strong frame which often exists in a hushed library, with
the weak framing which often exists in classrooms during wet dinner breaks. For some
purposes, such as during the introduction to a teaching session, one might want the frame
to be strong thus ensuring tight control and attention. On other occasions, such as for group
problem-solving discussions, a weaker overall frame may be perfectly acceptable and may
enable children to take initiatives which are necessary to fulfil learning objectives. Situations
of difficulty often arise where strong framing is expected by a teacher but children act as if
the framing is weak. If this happens, a teacher has to act quickly to redefine the rules in play.
The ability of a teacher to manage the strength of behavioural framing over time has
a great deal to do with classroom discipline. It sustains expectations, and avoids a lurch
from routine to routine. In particular, skilful management provides a means of pre-empting
serious difficulties through giving clear expectations about acceptable behaviour. By
its very nature, though, the development of such understandings cannot be rushed and
frequently needs to be explicitly reviewed by teachers and children.

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3.3 Withitness
This is a term coined by Kounin (1970, Reading 7.5) to describe the capacity of teachers to
be aware of the wide variety of things which are simultaneously going on in a classroom.
This is a constant challenge for any teacher and can be a particular strain for a new teacher
until the skill is acquired.
Teachers who are ‘with-it’ are said to ‘have eyes in the back of their head’. They are
able to anticipate and to see where help is needed. They are able to nip trouble in the
bud. They are skilful at scanning the class whilst helping individuals, and they position
themselves accordingly. They are alert; they can pre-empt disturbance; and they can act
fast. They can sense the way a class is responding, re-establish the framework of expecta-
tions if necessary and act to maintain a positive atmosphere.

3.4 Overlapping
This is another of Kounin’s terms and describes the skill of being able to do more than one
thing at the same time. This is similar to the popular term ‘multitasking’. Most teachers
work under such pressure that they have to think about and do more than one thing at a
time. Decisions have to be made very rapidly. It has been calculated that over 1,000 inter-
personal exchanges a day typically take place between each teacher and the children in
their care. Frequently scanning the class, even whilst helping one individual, should enable
the teacher to identify and reinforce appropriate behaviour or to anticipate and intervene at
the first signs of trouble. As Kounin (Reading 7.5) points out, if children perceive that the
teacher is ‘with-it’ enough to know what is going on, they are more likely to remain on
task and achieve the appropriate learning objectives.

3.5 Pacing
Pacing involves making appropriate judgements about the timing and phasing of the
organisation and content of teaching–learning sessions. Organisational decisions have to
be made about when to begin and end an activity and how much time to leave for tidying
up or a plenary discussion. It is very easy to get involved in activities, forget about the
clock and suddenly to find that it is break time. More complex educational judgements are
necessary in relation to learning activities and the various phases of a typical session. For
example, the motivation generated at the start of an activity has to be sustained or managed
throughout. There may also be a need for ‘incubation’ and ‘developmental’ phases in
which children think about the activities, explore ideas and then tackle tasks. From time to
time there may be a need for a ‘restructuring phase’ where objectives and procedures may
need to be clarified further. Finally, there may be a ‘review phase’ for reinforcing good
effort or for reflecting on overall progress. (For more detailed discussion on the pacing of
content delivery, questions and answers, etc. see Chapter 12, Section 2).

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In England, strict lesson structures were once imposed on teachers and learners
through ‘national strategies’ for literacy and numeracy, but scope for flexibility and
exercising judgement about pacing are vitally important. They depend crucially on
being sensitive to how children are responding to activities. If they are immersed and
productively engaged, then one might decide to extend a phase or run the activity into
the next session. If the children seem to be becoming bored, frustrated or listless, then it
is usually wise to retain the initiative, to restructure or review the activity or to move on
to something new. If the children are becoming too ‘high’, excited and distracted, then
it may be useful to review and maybe redirect them into an activity which calms them
down by rechannelling their energies. As will be discussed in the next section, working
with a class of individuals may involve being able to respond to many, if not all, of their
responses at the same time.

3.6 Orchestration
We use the term ‘orchestration’ to refer to the way in which a teacher works with the
whole class rather like a conductor controls an orchestra or a standup comedian ‘plays’
an audience. Whether the teacher is adopting whole-class, individual or group teaching
strategies, part of their job is to maximise the time that all the individuals in the class
are on task and paying attention. Involving all the children in the learning activities of
a classroom involves developing the sensitivity to be able to ‘read’ how individuals or
groups are responding and to be able to anticipate the most effective way of maintaining
interest or re-engaging attention. Bored, listless behaviour might be engendered because a
task is too easy or too difficult (see Chapter 10 on differentiation). On the other hand some
children may be highly motivated by an activity which others find tedious and dull. In all
cases the teacher has to be aware of everything that is happening in their classroom and
be prepared to act accordingly. This may involve a differentiated response in which some
children are allowed to continue with what they are doing whilst a new focus is found
for others. Certainly, teachers have to be aware of a range of ways of motivating all the
individuals in the class (Gilbert, 2002).

3.7 Consistency
We identify one final, overarching skill for maximising learner engagement. This
concerns the maintenance of consistency in the promotion of classroom rules, routines
and expectations.
After all, in the domain of the classroom, the teacher often acts as government, police,
judge and jury all rolled into one. Pupils are one of the crowd and remain subject to the
teacher’s right to evaluate and power to punish (cf. Jackson, 1968, Reading 6.1). Teacher
inconsistency, if it occurs, reduces the integrity of the working consensus and the sense
of fairness on which it is based. This, in turn, can lead to a variety of subsequent control
difficulties and to risk-avoidance strategies so that new learning is compromised.

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Pupils will feel vulnerable unless they can rely on teacher consistency and fairness.
However, with such security, children and young people are more likely to open
themselves up to the challenges and risks of new learning. Teacher consistency thus
provides an underlying structure for high-quality pupil learning.

Reflective activity 7.4

Aim: To investigate one’s classroom management skills.
Evidence and reflection: Ask a colleague to observe you in a teaching session and
to make notes on the way in which you manage the children. They could watch
out for examples of gaining attention, framing, withitness, overlapping, pacing,
orchestration and maintaining consistency. Discuss the session together afterwards.
Alternatively, set up a video camera to record a session which you take. Analyse the
playback in terms of the issues above.
Sometimes people only see what seems to be going wrong! If there is a danger that
you are becoming negative about your management skills and judgements then adopt
the ‘three to one rule’. This rule states that you can only identify one negative thing
after you have identified three positives. When you run out of positives you have to
stop. (This strategy also works with children who have been asked to evaluate their
own work or that of others!)
Extension: Such analysis should increase self-awareness of management skills. Try to
identify possible improvements which could be made. These can be practised and
worked on. Give yourself time to develop your expertise.

4 Managing classroom episodes

‘Flow’ is a summary criterion which can be used to describe the consequences of
classroom management over time. It highlights the degree of continuity and coherence
achieved in a learning session, and implies steady, continuous progression. The suggestion
is thus that we should work with the children to develop a coherent sense of purpose within
our classes; organise our classrooms in ways which are consistent with those purposes;
and manage the children, phases and events so that learning objectives are cumulatively
reinforced. Consistency and reinforcement of desirable behaviours can be important here,
as Merrett and Wheldall (1990, Reading 7.6) emphasised.
In this section we discuss five issues which pose particular management challenges to
the flow of sessions. We discuss ‘beginnings’ of sessions; their ‘development’; ‘transitions’
between phases of sessions or between sessions themselves; and the ‘endings’ of sessions.
We also consider strategies for dealing with ‘the unexpected’.

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4.1 Beginnings
Just as, for curriculum, it is essential that pupils understand what they are expected to learn
so, for behaviour, it is helpful that there should be clarity concerning how they should
behave.
The beginning of a session is often seen as important because of the way in which it sets
a tone and clarifies intent. Simple strategies such as being in the classroom to receive the
children help to establish that you are receiving them on your territory and, by implication,
on your terms (Laslett and Smith, 1992).
The next important goal is usually to: introduce and interest the children in the planned
activities; provide them with a clear indication of the learning objectives of the session, a
clear understanding of what they are expected to do; and structure the activity in practical,
organisational terms. See Reflective activity 11.2.

Reflective activity 7.5

Aim: To evaluate the beginning of a session and to consider areas for improvement.
Evidence and reflection: Video record a session you have taught or observe someone
else’s lesson. Consider what happened in terms of the following questions.
●● How did the teacher attract the children’s attention?
●● Did the teacher explain the objectives of the session?
●● What did the teacher use as a stimulus at the start of the lesson and how effective
was this?
●● Were the instructions to the class clear?
●● Did the children know why they were doing this activity?
●● Did the children know what they were going to learn from it?
●● Did the children know if any follow-up is expected?
●● Did the children know on what criteria their work was to be assessed?
●● Did the children know how this activity links with other work they had done or
would do next?
Extension: What specific actions could be taken for improvement? What general skills
need to be worked on?

4.2 Development
This issue calls for careful thought. However carefully the session begins, how does it
develop? Pupils will expect to find some progression which will maintain their interest
and engagement with curricular tasks. This is a clear example of how good behaviour can
be seen as a product of good teaching – in this case, of appropriate curriculum planning
(see Chapter 10).

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4.3 Transitions
Expert questions
Transitions are a regular cause of control difficulties, Progression: does the curriculum-as-
particularly for trainee teachers. This often arises when delivered provide an appropriate
expectations about behaviour concerning one activity sequence and depth of learning
experiences?
have to be left behind and those of the new one have yet
to be established. In these circumstances, a skilled teacher Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
is likely to plan carefully, involve available support classroom organisation and consultation
enable learners to actively participate in
staff, take an initiative early and structure the transition
and enjoy their learning?
carefully.
For example, it would be a challenging prospect if a These questions contribute to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
whole range of creative, artistic activities were in full
expertise (see Chapter 16).
flow when primary school children suddenly had to get
changed for a physical education session in the hall.
We would suggest that it is important to break down a
transition such as this into three discrete stages. The skill lies in first, anticipating problems
before they arise; second, in pre-structuring the next phase; and finally in interesting the
children in the next phase so that they are drawn through and into it. These principles
(anticipate, pre-structure and engage) apply to any transition.

Reflective activity 7.6

Aim: To monitor periods of transition in your own teaching.
Evidence and reflection: Consider a transition phase in your own teaching in the light
of the following questions.
●● Did you give an early warning of the transition?
●● Did you give clear instructions for leaving existing work?
●● Did you give the children clear instructions for the transition and for any movement
that was necessary?
●● Did you arouse the children’s interest in the next phase?
Extension: Reviewing your performance as a whole, what are the major points for
improvement? Do you see these as technical, as personal, or as associated with
other factors? What might you try next time?

4.4 Endings
Ending a session is a further management issue and four aspects will be reviewed. The
first is a very practical one. At the end of any session equipment must be put away and
the classroom must be tidied up ready for future sessions. The second aspect relates to
discipline and control. Children and young people can sometimes get a little ‘high’ at the
end of a session when they look forward to whatever follows. This, combined with the

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chores of tidying up, can require a degree of awareness and firmness from the teacher. The
procedures that are called for here are similar to those for transitions.
The two other aspects involved in ending sessions have more explicit and positive
educational potential. One of these concerns the excellent opportunities which arise,
for example in the plenary of a literacy lesson, for reviewing educational progress and
achievements, for reinforcing good work and for contextualising activities which have
been completed. This is complemented by the opportunities that also arise for asserting
the membership of the class as a communal group. Shared experiences, teamwork and
cooperation can be celebrated and reinforced through the enjoyment of poetry, singing,
games, stories, etc. Moreover, there are lots of very productive opportunities at the ends
of sessions and even an odd space of unexpected time, perhaps waiting for a bell, which
can be used constructively.
Overall, a carefully thought-out and well-executed ending to a session will contribute to
the flow of activities by providing an ordered exit, by reinforcing learning and by building
up the sense of ‘belonging’ within the class as a whole.

Reflective activity 7.7

Aim: To review the end of a session and identify areas for improvement.
Evidence and reflection: Reflect back on a session you taught recently in the light of
the following questions.
●● Did you give early warning of the end of the session?
●● Did you give clear instructions for tidying up?
●● Did you reinforce those instructions and monitor the tidying up?
●● Did you take opportunities to reinforce the educational achievements, efforts and
progress made?
●● Did you take opportunities to build up the sense of the class as a community?
●● Did you praise the children for what they did well?
●● Did you provide for an ordered exit from the room?
●● How might you respond differently in future?
Extension: You could very usefully ask a mentor or an experienced colleague to observe
your session and offer specific comments. Before you do, highlight the particular
issues on which you want feedback. This might also be a good moment to do some
reading about the principles of class management.

4.5 The unexpected

As Doyle (1977, Reading 7.1) identified, unpredictability is one of the most salient
features of the classroom for trainee teachers. It is difficult to predict children’s reactions
to questions or how they will respond to specific activities. Similarly, it is difficult to
predict how long it will take for a class to complete an activity. These are skills which are
acquired over time and with experience. However, in any classroom there is the continuous

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 195

possibility of internal and external interruptions; for example, there may be changes in
the normal schedule or a potential breakdown in equipment. Skilled teachers learn to plan
ahead, to anticipate potential difficulties and to have a range of strategies for dealing with
the unexpected. In this section we consider how teachers might deal with the unexpected
in terms of both learning outcomes and ‘crises’.
In line with a social constructivist approach to learning, teachers are encouraged to
ask open-ended questions which can be interpreted and answered in a number of different
ways (see Chapter 7, Section 1.3 and Chapter 13, Section 1.2 for further discussion). As
appropriate answers are not predetermined, teachers may be surprised by the children’s
responses. Where the answer is unexpected the teacher then faces the dilemma of wanting
to acknowledge the legitimacy of the response without being drawn too far away from
the teaching point being made. Consider, for example, the following situation. A teacher
introduces her class of 7-year-olds to the subject of soil erosion and, assuming that the
class are following her discussion, asks how grass might help to control this process.
Unfortunately, several members of the class remember an earlier lesson about the oxygen
cycle and want to discuss the idea that grass is important to humans because it releases
oxygen into the atmosphere. As a skilled practitioner the teacher affirms the children
for remembering the previous lesson before returning to her original topic. Being able
to handle the unexpected in a way which reinforces children’s prior learning and yet
remains true to the original learning objective is the mark of a skilled teacher. (Note
also the role of teacher knowledge in making this possible, as discussed in Chapter 8,
Section 3.)
On a more practical level, a classroom ‘crisis’ is a clear example of the unexpected.
Crises can come in many forms, from a child being sick or cutting a finger, to students
(or perhaps a parent) challenging the teacher’s authority and judgement. Despite the
wide-ranging issues which are raised, there are three fairly simple principles which can be
applied from the classroom-management point of view.
The first priority is to minimise the disturbance. Neither a child who is ill or hurt,
nor a parent or child who is upset, can be given the attention which they require by a
teacher who has continuing classroom responsibilities. Help from support staff, the school
secretary, an ancillary helper, or other teacher should be called in either to deal with the
problem or to relieve the class teacher so that they can deal with it. In this way distur-
bance to the classroom flow can be minimised and those in need of undivided attention
can receive it. The school should have an identified procedure for how to handle crises. Of
course, a student teacher usually has a full-time teacher upon whom to call.
The second step for handling a crisis is to maximise reassurance. Children can be
upset when something unexpected happens and it may well be appropriate to reassert the
security of their classroom routines and expectations. A degree of caution in the choice of
activities for a suitable period might therefore be wise.
The third strategy, which is appropriate when a crisis arises, concerns pausing for suffi-
cient thought before making a judgement on how to act. Obviously, this depends on what
has happened and some events require immediate action. However, if it is possible to gain
time to think about the issues outside the heat of the moment, then it may produce more
authoritative and constructive decisions.

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196 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Reflective activity 7.8

Aim: To monitor responses to a classroom crisis.
Evidence and reflection: After a crisis has arisen, a diary-type account of it and of how
it was handled could be written. This might describe the event, and also reflect the
feelings which were experienced as the events unfolded. It might be valuable to
encourage children to record and talk about a similar account and reflection after
the event, so that you can gain an insight into why they behaved as they did.
The following questions might be asked:
●● Did you minimise disturbance?
●● Did you maximise reassurance?
●● Did you make appropriate judgements on how to act?
Extension: Having examined your actions and the children’s responses to the crisis it
would probably be helpful to discuss the event and the accounts with a friend or
colleague. An interesting reading would be David Tripp (1993) on ‘critical incidents’.

5 Cycles of behaviour

5.1 Towards engagement and independence

Here we revisit the discussion in Section 2.5 of Chapter 6. Positive relationships between
teacher and pupils are sustained if teachers’ act thoughtfully, constructively and fairly
towards their pupils but also, most particularly, by the quality and appropriateness of the
curriculum and educational experience which is on offer. Children and young people are
alert to this. They want to be interested and they want to learn. School can otherwise be
‘so booooorrrrring ….’. Pupil engagement will be high if tasks and activities are clearly
introduced, appropriately chosen and well- matched to pupil needs. If this is done, success
is possible and a sense of achievement can be gained.
So, to summarise, in terms of dealing with behavioural problems the most effective
strategy is, without doubt, to try to prevent them from happening in the first place.
Certainly, the incidence of inappropriate behaviour is likely to be significantly reduced
by following some basic rules of thumb to improve pupil engagement (see Checklist 7.1).
Unfortunately, whilst such strategies should significantly reduce the incidents of misbe-
haviour they may not prevent it in all circumstances. Consequently, a prudent teacher will
develop in their repertoire a range of strategies for dealing with inappropriate behaviour
… before it develops into anything worse.

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 197

Checklist 7.1
Aim: To pre-empt general misbehaviour and improve engagement.
1 Be clear about general class rules and what constitutes acceptable behaviour.
2 ’Catch ‘em being good’, and ‘give credit’ for appropriate behaviour.
3 Select tasks and activities that offer appropriate challenge and interest, but which
also enable pupils to achieve success.
4 Have clear learning objectives and make sure pupils understand these.
5 Explain the activity or task clearly and be sure that everyone knows what to do and
how to do it.
6 Be supportive of any problems encountered and provide feedback.
7 Show approval of appropriate work and reward effort.
8 Be consistent and be positive.

5.2 Managing challenging behaviour – avoiding

a negative cycle
Although, hopefully, crises will be rare, there may be behavioural problems which
gradually erode good relationships and threaten classroom order. In this section we present
them in terms of recurring challenges which even the most experienced teacher may have
to deal with. The aim, of course, would be to anticipate undesirable behaviour and to
‘nip it in the bud’ so that it does not lead to a negative cycle (see Chapter 6, Section 2.1).
Nevertheless, difficulties are bound to occur from time to time and prudent teachers are
likely to want to think through possible strategies in advance so that they can act confi-
dently in managing such situations.
If behavioural problems are serious or repeated it would be appropriate to consider the
strategies listed below. Suggestions are offered for five progressive stages. The emphasis
should remain on prevention, and you should bear in mind that, whilst the 1997 Education
Act enables teachers to restrain pupils with ‘such force as is reasonable in the circum-
stances’, corporal punishment in any form is illegal.
1 If inappropriate behaviour occurs only once and seems relatively minor:
●● Indicate that you have noticed and disapprove of the behaviour – eye contact
and a shake of the head.
2 If repeated:
●● Make sustained eye contact, use more empahtic non-verbal gestures.
●● Move towards the child.
●● Invite the child to participate – ask a question or encourage a comment, direct
the focus onto work to be done.
3 If persistent, in addition to the responses above:
●● Name the child firmly and positively.

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198 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

●● Move to the child.

●● Stop the action.
●● Find out the facts if the situation is ambiguous; avoid jumping to conclusions.
●● Briefly identify the inappropriate behaviour, comment on the behaviour (not the
child), keep voice low and controlled, avoid nagging/lecturing.
●● Clearly state the desired behaviour, and expect a compliant response.
●● Distance the child from the situation – avoid a contagious spread, a public clash
and an ‘audience’ which can encourage ‘showing off’.
●● Focus on the principal individual involved; don’t be drawn into discussion with
a group; followers will conform if you control the leader.
●● Deal with the situation as quickly and neatly as possible; don’t be drawn into
long arguments; don’t let the situation distract your attention from the rest of the
class and the goals of your lesson.
4 If punishment is judged to be necessary:
●● Ensure that the punishments you consider are consistent with school policies
and established classroom norms.
●● Be sure that the punishment you decide upon is appropriate and will be seen to
be ‘fair’.
●● Avoid indiscriminate punishment of class or group which would be deemed
‘unfair’.
●● Be confident that you can implement the punishment as announced.
5 Closure/after the event:
●● Take those involved to one side, perhaps individually, and present them with
‘the problem’ – preserve their dignity, avoid ‘supporters’ chipping in.
●● Encourage the child to identify what had been wrong, thus sharing responsibility.
●● If you have acted inappropriately in any way, then apologise, so you are seen to
be fair.
●● Invite the child to draw up a ‘contract’ for the future.
●● If privileges are to be withdrawn, show how they can be earned back.
●● Provide new opportunities to earn praise.
●● Conclude with ‘peace terms’ which are clear to all parties.
The point of all this is to be ‘firm but fair’. You, as the teacher, are responsible and must
take control. But you have to act appropriately and negotiate a new foundation for future
conformity and a sustainable, positive relationship (see also Chapter 6).
Other problems can also exist in any classroom. These may be associated with an
individual child who has particular difficulties. These need to be understood rather than
lead to condemnation. To do this, it is important to record and analyse the behaviour and
try to identify the possible causes before major action is taken. In keeping a diary of events

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 199

one might record the conditions, characteristics and consequences of the behaviour and
thus produce evidence for future action.

Checklist 7.2
Aim: To record incidents of ongoing ‘problem’ behaviour.
Conditions: When exactly does the disruption occur?
●● Is it random or regular?
●● Is there a pattern with a particular child?
●● Is there a pattern regarding a particular task?
●● Is there a pattern with a particular teacher?
Characteristics: What exactly happens?
●● Is it a verbal reaction?
●● Is it a physical reaction?

Consequences: What are the effects?

●● On the child, the teacher?
●● On the class, the school?
●● Do others join in, ignore, retaliate?

Such major, persistent problems are best discussed with

other colleagues and a common strategy worked out Expert question
in line with the school’s behaviour policy. In some Reflection: is our classroom practice
circumstances, this might also involve the parents, if based on incremental, evidence-
necessary, so that a consistent approach can be adopted. informed and collaborative improvement
Whether a problem is associated with an individual strategies?
child or most of the class, a consistent, balanced, firm and This question contributes to a conceptual
constructive approach is essential and would, hopefully, framework underpinning professional
provide security for pupils as well as support for the expertise (see Chapter 16).
teacher. It must be remembered that children and young
people respond to situations and experiences. We, as
teachers, structure such experiences. Thus, if students respond problematically, we must
reflect on the experiences that we provide rather than simply trying to apportion blame
For consideration of
elsewhere. As we have seen, teachers can be ‘provocative’ or ‘insulative’ (Hargreaves, whole school issues and
Hester and Mellor, 1975). Which are you? Can you find ways to manage behaviour which a summary checklist
draw on and sustain a positive cycle in your classroom relationships? of principles for
classroom management
deriving from the
Elton Report, see the
supplementary material
for Chapter 7 on
reflectiveteaching.co.uk

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200 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Conclusion
This chapter has examined aspects of behaviour management which help to establish
and sustain conditions for successful learning. Such issues are of great concern to us as
teachers, because they underpin our effectiveness.
However, most of us gradually grow in confidence and competence with such
challenges. Indeed, ‘good discipline’ is, above all, the product of professional expertise
(see Chapters 1 and 16).
Student teachers should allow themselves time to learn, experiment, and learn some
more. We all make mistakes too, but it is important to see these as learning opportunities.
Direct experience is irreplaceable in developing competence, but there is also much to be
said for sharing ideas, problems and successes through discussion with colleagues and
mentors.

Key readings
For a sophisticated and influential analysis of classroom environments and engagement
of pupils in learning tasks, see:
Doyle. W. (1986). ‘Classroom organization and management’, in M. C. Wittrock
(ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd edn). New York: Macmillan.
(Reading 7.1)

There are many books which provide practical advice on classroom strategies to achieve
good behaviour. For example:
Bennett, T. (2011) Mastering the Art and Craft of Teaching. London: Continuum.
(Reading 7.3)
Cowley, S. (2010) Getting the Buggers to Behave. London: Continuum. (Reading 7.4)
Robertson, J. (1996) Effective Classroom Control: Understanding Teacher–Pupil
Relationships. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Rogers, B. (2011) Classroom Behaviour. London: SAGE.
Watkins, C. (2011) Managing Classroom Behaviour. London: ATL (Reading 7.2)

For a layered model for managing pupil behavour, based on psychological research
(Reading 6.4), see:
Chaplain, R. (2003) Teaching Without Disruption in the Primary School. London:
Routledge.
Chaplain, R. (2003) Teaching Without Disruption in the Secondary School. London:
Routledge.

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 Chapter 7 Engagement 201

For a book which provides many insights on classroom management, and which has
become a classic, see:
Kounin, J. S. (1970) Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms. New York:
Holt Rhinehart and Winston. (Reading 7.5)

The classic on assertive discipline is:

Canter, L. and Canter, M. (1992). Assertive Discipline: Positive Behavior
Management for Today’s Classroom. Santa Monica, CA: Canter and Associates.

On ‘positive teaching’ see:

Merrett, F. and Wheldall, K. (1990) Identifying Troublesome Classroom Behaviour.
London: Paul Chapman. (Reading 7.6)

It is crucial to hold on to management issues in the context of broader educational

objectives and with awareness of the overall effect on a classroom. On this, with a useful
scale for analysing the ‘working atmosphere’, see:
Haydn, T. (2007) Managing Pupil Behaviour. London: Routledge.

Taking this even further, for a philosophical account see:

Straughan, R. (1988) Can We Teach Children to be Good? Basic Issues in Moral,
Personal and Social Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.

From time to time public concern is expressed about behaviour in schools. The outcome
of one such episode led to the Elton Report. This is a balanced summary of the factors
and issues, and is well worth consulting:
DES (1989a) Discipline in Schools, Report of the Committee of Enquiry chaired by
Lord Elton. London: HMSO.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Spaces
How are we creating
environments for
learning?
8
Introduction (p. 204)

1 Environments for learning (p. 205)

1.1 What is a learning environment? (p. 205)

1.2 Formal and informal learning environments (p. 206)

2 Organising the classroom for learning (p. 208)

2.1 The classroom as a learning environment (p. 208)

2.2 Use of resources (p. 209)
2.3 Use of space (p. 210)
2.4 Use of time (p. 213)

3 Using technology for learning (p. 216)

3.1 ICT in formal school settings (p. 216)

3.2 ICT beyond schools (p. 220)

4 Managing pupils and adults (p. 221)

4.1 Organising pupils (p. 221)

4.2 Working with adults (p. 225)

Conclusion (p. 228)

204 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Introduction
Pupils in primary and secondary schools routinely experience many ‘learning spaces’,
yet how do spaces become effective learning environments? In this chapter we consider a
number of key issues.
The core space for a teacher is, of course, the classroom, and a central concern of teachers
in any phase of schooling is whether both the classroom and the class are organised in a
manner that facilitates teaching and learning. For teaching and learning to succeed, it seems
clear that the physical and human resources of the classroom need to be marshalled to
reinforce the teacher’s values, aims, curriculum and syllabus demands – and of course, as
we will see, there are some important differences between primary and secondary schools.
But classrooms are not the only spaces where pupils learn. Pupils spend most of their
time in environments other than school, many of which have the potential to contribute
to their learning. In addition to routine learning spaces such as home, street or park,
institutions such as museums and nature reserves now offer more formalised ‘out of the
classroom’ learning experiences. Television, new media, mobile technologies and specific
‘virtual learning environments’ often now play a significant role in supporting learning.
Above all though, the home remains the most significant influence on pupils’ attitudes, and
is a resource for learning that might be further exploited (Mayall, 2009).
All of these spaces have ‘affordances’ for learning. The term, with its origins in Gestalt
psychology, was first coined by Gibson (1977), in developing an ecological approach to
perception. It has been widely adopted in education, particularly in relation to educational
technologies (see Edwards, 2012, Reading 8.5), to express the inherent potential for learning
which an environment or tool offers. For such potential to be realised, it has to be identified
by the user. Thus, for example, a pencil may have affordance for drawing as a means of
expression with variable use of line, shading and pattern – whilst another person may
perceive it simply as a tool for writing. Even then though, it has important affordances,
such as its susceptibility to a rubber for alterations. And the other side of affordances is
the idea of constraints – there are some things about an environment, space or tool that are
likely to frame learning potential in particular ways. Reflective teachers need to be aware
of the affordances and constraints of the environments and resources with which they work.

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on learning environments:

Effective teaching and learning recognises the significance of informal

learning. Informal learning, such as learning out of school, should be recognised
as at least as significant as formal learning and should therefore be valued and used
appropriately in formal processes. (Principle 8)

Effective teaching and learning demands consistent policy frameworks

with support for teaching and learning as their primary focus. Policies at
national, local and institutional levels need to recognise the fundamental importance
of teaching and learning. They should be designed to create effective learning
See Chapter 4 environments in which all learners can thrive. (Principle 10)

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 205

In this chapter we will see that not only are there a range of possible spaces for learning,
but that they each have affordances and constraints for particular purposes, which may be
different at primary and secondary level. Exploiting the affordances and constraints of an
environment can be achieved by good organisation and management. However, this should
not be taken to imply rigidity; for if the rules and routines of the classroom are clear and
agreed, good organisation can increase freedom for a teacher or educator to teach and the
learner to learn. In particular, it should give them more time to create a sense of ‘learning
community’ (Watkins, 2004) – to diagnose pupils’ learning difficulties, to listen to pupils
and to teach. This is more preferable, in classrooms in particular, than having to spend too
much time on ‘housekeeping’ (Hastings and Wood, 2001).

1 Environments for learning

1.2 What is a learning environment?

In considering the creation of a learning environment, with the learner at the centre, it is
useful to begin by looking more generally at the complex ‘layers’ which exist within and
around any learning space, and which can affect a person’s development. The ecological

Figure 8.1
brenner’s Ecological th
ronfen eor Bronfenbrenner’s
B y
Chronosystem ecological theory

Macrosystem

Exosystem

Mesosystem
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206 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

systems theory of Bronfenbrenner (1979; 1993, Reading 8.1) gives a useful way to think
about these layers. He represented a pupil at the centre, and layers of environment
expanding in concentric circles, as shown in Figure 8.1. Immediately around the learner,
he defines a layer comprising their own ‘biology’ and the relationships they have with their
immediate surroundings. For example, a young person’s peers may affect his or her beliefs
and behaviour (and vice versa) and talking to his teacher may support his learning. The
next layer is defined as the connections between the components of the previous layer; the
relationship between a pupil’s parents and her teacher would be included here. Beyond this
lies the larger social system, in which the pupil does not directly function, but which may
affect them. Parental work schedules are one example; a pupil has no role in them, but
may be affected by increased pressure in the family home as a result of one parent being
frequently absent. Finally, the outermost layer describes the wider cultural values, customs
and laws within which the child is developing.
Thinking about a pupil’s environment in this way makes it clear that no learning space
can be considered in isolation. There are connections between the various settings and
communities involved in a pupil’s life. Of course, these interconnections change over time
and the ways in which people, resources and space typically interact in early, primary,
secondary and further education have some similarities but are also distinct.
Whilst recognising the significance of learning in a wide range of settings, it is
important for an educator to understand what they can influence, manage and organise,
and those influences to which they can only respond.
Sometimes a teacher will want to make a significant
change to a pupil’s immediate environment to support their
Expert question learning. This could involve separating groups of pupils
Connection: does the curriculum engage into different teaching groups; it may involve talking to
with the cultural resources and funds- their parents to influence the learning environment at
of-knowledge of families and the home to encourage homework completion; or it could
community? involve rearranging the tables for group work. At other
times, they may encourage pupils to work in less formal
learning environments.

1.2 Formal and informal learning environments

The classroom provides a structured and formal learning environment, which can be
subject to a number of constraints. Less formal environments (such as museums and
outdoor learning spaces) can provide opportunities to work outside such constraints. They
can provide:
●● an immediate and novel context for learning;
●● an alternative source of curriculum delivery, allowing repackaging of the
curriculum through e.g. a museum’s object collections;
●● a chance to ensure that the curriculum does not restrict pupils’ learning;
●● objects and environments that can form the basis for enquiry and knowledge

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 207

building, allowing pupils the chance to follow and explore their interests, and
encouraging a mastery approach to learning;
●● pupils with the chance to develop more engagement and autonomy in knowledge
building, through handling and questioning objects.
Working successfully within less formal environments can be a challenge for a teacher,
who is usually constrained by curriculum demands, and working off the school site in
particular can involve extra organisation (a useful website which supports such planning
is at schooltrip.com). Any use of a learning space outside the classroom by a teacher and
their class needs to be considered from the pragmatic considerations of organisation, and
from pedagogical perspectives on what will enable effective learning in these spaces. It is
useful to note that such spaces can also provide distractions from learning.
However, children’s learning is not all intentional and planned. Children learn through
everyday experience, from their peers in the playground, at home, and as part of their
communities.
Peer group culture is important to children as part of adapting to school life (Davies, 1982).
As children get older, the culture of boys and girls tends to become more distinctive and the
culture of the playground also starts to mirror both academic achievement within school and
social factors outside the school, such as social class and ethnicity. Such differentiation is
particularly important to gendered patterns in motivation and learning disposition (Murphy,
2001). Some peer cultures favour school attainment and are likely to reinforce teacher efforts
to engender a positive approach to learning. Other peer cultures derive meaning from alter-
native values, and children who are influenced by such cultures may approach school with
minimal or even oppositional expectations. Such children will still be constructing under-
standing, but it may not be the type of understanding for which teachers would have aimed.
The interaction between home and school is also important for learning (Hughes and
Pollard, 2000, see the Research Briefing in Chapter 4, p. 107). Indeed, much of children’s
lifestyle at home can have an influence on their learning. Children watch many hours of
television each week, or spend many hours on the computer, and their play and lifestyles
are influenced by advertising, social media and the internet. Young people may identify
with particular ‘imagined communities’ (Anderson, 1991), but also virtual communities.
As Buckingham (2000) has argued, electronic media provide an alternative environment
within which enduring questions are played out. How much they learn will depend on
whether children are passive or active in their stance and how new cultural experiences
are interpreted and used.
As well as the home, the wider community also has key opportunities for learning.
A ‘community’ can mean different things, but usually refers to either a community of
locality, or a community of identity. Having said that, a locality can be important to
someone’s identity, and can provide a network of support and a sense of belonging.
Collective identities can also be important to children, and may be based on wider regional
variations or looser groupings. The way in which values, beliefs and common experience
define such communities can be very important to pupils’ learning.
Explicit opportunities provided for learning within a community can include youth
clubs, toddler groups, education–business partnerships (which provide schools with links

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208 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

to local business), learning resource services such as libraries, and organisations like the
Scouts, Brownies or Guides. Such activities may also be mediated by specialist informal
educators who will explore and enlarge experiences.

2 Organising the classroom for learning

2.1 The classroom as a learning environment

Organising the classroom environment is important, because research suggests that
disorganised classrooms predict poor attainment and poor behaviour (Pointon and
Kershner, 2000). Such research reinforces the view that the environment in a classroom
should: be tidy; be aesthetically pleasing; stimulate pupils interest; set high standards
in the display and presentation of pupils’ work; and be created in such a way that it is
practical to maintain. In addition, however, reflective teachers should aim to structure
the environment so that opportunities are taken to reinforce their overall purposes,
both in general terms, and for particular lessons/lesson activities. This applies equally
in a primary classroom, as well as in a subject-teaching room at secondary school.
Research suggests that the physical aspects of the classroom environment interact with
the teacher’s intentions for learning, and that careful consideration of the interaction of
these elements is necessary in creating an ‘inclusive classroom’ (Lucas and Thomas,
2000).
In considering the physical environment of the classroom you may find the questions in
Checklist 8.1 helpful. These focus on the use of displays to support learning.

Checklist 8.1
Aim: To examine the classroom environment.
1. Design. What are the main design features of the room, and how do they affect its
aesthetic feel?
2. Affordances. What are the possibilities and constraints for active learning in
the classroom? Can you move the tables to enable discussion? What are the
possibilities and issues for display on walls, on windows, on flat surfaces, off the
ceiling?
3. Purposes. Do displays stimulate and inform? Do they provide opportunities for
pupils to interact with them, for example, by posing questions? Do displays only
show finished products or do they also reveal processes and value hard work, for
example, displaying drafts and then finished products. Do they provide a stimulus
for discussion (such as thinking walls, or a periodic table in a chemistry lesson),
sharing problems, or giving mutual support and advice? Do they provide a stimulus
for structuring enquiry, from devising questions to testing ideas?

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 209

4. Quality. Do classroom displays show that the pupils’ work is valued? Does it provide
a model which pupils may apply to their own work? Is there a ‘working wall’ which
enables ongoing contributions by pupils?
5. Practicality. Is the classroom environment as practical as it can be to maintain?

Other research suggests that environmental factors, such as classroom temperature,

acoustics, and lighting may affect pupils’ ability to engage in learning (Woolner et al.,
2007; Winterbottom and Wilkins, 2007). There is a limit to what individual teachers can
do to control such factors, but maintaining good ventilation, preventing ‘over-lighting’ of
pupils’ workstations, and ensuring pupils sit where they cannot see a ‘glare spot’ on the
interactive whiteboard are all important.

2.2 Use of resources

A good supply of appropriate resources is essential, given the importance of direct
experience and practical activities to pupils’ learning. Such resources may differ between
primary and secondary. For example, at primary level, you will be more likely to find
resources which provide direct and active learning experiences. However, at all levels,
resources can:
●● motivate, inspire and focus pupils’ attention;
●● provide a basis for discussion, or be designed to enable pupils to learn
independently;
●● explain, instruct, or demonstrate procedures and ideas;
●● enable pupils to access information;
●● enable pupils to learn in manageable steps;
●● help pupils to recall, consolidate and extend their learning;
●● support assessment of pupils’ understanding, perhaps by providing a structure for
recording responses.
In some ways, organising resources is a straightforward matter, but it also requires careful
thought and attention to detail. For instance, it is all too easy to discover that the paint has
dried out in a Year 1 classroom, or that insufficient chemicals have been ordered for the Year
9 chemistry syllabus. Likewise, even with centrally managed resources, laptops may have
run out of charge, the printer may have run out of ink, or the laptops may update themselves
for five minutes before they can be used. It may take several days for new software to be
installed on the computers by the ICT technicians. It is also common in schools that shared
resources are not put back where they are usually stored; a sense of collective responsibility
for the care and use of such centralised resources is therefore essential.
When considering employing resources for pupils’ learning, four possible criteria might
be considered:

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●● Appropriateness. What resources are needed to support the learning processes

which are expected to take place?
●● Availability. What resources are available? What is in the classroom, the school,
the community, businesses, libraries, museums? Are there cost, time or transport
factors to be considered?
●● Storage. How are classroom resources stored? Which should be under teacher
control? Which should be openly available to the pupils? Which are stored by the
technician? Are they clearly labelled and safely stored?
●● Maintenance. What maintenance is required? Is there a system for seeing that this
is done? In the case of ICT and specialist equipment, where is the expertise and
technical support located and how can this be accessed?

Reflective activity 8.1

Aim: To plan resources to support specific learning activities.
Evidence and reflection: Identify the objective for a proposed lesson activity, then
consider the resources and classroom organisation which are required, using the
four criteria listed above as a starting point:
Activity:
Objectives:
Resources required:
●● Appropriateness:
●● Availability:
●● Storage:
●● Maintenance:

Extension: Together with another teacher, either from a different subject or a different
year group, analyse the classroom(s) in which you both teach most often. Each of
you should have one or more particular learning activities in mind, and you should
work together to analyse each other’s classrooms. Share the problems and issues
that are pertinent to your circumstances.

2.3 Use of space

The way a teaching space is organised has considerable impact on the teaching strategies
that can be deployed, the attitude of the learners and thus the quality of learning. Space
in a classroom is always limited; yet what space there is must be utilised in such a way
that it allows a teacher to change organisational strategies, for instance between whole-
class teaching, group work, or pair work, with associated implications for seating. The
use of interactive whiteboards and personal laptop computers in classrooms also creates
particular demands on classroom space. Such technologies enable exciting new forms of
whole-class and individualised learning but should be deployed in relation to educational
purposes rather than just because of their availability.

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Because primary teachers tend to occupy the same classroom for all of their teaching, it
is often possible to use space flexibly, and to move tables and desks as appropriate for the
learning activity. However, notwithstanding the constraints of e.g. fixed science-benches,
secondary teachers can also benefit by examining the requirements of the learning activity,
and adapting the classroom space in response.

Figure 8.2 Plan

of a Key Stage 2

Bookshelves

Comfortable chairs
classroom
Sink
classroom from
Door into

corridor

Bookshelves
Bookshelves

Computer
Whiteboard

Carpet area

Overhead
projector

Chairs
Teacher’s desk

Bookshelves
Tables
Bookshelves

playground
Door from

Windows

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When thinking about the most effective use of classroom space, consider developing
a classroom plan, either on card, by using classroom design software (e.g. http://teacher.
scholastic.com/tools/class_setup/) or using the drawing toolbar on a word processor (see
Figure 8.2 for a primary example and consider Reflective activity 8.2). Using such a plan,
it is possible to explore the affordances and constraints of each teaching space when organ-
ising for teaching and learning.

Reflective activity 8.2

Aim: To produce a classroom plan.
Evidence and reflection: A simple plan should be made of the fixed points in the
classroom – walls, windows, doors, sinks, pegs, benches, gas taps, etc. It is relatively
easy to produce a plan ‘to scale’ on computer (e.g. using http://teacher.scholastic.
com/tools/class_setup/), or by using squared paper.
Major existing items of furniture should be represented by shapes to the same scale as
the classroom plan.
The furniture can be moved around on the plan to experiment with different classroom
layouts.
Extension: Careful analysis is needed of the space requirements of each classroom
activity and of each activity in relation to the others. It is therefore worth
considering the arrangement of the classroom for very different types of activity –
e.g. in secondary foreign language lessons, paired conversational work and whole-
class question and answer sessions.

When planning a classroom layout, it is important to consider how to promote and

manage dialogue between the teacher and class and between pupils in groups and
pairs (Mercer and Littleton, 2007, Reading 11.6). For example, interactive whiteboards
can be effective tools to promote dialogic teaching at a whole-class level (Warwick,
Hennessy and Mercer, 2011). However, in this case the teacher must consider whether
the screen is accessible to all pupils, and whether the classroom is organised to promote
high-quality discussion at such a whole-class level with the interactive whiteboard as a
stimulus. Likewise, when trying to promote small group
discussion, sitting in rows may not be conducive. It
Expert question can be tempting to merely focus on the logistics of an
Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk scaffold activity, but if the classroom is not organised in such a
understanding to build on existing way as to promote pupil talk, then a teacher may miss
knowledge and to strengthen dispositions opportunities to support pupils’ learning (Higgins, 2003).
to learn? Finally, whatever approach is taken to resource
This question contributes to a conceptual management or classroom layout, it is still important
framework underpinning professional to have one eye on health and safety implications; it is
expertise (see Chapter 16). easy for aisles to be blocked by bags, or for bottlenecks
of pupils to build up in particular areas of the classroom.

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2.4 Use of time

Notwithstanding all the other dimensions of teaching, research has shown that the amount
of time during which pupils are fully engaged in targeted instructional tasks is closely
related to outcomes (Berliner, 1991, Reading 8.4; Heuston and Miller, 2011). This is
affected by the length of the school year, day and timetabling, as well as by the effec-
tiveness of classroom routines and organisation.
However well-organised a classroom is, and however good one’s organisation of
resources, when pupils start to use that space, it can lead to a significant amount of ‘evapo-
rated time’, and may require some re-analysis of the way in which space and resources, and
pupils’ use thereof, are designed and managed. For example, in primary schools, Campbell
and Neill (1992) showed that almost 10 per cent is lost as ‘evaporated time’ in classroom-
management activities. A similar study in secondary schools found that secondary teachers
only spent 46 per cent of their allocated lesson time actually teaching pupils. Minimising
this evaporated time is important, but even within the remaining ‘instructional’ time, it is
still important to ensure pupils are engaged and motivated for them to learn effectively
(Goswami and Bryant, 2010). This is not necessarily always achieved. Findings from the
primary-based Oracle study (Galton et al., 1999) showed considerable variations between
different classrooms in the proportions of pupil time with high levels of engagement.
Overall, Key Stage 1 pupils were task-engaged for about 60 per cent of classroom time,
distracted for about 20 per cent of the time and organising themselves or being organised
for the remaining 20 per cent. Hence, in this section, we consider two aspects: pupils’ use
of the space and resources to maximise the time available for curriculum activity, and the
time actually spent in active learning.
Time available for curriculum activity is the remaining time in each teaching/learning
session, once it has properly started, excluding interruptions and time to pack up at the
end of the lesson. The time available is clearly related to a number of organisational strat-
egies. The most obvious of these are the routine procedures which are developed within
the classroom space that, for example, help to avoid queues and bottlenecks. These help
to manage the pressure which might otherwise be placed on the teacher by the pupils and
they contribute to producing a positive, structured classroom environment. Reflective
activity 8.3 may be helpful in reviewing classroom organisation and procedures, and thus
increase the time available for curriculum activities.

Reflective activity 8.3

Aim: To evaluate routine activities to maximise time for teaching and learning.
Evidence and reflection: Use this list as a starting point for considering the routines that
affect your lessons, and how you may improve your use of space and / or resources
to reduce wastage of time. The list is generic, and applicable to both primary and
secondary school – you will need to add to the list to match your type of school and
(in secondary school) your curriculum subject. Identify any aspects of organisation
you can deal with in advance of the lesson (for example, moving the tables, or

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distributing resources before pupils enter the room). Can you improve your own
routines (for example, preventing bottlenecks by asking pupils to unpack before
putting their bags away, or by distributing resources around the room). Are you
planning far enough ahead or practising crisis management (for example, do you
often find yourself hunting for resources in the cupboards, or running to the prep
room or office for resources you’ve forgotten?). Can you actively involve pupils, giving
them routine responsibility for specific aspects of resource organisation (for example,
giving automatic responsibility to particular pupils to give out books or materials at
the start of the lesson)?

Purpose of procedure Procedure Evaluation of Possible

procedure improvement
Entering the classroom
Leaving the classroom
Completing the register
Collecting in homework
Issuing homework
Distributing learning resources
Collecting learning resources
Going to the toilet
Tidying up

Extension: Teachers and Teaching Assistants build up a useful repertoire of strategies

for these organisational matters. A good extension would be to share and exchange
ideas with a ‘critical friend’.

Encouraging pupils to take on more responsibility for organising themselves, their

classroom and their resources is important, as it can enhance their learning time, reduce
their reliance on the teacher, and give the teacher more time to focus on pupils’ learning.
Indeed, the aim is for the classroom to run itself. For this to happen effectively, it is
important to ensure that the locations of all resources are labelled, or that resources are
visible and obvious, so that pupils can fetch them with ease where it is safe to so. This is
easier to do in primary school, as pupils tend to spend all their time in one room. However,
over time, and with established departmental practices, it is relatively straightforward to
encourage in secondary classrooms as well. Alternatively, a teacher may adopt different
strategies to try to maximise time available for learning. These could include asking pupils
to hand out resources to the rest of the class, or individuals or groups moving between
workstations, with resources remaining fixed to such locations.
Time spent in active learning is the second key issue. Whilst this can be assessed at any
point, it may also be seen as providing summative information: a product of the overall

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learning environment which is provided for the pupils. Reflective activity 8.4 helps in
analysing the amount of time pupils spend actively learning.

Reflective activity 8.4

Aim: To monitor an individual pupil to estimate active learning time.
Evidence and reflection: Watch a chosen pupil during a teaching/learning session.
Judge the times at which:
1 The pupil is ‘on task’ (i.e. actively engaged in the given task and learning objectives)
2 The pupil is doing other necessary activities related to the task (e.g. logging into a
computer, fetching equipment)
3 The pupil is ‘off task’ (i.e. appears distracted or disengaged).
Calculate the total amounts and proportions of learning time in each category:
‘On-task’ time [… minutes], [… %]
‘Task-management’ time [… minutes], [… %]
‘Off-task’ time [… minutes], [… %]
Extension: Are there any changes in classroom organisation or management strategies
which could help to maximise active learning time?

To maximise learning in which pupils are actively engaged, it is also important to ensure
there are a variety of stimulating tasks over time. Teachers should try to avoid ‘satiation’
(i.e. letting the pupils get bored by monotonous or repetitive activities). Although such
variety is closely related to the teaching and learning strategies a teacher employs,
explicitly reflecting upon the planned activities to ensure variety is an organisational issue,
the aim being to ensure that each pupil will remain engaged and motivated throughout (see
Reflective activity 8.5).

Reflective activity 8.5

Aim: To evaluate the variety of learning objectives, tasks and activities, and the extent
to which they engage pupils.
Evidence and reflection: This evaluation could be carried out by an observer who
focuses on a particular pupil for a lesson or teaching episode. All activities should be
recorded in terms of their motivational appeal, explicit purpose and what the pupil
was required to do. Alternatively, tasks could be monitored, by the teacher, for a
longer period. Some questions which might be asked could include:
a) Is there a planned highlight for each lesson or teaching episode?
b) Are there long sequences of the same type of task?
c) Is there variety between active and passive tasks?
d) Is there variety between pupils working alone, in small groups, and as a whole class?
Extension: Consider the findings from this exercise, and try to deduce the reasons for
any patterns you identify. If you judge it appropriate, what could you do to increase
the stimulus and variety of learning objectives, tasks and activities?

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3 Using technology for learning

As we have seen, the classroom environment consists of its physical environment and
social systems, informed by the prevailing values and culture of the school. The ways in
which resources are organised and used will reflect these interlinked elements. This is true
too of ICT resources, which are now integral to teaching and learning.

3.1 ICT in formal school settings

The organisation and use of ICTs afford or constrain
Expert question opportunities for learning. We begin with some organi-
Culture: does the school support sational considerations, but move swiftly to consider
expansive learning by affirming learner teachers’ pedagogic intentions.
contributions, engaging partners and The general availability of ICT resources in the
providing attractive opportunities? classroom is increasingly important and can be a strong
This question contributes to a conceptual determinant of whether technology will be readily used
framework underpinning professional by pupils to support their learning. The use of computer
expertise (see Chapter 16). suites is decreasing because, although they may still be
helpful for some purposes, they are not accessible at all
times. Mobile equipment, owned by children, may also
have potential for use too, though this also clearly raises coordination, technical and access
issues among others. In any event, simply having ICT in the classroom does not determine
its effective use for pupils’ learning.
ICT brings opportunities for teaching in particular subject and topic areas. Although
uninspiring ‘drill’ programmes still exist, the quality of educational software and
web-resources is increasing. For example, numbergym.co.uk offers an excellent range of
mathematically engaging activities for learners of any age to achieve ‘fluency’ and confi-
dence with number. There are many more software and website resources for particular
curricular purposes and collaboration and exchange of ideas with colleagues and through
subject and sectoral associations will be helpful in identifying them.
New technology also enables new processes of teaching and learning. In recent
research, Kennewell and his colleagues (2008) considered the practices of primary and
secondary teachers using ICT in the context of ‘interactive’ teaching approaches (Moyles
et al., 2003). Here, the teachers might be characterised as being ‘dialogic’ in their orien-
tation to teaching and learning, being advocates of the idea that communication is ‘central
to the meaning making process and thus central to learning’ (Mortimer and Scott, 2003).
So how does ICT use ‘fit’ here?
The bottom line is that teachers are absolutely crucial to exploiting the potential of
classroom technologies (Sutherland, John and Robertson, 2007, see the TLRP Research
Briefing on p. 217).
A good example is that of the interactive whiteboard (IWB), now familiar in many
countries; they provide a digital hub through which other technologies can be channelled,

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 217

Research
Briefing
Teaching and learning with new technology

UK governments see enormous potential in the use of technology for schools, college, university, workplace and lifelong learning
(for instance, see DfES, 2005b or DENI, 2004). Provision starts in nurseries and stretches forward towards the elderly. It will be a very
important part of our future.
The evolution of the terminology is instructive. ‘IT’, ‘ICT’ and ‘e-learning’ were in common usage for some years, but progressed to
‘technology-enhanced learning’ (TEL). This denotes an important change. In particular, it is now understood that the fundamental factors
in learning endure whether new technology is involved or not. Appropriate technology can ‘enhance’ some learning (though probably
not all), but works best when it is combined with contributions from skilled and knowledgeable teachers, parents or others. Thus we
have the concept of ‘blended learning’ which combines old and new methods, each playing to their strengths.
TLRP’s two major projects on the use of new technology in schools have contributed to these developments – one based on learning
in nursery schools and the other focused on the teaching of specific subjects in secondary schools. In both instances, the research
showed that the affordance of the technological tools to support effective learning is not drawn out consistently without teacher
expertise guiding the learner on how to interpret and make sense of his or her experiences. Technology can enhance learning and can
complement teaching, but it is unlikely to replace the role of a more knowledgeable other in discussion, guidance and feedback.

Key findings: Implications:

Equipment: New technological equipment is, in itself, not The key to enhancing learning concerns the use to which
terribly useful in enhancing learning. technological tools are put.

Guided interaction: Learners’ encounters with new technology Professional development should aim to enhance the capability
are enhanced when practitioners use guided interaction to of teachers and others in using new technology to scaffold new
support them. understanding.

Essential teaching: Effective teaching and learning with new Authentic new knowledge is not embedded in the technology.
technology involves building bridges between ‘idiosyncratic’ and Effective learning depends on teacher contributions to shape,
‘intended’ learning. amend or reinforce emerging understanding.

Multiple experiences: Providing experience of a broad range of Experience of many technologies builds confidence and positive
new technologies promotes opportunities for learning. attitudes to technology enhanced learning and its use.

Formal and informal learning: There is a two-way exchange of Students can be beneficially encouraged to build on their out-of-
knowledge between home and school use of new technology, school learning within school, and to continue their school
which impacts on learning in school. learning at home.

Among the ‘subject design initiatives’ underpinning the InterActive project were:

Learning to spell: 10–11-year-old students used WordRoot, a multimedia sound and word package, and the presentation package
PowerPoint, to analyse the structure and etymology of ‘hard words’. Students’ spelling improved, as shown by paper and pencil tests.
Learning to write in a foreign language: 13–14-year-old students used drop-down menus in Word to support their writing in
German. They wrote more in the foreign language and took more risks with grammar. Students’ writing on paperwas also enhanced
after this exercise.
Learning mathematical proof: 13–14-year-old students used dynamic geometry software and presentation software to learn about
geometrical proof. They worked in groups and presented their work to the class for feedback on the validity of the proofs they had
produced.
Using computers for shared writing: 9–10-year-olds in pairs composed an extra chapter of Alice in Wonderland, writing direct to
screen. Analysis of pupils’ interactions and writing suggests that the computer affords a more visual way of conceptualising the narrative
voice and structure of a text than pen and paper. This challenges traditional notions of the writing process.
Further information:
Plowman, L. (2006) Supporting Learning with ICT in Pre-school Settings. TLRP Research Briefing 15. London: TLRP.
Sutherland, R. et al. (2006) Using Computers to Enhance Learning. TLRP Research Briefing 19. London: TLRP.
Sutherland, R., John, P. and Robertson, S. (2007) Improving Learning with ICT. TLRP Improving Learning series. London: Routledge.
The full research briefings are downloadable at www.tlrp.org/pub. ‘Practitioner Applications’ on the TLRP website suggest classroom activities to explore issues
raised by these projects.
These project were directed from the University of Stirling and University of Bristol.

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as orchestrated by the teacher and the pupils (see Beauchamp and Kennewell, 2013).
Tools such as this offer a range of affordances and constraints for learning. These are
determined by two things – the functionality of the device(s) and how both teachers and
pupils see that functionality as providing opportunities for, or barriers to, learning. This
relates substantially to the pedagogical perspective of the teacher (Hennessy, Warwick
and Mercer, 2011).
Consider Diane, a primary teacher, and Lloyd, a secondary history teacher. Both are
committed to an interactive, dialogic pedagogy, with its emphasis on engaging pupils
in active, self-regulated and collaborative learning (see http://dialogueiwb.educ.cam.
ac.uk/). As a result, their use of the interactive whiteboard is often calculated to stimulate
discussion, set the scene for collaborative group work or enable their pupils to ‘take over’
the use of the board in whole-class or group work. They see the board’s multimodality
(providing sound, text, still images and video) and ability to act as a ‘hub’ as providing
the flexibility they need to teach according to their pedagogical intentions. In their class-
rooms, a visitor might expect to see the whiteboard being used by the teacher or the
pupils for:
●● annotating still images, using input from pupil groups or talk pairs;
●● revisiting resources – e.g. annotated pictures, audio recordings – to reignite
understanding, reinforce learning and, through discussion, compare perspectives
over time;
●● creating or listening to sound files, sometimes associated with text or images;
●● considering work from particular pupil, shown using the visualiser and annotated
on the interactive whiteboard screen;
●● group presentation of work, through the use of pictures, scanned objects, text, etc.;
●● groups working directly at the interactive whiteboard on tasks that contain
multimodal elements;
●● the use of the internet to pick up instantly on pupils’ contributions to discussion;
●● use of the interactive whiteboard with other resources, such as where simulations
are used alongside actual group experiments in science;
●● building pages of ideas from different groups in a plenary, in order to continue the
trajectory of learning in the next lesson;
●● communicating with other classes in the school or elsewhere through video links
to support ongoing work.
None of these ideas are particularly technically challenging, but such uses of the
whiteboard are unlikely to be seen in a classroom where the teacher has little concern with
pupils being active and self-regulated in their learning, or with developing a collaborative
learning ethos. In such classrooms, by contrast, the whiteboard might simply be used to
present illustrations of a story being told by the teacher. Thus a teacher who adopts an
interactive, dialogic pedagogy will perceive the affordances and constraints of particular
hardware and software very differently from a teacher who favours a more didactic

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 219

pedagogy. This does not mean that the teacher’s role in

teaching and organising learning is less in either case – Expert question
but it is significantly different. Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk scaffold
The same points apply to software packages, as understanding to build on existing
Reflective activity 8.6 explores. knowledge and to strengthen dispositions
to learn?
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).

Reflective activity 8.6

Aim: To consider the affordances and constraints of a particular piece of software.
Evidence and reflection: Pick a particular program that you use a lot (such as, for
example, Notebook or Activ software for a whiteboard) or that you encourage the
pupil to use – it can be on any device. What do you consider to be the particular
affordances for learning that it has? (Or, to put it another way, how does it help
pupils to learn?) What are the particular constraints of the same program, in your
view?
Extension: Do you think that the pupils share your view of the affordances and
constraints of the program? Whether ‘yes’ or ‘no’, what makes you think so?

The constraints on the uses of ICT in classrooms derive not only from the pedagogic
intentions of teachers or the availability of ICT hardware and software, but from other
features of the learners or the setting. The fundamental question for the teacher has to be
‘will this use of ICT in the lesson enhance the pupils’ learning?’ Checklist 8.2 suggests
pedagogical and practical considerations to consider:

Checklist 8.2
Aim: To consider the pedagogical and practical implications of the classroom use
of ICT.
●● Has e-safety been considered? In particular, do all devices you plan to use have
appropriate internet site blocking? Can pupils easily access the sites you want them
to use?
●● Is some direct teaching in relation to e-safety a necessary feature of the lesson? (see
http://Ofsted.gov.uk/resources/safe-use-of-new-technologies)
●● Have you considered how the use of ICT resources may impact on the time
management of your lesson (e.g. set-up time, time on task)?
●● Have you planned for the procedural aspects of ICT use in the lesson (e.g. numbers
of pupils to a computer, physical placement of computer resources, possible
circulation of groups to a single resource such as the IWB)?

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220 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

●● Are any password systems, used to access devices, clear for the pupils?
●● Are the devices fully charged? (This is a particularly important consideration where
laptop or mobile device charging units may not be in your classroom).
●● Is the right version of the software that you plan to use actually on each of the
devices the pupils will be using?
●● Have you considered whether the pupils are able to store their own work in
progress, and know how to do so?

3.2 ICT beyond schools

Much educational activity and learning now takes place in the digital world, with many
pupils using learning platforms to store their work, respond to learning tasks, complete
homework and communicate with their teacher and their peers (Sutherland, John and
Robertson, 2007; Facer et al., 2003). There is, as Kress (2010, Reading 8.6) put it, a
‘revolution in communication’.
Schools and the systems they operate within are relatively traditional places, and they
are likely to be profoundly challenged by new screen-based technologies and access
to social media. A strategic issue will be to develop through the adoption of controlled
learning platforms or to branch out through the use of more open technologies and social
media. Whilst the practical and technical issues are complex and uncertain given the
rate of innovation, there clearly are massive potential opportunities from the use of new
technologies.
With the increasing availability of smartphone and tablet computers, this engagement
between the teacher’s pedagogical intentions and the pupils’ everyday activity on such
devices at home and elsewhere is now generating enormous potential. The use of such
devices – providing easy access to the internet, video and audio material, games for
learning, applications with specific foci, social communication and e-books – contributes
to the idea that their use for learning is ‘natural’, both in school and at home (Banister,
2004).
The consequence is a shift in emphasis here from ‘teaching’ to more informal learning,
and from the product to the process of learning.
A note of caution concerning accessibility should be sounded here. Recent work (Grant,
2011; Jewitt and Parashar, 2011) has suggested that
many pupils and parents see school and home as separate
Expert question domains and significant numbers of pupils are unable to
Connection: does the curriculum engage access technology at home. Boundary crossing homework
with the cultural resources and funds- may not be acceptable for some and could deepen inequal-
of-knowledge of families and the ities for others. However, for low income families where
community? the school has facilitated the introduction of ICT resources
This question contributes to a conceptual into the home, there is evidence of increased pupil
framework underpinning professional time engaged in homework and independent learning,
expertise (see Chapter 16). and pockets of increased parental engagement with their
pupils’ learning.

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4 Managing pupils and adults

The people in a classroom need to be organised and managed in ways which are most
appropriate for supporting the learning activities which have been planned. This involves
pupils, classroom assistants, other support staff, parents and carers, both in classrooms and
through connections with informal learning at home.

4.1 Organising pupils

Our choices in organising pupils for teaching purposes must be made with regard to both
pedagogical and practical considerations and with the over-riding principle of ‘fitness for
purpose’. Pedagogical considerations include the general aims of the teacher that inform
classroom ethos and procedures, as well as any particular learning objectives for the task
and pupils. Practical factors include the number of pupils, the size of the room and the
availability of resources. A secondary school science
laboratory, for example, is a very different working space
to a primary classroom, and provides different affor- Expert question
dances and constraints on the ways in which pupils might
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise
be organised for activities. sufficiently creative, skilled and wide-
Here we set out the three basic organisational choices ranging to teach all elements of learning?
available to us – class work, group work and individual
This question contributes to a conceptual
work – identifying the main characteristics of each. For framework underpinning professional
further discussion of the pedagogic strategies associated expertise (see Chapter 16).
with each of these three forms of organisation, see
Chapter 11.

Class work
This is the strong form of organisation for: starting and ending a lesson; giving out
administrative instructions; introducing learning objectives, tasks and activities; the direct
teaching of specific concepts and knowledge; demonstrating; and extending and reviewing
work. Whole-class elements to lessons should be seen as part of the flexible repertoire that
a teacher has with respect to pupil organisation, to be used as appropriate.
Whole-class activity is generally assumed to be teacher-centred, and what most whole-
class activities have in common is that the teacher generally remains the focus of control.
But there is a continuum of teacher dominance even when the whole class is involved in
the same activity, and these sessions can be highly interactive (see, for example, Muijs and
Reynolds, 2011, Reading 8.7). At one end of the continuum is the situation where the teacher
talks and the pupils listen, take notes or copy from the board. At the other, the teacher
may plan to give control of the activity to the pupils who may ‘teach’ by, for example,
reporting what they have learned, demonstrating the result of an activity, offering solutions
for problem-solving, discussing alternative or conflicting ideas, and asking questions.

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These activities can create a sense of class identity and shared endeavour. Again, it is the
teacher’s pedagogic framework that will determine how whole-class elements of lessons
proceed; some will encourage pupils’ active participation in all elements of a lesson, whilst
others may be reticent to do so.
Using whole-class organisational procedures may give the teacher a chance to teach
the class more directly and economically than when working with groups. For instance,
he or she may be able to stimulate pupils’ thinking by sharing lesson objectives, exploring
ideas, asking more ‘probing’ questions, modelling quality answers and supporting review,
assessment and reflection on their learning. Hopkins et al. (2000) weigh the benefits of
whole-class teaching and cooperative group work, considering just such ideas. However,
class work can challenge both the teacher and the listener. It is difficult to match the
instruction appropriately to pupils’ differing needs. There is a tendency for teaching to
be pitched at the ‘middle’, potentially failing those capable of more and those needing
support. Whilst some believe that one of the strengths of whole-class teaching is that it
‘pulls along’ the less able, others recognise that engagement can be uneven, with some
pupils ‘opting out’ even though they retain an apparent ‘listening posture’ (Cordon, 2000).
Some pupils may be reluctant to face the risks involved in contributing to the whole class,
whilst the ability of listeners to remain focused on one speaker is limited and affected
both by the listeners’ motivation and the speaker’s skill. There is evidence of teachers
addressing questions only to pupils in a V-shaped wedge in the centre of the room, or to
particular groups or individuals (Wragg, 2000). An awareness of these potential difficulties
should help teachers to tailor the length and nature of whole-class elements of lessons to
the learning needs of their pupils.

Group work
Group work is often recommended for developing social and language skills and as a
means by which pupils can support, challenge and extend their learning together, as in
computer-based problem-solving (Wegerif and Dawes, 2004), work on a creative task or
in subjects such as Design and Technology or Science where practical work is required.
Group work can provide teachers with opportunities to observe pupils’ learning more
closely and, through questioning or providing information, to support them as they
move forward. This approach draws particularly on social constructivist psychology (see
Chapter 2 for a discussion of the theoretical understanding behind this approach).
Groups are likely to exist in some form in most classrooms. However, their form and
function may vary considerably (Kutnick, Blatchford, and Baines, 2002; Baines et al.,
2008; Kutnick, Ota, and Berdondini, 2008; see the Research Briefing in Chapter 11,
p. 316). Five types of group work can be identified according to the purpose they are
intended to serve:
●● Task groups. The teacher decides on a group of pupils to work together on a
particular task or learning objective. Pupils in the group may or may not normally
sit or work together and are likely to be given specific group roles, such as
recorder or researcher.

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 223

●● Teaching groups. Groups can also be used for ‘group teaching’ purposes, where the
teacher instructs pupils who are at the same stage, doing the same task, at the same
time. This may be followed by the pupils working individually. Such a system can
be an economical use of teacher instruction time and resources. The teaching may
be directive or be based on a problem-solving activity.
●● Seating groups. This is a very common form of grouping, where a number of
pupils sit together around a table, usually in a four or six. Such an arrangement is
flexible, allowing pupils to work individually and to socialise when appropriate.
The central question for the teacher here is, ‘if the pupils are not actually working
together, is this arrangement beneficial to their learning?’
●● Collaborative groups. This is used where there is a shared group aim, work is done
together and the outcome is a combined product – perhaps in the form of a model,
completed experiment, story or problem solved. Importantly, it involves pupils
working and talking together, sharing their ideas and explaining their reasoning
(Mercer and Littleton, 2007, Reading 11.6). The collaboration can also lead to a
number of different outcomes from individuals or pairs.
●● Reciprocal teaching. This form of collaboration occurs when pupils work in pairs,
one taking the role of ‘teacher partner’, offering evaluation, and feedback. This
approach is particularly evident in subjects like PE, drama and languages which
involve ‘performance’. The teacher supports by intervening to develop the quality
of the evaluation and feedback.
Interestingly, genuinely collaborative group work is rather rare in schools (Galton, 2007);
despite the fact that it is probably the most productive form of group work for learning,
it requires rather more organisation on the part of the teacher than other forms of group
work, together with a genuine commitment to the active involvement of pupils in their
own learning. In particular, it is crucial that pupils share an understanding of the task and
of the ground rules for their collaborative activity. These need to be explicit (Baines et
al., 2008).

Reflective activity 8.7

Aim: To consider the pros and cons of group working.
Evidence and reflection: Either closely observe pupils working in groups in two lessons,
or reflect on group work activities that you have initiated in your classroom over the
last week. Use these questions as a starting point for your reflections:
●● What were the successful elements of the group work?
●● What was less successful?
●● Can you identify why a particular group activity was successful or unsuccessful?
●● What would you do differently next time?
Extension: Had the pupils in the groups been guided and trained in how to work
productively for learning in this way? Do you consider that this would have
enhanced the group work?

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Teachers have identified a number of problems associated with group work. Some appear
concerned about motivating the pupils and helping them to recognise that being in a group
is for the purposes of work rather than a chance to ‘just have fun’. The monitoring of group
work can also pose problems, especially if the group is intended to work collaboratively
on their own without a teacher. And the management of groups, in terms of numbers,
membership and workspaces, may pose dilemmas.
Identifying criteria by which groups may be formed may help to clarify some of the key
issues. Possible criteria may include:
●● Age groups. These are occasionally used as a convenient way of grouping for some
activities. They are much less useful as a basis for specific teaching points because
of the inevitable spread of attainment interests and needs.
●● Attainment groups. Groups based on attainment levels can be useful for setting up
specific and well-matched tasks; Hallam et al. (2002) discuss this issue in some
depth. They are divisive if used as a permanent way of grouping.
●● Interest groups. It is important to enable pupils with shared interests to work
together from time to time. There may be particular advantages for the social
cohesion of the class when pupils are of different attainment, sex, race, social
class.
●● Friendship groups. These provide opportunities for social development.
Awareness of the needs of any isolated and marginal pupils is necessary, as is
some attention to the possibility that friendship groups can set up divisive status
hierarchies among the pupils, or reinforce stereotypes about gender, race or
abilities.
Group work most frequently fails where pupils do not have a clear sense of purpose
and appropriate skills to work together effectively. The work of the Thinking Together
group shows that pupils have to be taught how to talk productively in groups, developing
their capacity to use what Barnes (2008) and Mercer (2000) call ‘exploratory talk’ (see
thinkingtogether.educ.cam.ac.uk).

Individual work
Whether or not pupils are seated in groups, they spend a great deal of classroom time
working individually. They may be learning via tasks which require them to work alone
or demonstrating the results of their learning in individual outcomes. Individual work is
thought to be particularly useful for developing pupils’ ability to work independently and
autonomously.
Working individually may be the dominant mode in many lessons, but does not mean
that the pupils are working without support. The teacher’s role in supporting activity and
scaffolding learning (van de Pol et al., 2010) is probably even more intense than it is when
pupils are working in groups, but it does have the potential advantage that such support
and scaffolding is targeted on the specific learning needs of an individual. As a result, it is
likely to be highly productive for learning (see Chapter 12).

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 225

However, there are potential problems. A teacher who relies heavily on setting
individual work in lessons may find that similar teaching points have to be explained
on many separate occasions. An emphasis on working with each individual separately
inevitably means that only a limited amount of time can be spent with any one pupil, and
it has been shown that most of this time is spent monitoring pupils’ work, rather than in
developing their understanding (Galton et al., 1999). It is particularly important to think
of individual work, as with whole-class work, as part of the repertoire of organisational
alternatives open to a teacher at particular points in a lesson. So a teacher must ask
themselves ‘what am I hoping to achieve by getting the pupils to work individually at this
point in the lesson? Is this the best form of organisation for the task, or for my intended
outcomes?’
Professional judgement is essential in ensuring that,
whatever organisational strategy is being considered Expert question
– whole-class, group or individual – it is consistent Reflection: is our classroom practice
with learning goals and evidence of effectiveness. Each based on incremental, evidence-
approach within the teacher’s repertoire has a different informed and collaborative improvement
purpose and specific potential. Whilst each has its justi- strategies?
fiable place in the classroom, they should be used to fulfil This question contributes to a conceptual
educational purposes. framework underpinning professional
We now go onto consider how teachers can liaise and expertise (see Chapter 16).
work with other adults, including parents and support
staff, in and beyond the classroom.

4.2 Working with adults

Parents and carers
Involvement by parents and carers is particularly significant in work with young pupils,
whilst their potential as ‘expert contributors’ and specialist helpers (such as with ICT)
is embraced in many secondary schools. Whilst the most important support for learning
offered by parents and carers is in the home (Harris et al., 2009), the educational benefits
of home–school liaison are well documented.
Inspectors in England, in surveying schools of all types, found that, ‘joint working
between the home and the school led to much better outcomes for pupils’ (Ofsted, 2011, p.
5). Examples of good practice included not only working in classrooms, but the institution
of parent councils or forums. In general though, as Desforges with Abouchaar (2003)
found eight years earlier, the various skills, qualifications, experience and insights of
parents were found to be underused by schools; this was particularly the case in secondary
schools.
A wide range of patterns of parental involvement exist, but we will identify three:
●● Parents as consumers: receiving the services of the school but maintaining a
discrete separation of parent and teacher responsibilities (e.g. where involvement is
through formal parents’ evenings, and other ‘managed’ school events).

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226 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

●● Parents as resources: providing a range of help, for example in support of the

school or in providing direct assistance based upon their skills.
●● Parents as partners: recognised as a partner in each pupil’s all-round development,
e.g. discussing the curriculum and each pupil’s response; contributing as parent
governors; having open access to the classroom and regular informal contacts with
teachers (Crozier and Reay, 2005).
If the interest and expertise of parents or carers is to be
Expert question drawn on, perhaps three basic things need to be done. The
Connection: does the curriculum engage first is to find time for adequate discussion with parents
with the cultural resources and funds- to find out what they have to offer and to help them
of-knowledge of families and the engage with the school environment. The second is to
community? think carefully about how they can be most educationally
This question contributes to a conceptual productive when they are in the school. Third, if parents
framework underpinning professional and carers are to work in classrooms, it is necessary to
expertise (see Chapter 16). negotiate clear ground rules on issues such as classroom
roles, confidentiality and access to areas of the school
such as the staff room. Finally, it is obviously crucial to
discuss whether they will interact with their own child and, if so, what the ground rules
will be.
It seems that parents and carers, teachers and pupils have mixed feelings on the
question of parental involvement in classrooms. Pupils in one study expressed strong
views about protecting the privacy of their home life and were against their parents
coming into school (Edwards and Alldred, 2000). Some parents may feel anxious about
working in a school because of their own ‘bad’ experiences of school; because they do
not feel they have anything to offer the ‘expert’ teacher; or because they are unsure about
how to relate to pupils in the school situation. Further, parents are often only available for
short and specific periods of the day and may find it difficult to fit into school routines.
Other parents may be resistant to approaches from a school or teacher, feeling that it is
the teacher’s job to do the teaching. Teachers may also have reservations, perhaps feeling
vulnerable in case something happens in class which could undermine their status in the
eyes of the parents; or having a more principled perspective that acknowledges parental
help can become a socially divisive factor, giving greater advantages to comparatively
advantaged middleclass pupils whose parents are most likely to participate in such
schemes.
Despite such challenges, the clear message is that the creation of stronger partner-
ships between home and school are likely to be of considerable advantage to pupils’
learning.

Support staff
The number of support staff in schools has increased considerably throughout the UK.
For example, in 2011, 43 per cent of the mainstream school workforce in England was
comprised of support staff, with over half being teaching assistants (TAs). Their duties

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 227

were wide-ranging. Some ‘Higher Level Teaching Assistants’ regularly take over a
full teaching role during teachers’ planning, preparation and assessment time, and are
involved in staff meetings and staff training. Many support staff are involved in other
‘teaching-related’ activities, for example recording pupils’ progress and contributing to the
assessment of pupils’ work. Assistants, whatever their title, are often involved in working
with pupils with learning and behaviour difficulties.
In this context, Blatchford et al. (2011) assessed the impact of teaching assistants and
their role in the English education system. Their conclusions are pertinent both nationally
and internationally. When looking at results for 8,200 pupils over the five years to 2011, the
authors found that, despite much innovative and effective practice, pupils who received the
most support from TAs consistently made less progress than similar pupils who received
less TA support. They argue that this is fundamentally a question of how TAs are used and
prepared for their work, rather than any fault of the TAs themselves. They note ‘a drift toward
teaching assistants becoming, in effect, the primary educators of lower-attaining pupils and
those with special educational needs’, and state that ‘the more support pupils get from TAs,
the less they get from teachers’, separating these pupils from the teacher and the curriculum.
Thus, they state, ‘it is perhaps unsurprising then that these pupils make less progress.’
It seems that what is important is the way in which the school and the individual
classroom teacher handles relationships with support staff (Sood, 2005) and prepares them
for their role in the classroom. In particular, Blatchford et al. (2011) note the nature and
extent of the pedagogical role of the teaching assistant as being at the heart of whether they
will be effective in supporting pupil learning. They suggest:
●● TAs should not routinely support lower attaining pupils and those with Special
Educational Needs (SEN);
●● teachers should deploy TAs in ways that allow them to ‘add value’ to their own
teaching;
●● schools have a formal induction process for TAs;
●● there should be more joint planning and feedback time for teachers and TAs.
It is particularly important for the individual teacher to note that the quality of classroom
teaching and learning can be greatly enhanced if all the adults in a classroom plan together,
so that they understand and carry out specific activities in a coordinated and coherent
fashion. Certainly it is the case that that, whenever they are asked, teaching assistants
of all kinds state that they greatly appreciate it when teachers work with them, sharing
learning intentions and expectations of their classroom roles on a lesson by lesson basis
(O’Brien and Garner, 2001). The skill and dedication of such support staff cannot be
doubted, but their effective deployment in helping to promote pupils’ learning is clearly
the responsibility of the school and the class teacher.

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228 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

Conclusion
In this chapter, two major points about learning spaces have been made.
First, all contexts and settings (whether directly experienced or virtual) provide condi-
tions which influence learning. Some will enable learning to flourish, whilst others may
inhibit such development. These differences in ‘affordance’ are similar to the patterns
in any ecological context. So, when we organise our own classroom learning environ-
ments, we should consider the likely overall effect on our objective of supporting learning
(Bransford et al., 1999, Reading 8.2).
Second, classrooms are far from being isolated entities. Rather, they are contextu-
alised by many other influences on pupil lives. Among the most obvious are the school
as a whole, the family and community. But these factors are also encompassed by wider
cultural, economic, technological, social and political conditions.
Effective classroom organisation thus requires consideration of the physical
environment, resources, technologies, structures, routines, processes and people that
are intended to progress pupil learning. Such factors, as well as the organisation of
pupils themselves, must be considered in relation to their capacity to enable or constrain
learning.
Awareness of the range of influences on pupil learning and appropriate organisation of
classroom provision is a hallmark of an expert teacher.

Key readings
Understanding of the conditions which enable learning, development and performance
have been enhanced by ecological analyses which trace contextual influences. Classics
are:
Baker, R. G. (1968) Ecological Psychology: Concepts and Methods of Studying the
Environment of Human Behaviour. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by
Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Reading 8.1)

Influences on the development of children and young people have been extensively
studied. A good summary is:
Corsaro, W. A. (2011) The Sociology of Childhood. London: SAGE.

There are many excellent studies of home–school relations:

Rogoff, B., Goodman Turkanis, C. and Bartlett, L. (2001) Learning Together:
Children and Adults in a School Community. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(see also Reading 2.10)
Crozier, G. and Reay, D. (2005) Activating Participation: Parents and Teachers
Working Towards Partnership. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

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 Chapter 8 Spaces 229

As all practitioners know, circumstances vary in different classrooms and judgement

has to be applied to select appropriate forms of classroom organisation for the purposes
which the teacher has in mind. For insights into these challenges and opportunities, see:
Hopkins, D., Harris, A., Singleton, C. and Watts, R. (2000) Creating the Conditions
for Teaching and Learning. London: David Fulton.

Display within school and classroom environments can convey important messages. On
this, see:
Andrew-Power, K. and Gormley, C. (2009) Display for Learning. London:
Continuum (see also Reading 8.3)

The classic paper on the effective use of time in classrooms is:

Berliner, D. (1991). ‘What’s all the fuss about instructional time?’, in M. Ben-Peretz
and R. Bromme (eds), The Nature of Time in Schools: Theoretical Concepts,
Practitioner Perceptions. New York: Teachers College Press. (Reading 8.4)

For more general guidance on classroom organisation in primary and in secondary

classrooms, see:
Dean, J. (2008) Organising Learning in the Primary School Classroom. London:
Routledge.
Mercier, C., Philpott, C. and Scott, H. (2012) Professional Issues in Secondary
Teaching. London: SAGE.

For insights into working with ICT across the curriculum, see:
Beauchamp, G. (2012) ICT in the Primary School: From Pedagogy to Practice.
Harlow: Pearson
Edwards, A. (2012) New Technology and Education. London: Continuum (Reading
8.5)
Sutherland, R., Robertson, S. and John, P. (2008) Improving Classroom Learning with
ICT. London: Routledge.

On the potential influence of technology and new media from beyond school, take a
look at:
Buckingham, D. and Willett, R. (eds) (2006) Digital Generations: Children, Young
People and the New Media. London: Routledge.
Facer, K. (2011) Learning Futures: Education, Technology and Social Change.
London: Routledge.
Kress, K. (2012) Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge. (see
Reading 8.6)

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230 Part 2 Creating conditions for learning

On interactive and dialogic teaching, see:

Mercer, N. and Hodgkinson, S. (2008) (eds) Exploring Talk in School. London:
SAGE. (Reading 11.6)
Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2011) Effective Teaching: Evidence and Practice.
London: SAGE. (Reading 8.7)

For a practical introduction to effective group work, including consideration of issues

related to ability grouping, see:
Baines, E., Blatchford, P. Kutnick, P., Chowne, A., Ota, C. and Berdondini, L. (2009)
Promoting Effective Groupwork in the Classroom. London: Routledge. (TLRP
Research Briefing, p. 316)
Ireson, J. and Hallam, S. (2001) Ability Grouping in Education. London: SAGE. (see
also Reading 15.4)

On Teaching Assistants, Blatchford et al.’s study has powerful messages for classroom
deployment, whilst Dillow records the experience of working in the role.
Blatchford, P., Russell, A. and Webster, R. (2011) Reassessing the Impact of Teaching
Assistants. London: Routledge.
Dillow, C. (2010) Supporting Stories: Being a Teaching Assistant. Stoke-on-Trent:
Trentham Press.

A powerful analysis of the design of learning environments is provided by:

Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., and Cocking, R. (eds) How People Learn: Brain, Mind,
Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. (Reading 8.2)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists and activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
part three3
Teaching for
learning
9 Curriculum What is to be taught and learned?

10 Planning How are we implementing the

curriculum?

11 Pedagogy How can we develop effective

strategies?

12 Communication How does use of language

support learning?

13 Assessment How can assessment enhance

learning?

This part supports the development of practice across the three

classic dimensions of teaching – curriculum, pedagogy and
assessment.

Chapter 9 starts us off with a review of curricular aims and

design principles, before progressing to a review of national
curricula in the UK and the role of subject knowledge.
‘Planning’ (Chapter 10) puts these ideas into action and
supports the development and evaluation of programmes of
study, schemes of work and lesson plans.
Chapter 11 is offers ways of understanding the art, craft and
science of pedagogy – and the development of a pedagogic
repertoire. ‘Communication’ (Chapter 12) extends this
with an introduction to the vital role of talking, listening,
reading and writing across the curriculum. Perhaps the
core instructional expertise of the teacher lies in the skill of
dialogic teaching?

Finally, this part concludes by demonstrating how assessment

can be tied into teaching and learning processes in very
constructive ways (Chapter 13). In short, through principled
strategies for sharing goals, pupil engagement, authentic
feedback, self-assessment and responsive teaching, excellent
progress in learning can be made.
Curriculum
What is to be taught
and learned?

9
Introduction (p. 234) 3 National curricula (p. 250)

3.1 UK curricular structures (p. 251)

1 Principles for curriculum 3.2 Teaching, learning and national
provision (p. 235) curricula (p. 254)
3.3 Subject-based and integrated curricula
1.1 Knowledge, development and
(p. 255)
curriculum (p. 235)
3.4 Academic and vocational education
1.2 Aims and values (p. 237)
(p. 256)

2 Elements of learning (p. 240) 4 Subject knowledge (p. 258)

2.1 Knowledge (p. 241) 4.1 Content knowledge (p. 258)
2.2 Concepts (p. 243) 4.2 Pedagogical content knowledge
2.3 Skills (p. 245) (p. 260)
2.4 Attitudes (p. 247) 4.3 Curricular knowledge (p. 261)
2.5 A balanced curriculum (p. 249) 4.4 Applying subject knowledge (p. 262)

Conclusion (p. 263)

234 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Introduction
The existence of national curricula is common across the world. Such provision ensures
coverage of a particular range of knowledge, thus providing pupil entitlements and
satisfying national aspirations. However, there is also awareness that centrally imposed
requirements can inhibit local curricular adaption and, in particular, could stifle teacher
innovation. A balance thus has to be struck.
In this chapter we introduce enduring concepts and principles of curriculum design on
which innovation and curriculum development can be based. We thus hope to equip the
reflective teacher for career-long engagement with curricular issues.

TLRP principles

Three principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on curricular requirements:

Effective teaching and learning equips learners for life in its broadest sense.
Learning should aim to help people to develop the intellectual, personal and social
resources that will enable them to participate as active citizens, contribute to
economic development and flourish as individuals in a diverse and changing society.
This implies adopting a broad view of learning outcomes and ensuring that equity
and social justice are taken seriously. (Principle 1)

Effective teaching and learning engages with valued forms of knowledge.

Teaching and learning should engage with the big ideas, facts, processes, language
and narratives of subjects so that learners understand what constitutes quality and
standards in particular disciplines. (Principle 2)

Effective teaching and learning demands consistent policy frameworks

with support for teaching and learning as their primary focus. Policies at
national, local and institutional levels need to recognise the fundamental importance
of teaching and learning. They should be designed to create effective learning
See Chapter 4 environments in which all learners can thrive. (Principle 10)

To begin, we briefly review three ways of thinking about ‘curriculum’.

The official curriculum. This is the explicitly stated programme of learning, and will
probably incorporate a national curriculum which has been endorsed by government.
Such a course of study is likely to have three elements. First, there will be the intended
curriculum content. This will have been consciously planned and, in many cases, will
be specified in terms of subject syllabi – though the identification of integrative topics
remains popular in primary education. Second, the official curriculum will normally
require a particular sequence and progression, thus framing the content into scheduled
programmes of study. Third, courses and other provision will be designed with the
intention of challenging pupils appropriately and of enabling achievements to be recorded
by teacher assessment, test or examination. For example, as we will see in more detail

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 235

later, for many years national curricula within the UK have been structured by Key Stage
programmes of study for core and foundation subjects in combination with attainment
targets for particular ‘levels’, national assessment and examination requirements. However,
things do change. Whilst it has sometimes been hard to introduce curriculum activities
to reflect school and community priorities, this is now explicitly encouraged across the
UK. In England at the time of writing, radical changes to assessment requirements are
also proposed, including abandoning use of ‘levels’. The official school curriculum thus
reflects a historically specific combination of national requirements and local commit-
ments and decisions.
The hidden curriculum. This concept focuses attention on tacit learning during
schooling. It highlights how children and young people come to understand such things
as teacher and pupil roles and attitudes towards learning and schooling. Children may
also acquire ideas about the ways boys or girls ‘should’ behave, or about differences
‘because’ of being black or white, middle class or working-class. Such ideas reflect the
way in which values are conveyed through the interaction and language associated with
teaching and learning processes. The hidden curriculum is thus implicit within regular
school procedures and curriculum materials, and can exert a powerful influence on pupils
through its influence on self-image and expectations (see Jackson, 1968, Reading 6.1 for
a classic study).
The experienced curriculum. This way of conceptualising the curriculum draws
attention to the parts of the curriculum, both official and hidden, which connect most
meaningfully with children and young learners. Adults can plan all they like, and do so
with the best of intentions, but what sense do learners actually make of this provision?
Arguably, it is this experienced curriculum that has the most educational impact. Thinking
about curricular provision from the perspectives of a deliberately wide range of learners
is a helpful check when we review our planning, whether it is for a single lesson, series of
lessons or even for a whole school.
The ‘school curriculum’, when seen as a whole, is thus considerably more than an
aggregation of lessons. It is the totality of the substantive provision and experience offered
to pupils, as Male and Waters demonstrate (2012, Reading 9.1).

1 Principles for curriculum provision

1.1 Knowledge, development and curriculum

The educational role of curricular provision relates to three basic, enduring considerations.
They are fundamental to all curricular deliberation:
●● the nature of knowledge
●● the needs of learners, and crucially
●● the interactions between them.

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236 Part 3 Teaching for learning

These elements were highlighted in the first chapter of an Expert Panel report on England’s
National Curriculum (DfE, 2011). An edited version is reproduced below:

Subject knowledge can be seen as representing the accumulated experience of the past
and a representation of this for the future. The concepts, facts, processes, language,
narratives and conventions of each subject constitute socially refined forms of knowledge
– knowledge that is regarded as ‘powerful’ in our society (Young, 2008, Reading 9.2).
Established knowledge is highly codified, with disciplines, associations, professions and
specialist institutions. Many contemporary bodies of knowledge are more mobile, with
innovation and change being characteristic features.
However, education is also about the development of individual learners – in schools,
as pupils. There are many dimensions to such development including the personal, social
and emotional as well as the physical, neurological and cognitive. For young children in
particular, such factors are of great significance because they provide the foundation for
learning. The significance of the development of individuals over time has increasingly
been recognised in recent years. Longitudinal research has demonstrated the lasting
consequences of high-quality early learning experiences (Sylva et al., 2001) and a
Foresight Report (Feinstein et al., 2008, Reading 1.6) affirms the trajectories of ‘learning
through life’ and the economic and wider benefits of such learning.
Education can thus be seen, at its simplest, as the product of interaction between
socially valued knowledge and individual development. It occurs through learner
experience of both of these key elements. Education, through the school curriculum,
mediates and structures these processes. The core expertise of teachers is to reach
between and facilitate a productive interaction of knowledge and development. As James
and Pollard (2012) put it, effective teaching ‘engages with valued forms of knowledge’
and also ‘equips learners for life in its broadest sense’ .
Some people emphasise subject knowledge and discount the significance of more
developmental aspects of education. And there are also many who foreground the
development of skills, competencies and dispositions whilst asserting that contemporary
knowledge changes so fast that ‘learning how to learn’ is all that is necessary. But these
are unhelpful polarisations, for it is impossible to conceptualise ‘learning to learn’ except
in relation to some substantive purpose. Our position is therefore that both elements
– knowledge and development – are essential considerations in relation to curricular
provision.
The two elements are not, however, equally significant at every age. In particular,
developmental aspects and basic skills are more crucial for young children, while
appropriate understanding of more differentiated subject knowledge, concepts and skills
becomes more important for older pupils. Curricular provision for early years, primary,
secondary and further education is thus distinct, although the underlying issues endure.

This argument is represented in Figure 9.1 overleaf, and the TLRP principles are further
discussed in Chapter 4 of this book:

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 237

SOCIETY Figure 9.1

Education: the
KNOWLEDGE interaction of
knowledge,
development and
curriculum
E
x
p
e
r
CURRICULUM
i
e
n
c
e

DEVELOPMENT

INDIVIDUALS

1.2 Aims and values

When creating, adapting or implementing a curriculum, or any element within it, it is
crucial to be very clear about the purposes the provision is expected to serve.
At a high level, legislation may define overall educational goals. For example, in
England, Section 78 of the Education Act 2002 states that school curriculum should be
‘balanced and broadly based’ and should:

promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils
at the school and of society, and prepare pupils at the school for the opportunities,
responsibilities and experiences of later life.

This is a foundational statement for consideration of the school curriculum as a whole

and represents value commitments about the nature of
an appropriate ‘education’ which can be traced back
to at least the 1944 Education Act. Similar high level Expert questions
statements set expectations for the curricular frameworks Breadth: does the curriculum represent
in Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and can be found in society’s educational aspirations for its
many countries internationally including the Republic of citizens?
Ireland. They are essentially ethical, moral and political Balance: does the curriculum-as-experienced
statements, which make transparent the values and offer everything which each learner has a
ambitions to which a nation aspires. right to expect?
Historical study and international comparison (Meyer et These questions contribute to a conceptual
al., 1992; National Foundation for Educational Research, framework underpinning professional
2011) reveal some common themes in relation to what expertise (see Chapter 16).
can broadly be termed social, economic, personal, cultural

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238 Part 3 Teaching for learning

and environmental goals. This can also be illustrated by

Expert question comparison of the educational aims proposed within four
Connection: does the curriculum engage sectoral reviews from England (see over).
with the cultural resources and funds- The representation in Figure 9.2 risks over-simpli-
of-knowledge of families and the fication, but does demonstrate some key points. First,
community? it suggests that knowledge and skill, developed in
This question contributes to a conceptual age-appropriate ways, are of enduring importance in
framework underpinning professional satisfying social and economic goals in all sectors. Of
expertise (see Chapter 16). course, these are always prominent concerns for policy-
makers, industry and the media. Second, there is also
a very strong emphasis on personal development in all
sectors, which is often a particular commitment for parents and educationalists. The
table also shows the awareness which exists about citizenship during schooling and
it suggests that environmental concern is emerging. In the case of the early years, the
particular importance of personal goals is further asserted by identifying ‘prime’ (itali-
cised) and ‘other’ areas for learning. Such factors remain crucial in ‘primary’ education
but gradually give way to ‘secondary’ education’s need to focus on knowledge and skill
in preparation for formal examinations and the social and economic demands of the
workplace.
In whatever sector or circumstance one works, it is appropriate for reflective teachers,
schools and their stakeholders to deliberate on educational purposes on a regular basis.
Whilst positions on social, economic, personal, cultural and environmental issues might
be expected, the particular priorities, expression and provision should reflect the values,
judgement, debate and resolution of each school community. In this way, specific connec-
tions can be created to the culture and aspirations of those served by each school (see also
Chapter 10).
The outcomes of such deliberation on purposes should, of course, be published on
websites and in school brochures. After all, the outcomes of education are of enormous
significance and learners of any age, and their parents or carers too, have a right to expect
that teachers will approach their work from a considered and morally justifiable position.
Further, without such clarity, it is not possible for a
fully coherent and holistic curriculum to be offered (see
Expert questions Chapter 10) or for appropriately aligned and congruent
assessment practices to be developed (see Chapters 13
Coherence: is there clarity in the purposes,
content and organisation of the
and 14).
curriculum and does it provide holistic This brings us to the level of detailed application, where
learning experiences? educational aims are chased through school policies and
Congruence: Are the forms of assessment
into specific programmes of study, lessons and everyday
fit for purpose in terms of overall provision. This is likely to be of particular interest to
educational objectives? student teachers too, and is considered in some detail in
These questions contribute to a conceptual
Chapter 10. As we will see there, the existence of clarity
framework underpinning professional and transparency in educational goals makes it more
expertise (see Chapter 16). likely that intentions will be communicated to learners
– and there is mounting international evidence that this

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 239

Figure 9.2 A comparison of educational aims across sectors in England

Expert Panel Report Early Years Cambridge Nuffield

for the National Review Primary 14–19
Curriculum Review (Tickell, 2011) Review Review (Pring
(DfE, 2011) (Alexander, 2010) et al., 2009)
Social and Provide opportunities for Communication Exploring, knowing, Knowledge and
Economic participation in a broad and language understanding and understanding
range of educational Expressive arts making sense Practical
experiences and the and design Fostering skill capabilities
acquisition of knowledge Mathematics
and appreciation in
Understanding the
the arts, sciences and
world
humanities, and of
high-quality academic and
vocational qualifications
Satisfy future economic needs
for individuals and for the
workforce as a whole,
including the development
of secure knowledge and
skills in communication,
literacy and mathematics
and confidence in acquiring
new knowledge and skills
Personal Support personal Personal, social Wellbeing Personal fulfilment
development and and emotional Engagement Moral seriousness
empowerment so that each development Empowerment
pupil is able to develop as Physical Autonomy
a healthy, balanced and development
self-confident individual
and fulfil their educational
potential
Cultural Appreciate national cultures, Empowering local, Community
traditions and values, national and relatedness
whilst recognising global citizenship
diversity and encouraging Celebrating culture
responsible citizenship and community
Environmental Promote understanding Promoting
of sustainability in the interdependence
stewardship of resources and sustainability
locally, nationally and
globally

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240 Part 3 Teaching for learning

is reflected in enhanced outcomes. Indeed, clarity informs evaluative review of provision

and increases accountability.

Reflective activity 9.1

Aim: To examine statements of aims and values presented in National Curriculum and
school documentation.
Evidence and reflection: Are aims and values explicitly stated within the National
Curriculum and school documentation at your disposal?
If so, are the aims consistently supported by the stated underlying values? What vision
of education do you derive from reading these statements?
If not, can you derive some of the core aims and values from an examination of the
curriculum advice presented in the documentation?
Extension: How do the aims, values and vision connect with the particular communities
that the school serves? To what extent do the explicit or implicit aims and values
reflect your own views of what should inform an appropriate school curriculum? Is
there anything missing? Is there anything that shouldn’t be there? Why?

2 Elements of learning
This section discusses the building blocks of a curriculum for learning – knowledge,
concepts, skills and attitudes. This framework derives from Her Majesty’s Inspectorate
(HMI) (1985, Reading 10.1) whose classic booklet, The Curriculum for 5 to 16, was
designed to encourage and refine professional discussion of curriculum matters. They
introduced the four elements in the following terms:

Knowledge: Selections of that which is worth knowing and of interest. As HMI put it:
‘The criteria for selecting content should be in the aims and objectives which a school
sets for itself. That which is taught should be worth knowing, comprehensible, capable of
sustaining pupils’ interest and useful to them at their particular stage of development and
in the future’.

Concepts: The ‘big ideas’ which inform a subject, or generalisations which enable pupils
to classify, organise and predict – to understand patterns, relationships and meanings,
e.g. flow, change, consequence, temperature, refraction, power, energy.

Skills: The capacity or competence to perform a task, e.g. personal/social (listening,

collaborating, reflecting), physical/practical (running, writing, cutting), intellectual
(observing, reasoning, imagining), communication (oracy, literacy, numeracy), etc.

Attitudes: The overt expression of values and personal qualities, e.g. reliability, initiative,
self-discipline, tolerance, resilience, resourcefulness, etc.

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2.1 Knowledge
Understandings about the nature of knowledge underpin all curricula. Three basic
positions are well established – with roots back to the philosophy, psychology and
sociology of education.
1 There are those who argue that particular ‘forms of knowledge’ exist. These are
thought to be distinguishable, philosophically, by the different ways of thinking
and kinds of evidence which are employed in investigating them (Hirst, 1965;
Peters, 1966). These forms are thought to be based on a priori differences, i.e.
logical and inherent differences. Such a view has been referred to as ‘rationalist’
(Blenkin and Kelly, 1981) and is often used to legitimate traditional curriculum
subjects (Wilson, 2000, Reading 9.3).
2 There are those who emphasise the ways in which knowledge is socially
constructed, and learned, by individuals and groups in interaction together and
with their environment, and by successively restructuring their understanding
through these experiences (Berger and Luckman, 1967, Light and Littleton, 1999).
This view has resonance with the psychology of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner (see
Chapter 2 and Readings 2.2, 2.3 and 9.5).
3 Knowledge can be seen in sociological terms as being defined by powerful groups
who define certain types of understanding as being important or of high status.
They may attempt to control access to some forms of knowledge, particularly
those associated with power (Young, 1971; Bernstein, 1971), but they may also
try to insist on the exposure of pupils to particular forms of knowledge which are
deemed appropriate.
Of course, these views of knowledge are not discrete and any one person’s perspective may
draw on several of them, or even on them all. Michael Young (2013, Reading 9.2) makes an
important distinction between ‘powerful knowledge’ (see position 1 above) and ‘knowledge
of the powerful’ (position 3 above). The former is associated with specialist understanding
which is capable of application in a wide variety of contexts. He argues that providing
access to such powerful knowledge is the main purpose of schooling, whilst knowledge of
the powerful must sometimes be challenged in democratic, egalitarian societies.
The important point is that the different emphasis which is placed on particular views of
knowledge tends to reflect social values, and these can and often do influence the structure
and content of the curriculum.
A recent manifestation of such debates arose through a National Curriculum Review
in England between 2011/13. Government Ministers were particularly influenced by the
‘core knowledge curriculum’ of E. D. Hirsch (1987), an American scholar. This sets out a
specified sequence of topics to teach in each subject and promises thereby to enhance both
standards and opportunities. Incremental progression was anticipated based on the logic
of each subject, research and experience of typical learning sequences and comparison
with the ordering of knowledge in successful jurisdictions internationally. The policy was
caricatured in terms of proposing ‘regurgitation of facts – as in the 1950s’. In an extreme

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form, such subject specification does indeed risk constraining the capacity of teachers
to respond to specific pupil needs through the exercise of professional judgement. On
the other hand, there is no doubt that, as TLRP’s Principle 2 states, ‘effective pedagogy
engages with valued forms of knowledge’ (see Chapter 4). To do this successfully,
expert teachers do have to master the content of each subject and consider the learning
challenges associated with that domain, but they must also understand the specific needs
and circumstances of their pupils and feel empowered to use their expertise to design
appropriate classroom tasks and activities. From Singapore we know that, ‘the highest
quality of teaching occurs when there is a focus on the intellectual quality of the instruc-
tional and assessment tasks that students are asked to work on’ (Hogan, 2012, Reading 4.2).
As we saw in Chapter 4, this position is confirmed by much international research and it
reaffirms the necessary interaction between knowledge and development with which this
chapter began. Neither one, nor the other, can stand alone. In Scotland’s Curriculum for
Excellence, this is recognised through the consideration of curriculum subjects in terms of
‘experiences and outcomes’.

Reflective activity 9.2

Aim: To consider the influence of views of knowledge on a part of a national or school
curriculum.
Evidence and reflection: This is a potentially large activity which needs to be
made specific to keep it within bounds. We suggest that national or school
documentation for a single subject is selected for study – history or geography may
be good choices.
Consider, how is knowledge viewed? To what extent is it seen as an established
body of subject content and skills to be transferred to learners, and to what extent is
knowledge seen as something to be created through experiential engagement in tasks
and activities? Can you see opportunities for synergies between these approaches?
Extension: Is this view of knowledge consistent with the aims and values of the
curriculum that you investigated in Reflective activity 8.1?

Notwithstanding debates on how subject knowledge is

actually used, a high degree of consistency has been
Expert question established on the ways in which subjects provide the
Progression: does the curriculum-as- organisational frameworks for national curriculum
delivered provide an appropriate requirements in countries round the world. In reviewing
sequence and depth of learning the comparative work of Meyer and Kamens (1992), Ross
experiences? (2001) suggests that ‘local variations have been ironed
This question contributes to a conceptual out as a pattern of international conformity has prevailed’
framework underpinning professional (p. 129). Ross indicates that national curricula generally
expertise (see Chapter 16). feature the following subjects: one or more national
languages; mathematics; science; some form of social
science; and aesthetic education in some form, though this

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 243

is less firmly established than the other four areas. A contemporary archive on international
curriculum and assessment frameworks is hosted by National Foundation for Educational
Research (NFER) and confirms the breadth and subject-based organisation of knowledge
in countries around the world (see inca.org.uk).
This however, as we will see in due course, says little about the ways in which the
curriculum of a school or classroom can or should actually be presented to pupils and
many variations emerge at the level of practice (Alexander, 2008, Reading 12.3).

2.2 Concepts
Concepts enable the most important ideas and deep structure of knowledge and under-
standing in each subject to be presented in concise ways. This avoids long lists of
curriculum content which sometimes bedevil attempts to represent a subject domain, and
which can seem overwhelming to both teachers and pupils.
For example, in 2012 the Geographical Association proposed a curriculum for schools
based on ‘thinking geographically’. As they put it:

A few large, organising concepts underlie a geographical way of investigating and

understanding the world. These are high level ideas that can be applied across the
subject to identify a question, guide an investigation, organise information, suggest an
explanation or assist decision making. They are the key ideas involved in framing the
unique contribution of geography as a subject discipline. The three main organising
concepts for geography are place, space and environment. There are further basic ideas in
geography that run across this overarching framework, such as connection, inter-relation,
scale and change. Using these ideas carefully and accurately is a key component of what
we mean by thinking geographically. (Geographical Association, 2012)

Such ‘big ideas’ reveal the powerful analytic core of subject disciplines. The potential of
concepts in designing curriculum provision was specifically identified by Schools Council
projects during the 1970s and early 1980s. For example, Elliott (1976) made the case in
terms of:

The information explosion – which generates new facts at such a rate that it is futile to
try to keep up. An alternative is thus to select facts to support conceptual development.

Concepts for learning – for new situations are rarely entirely novel and we are able to use
our store of conceptual understanding to interpret and make sense of new experiences.

Concepts as organisers – because they ‘provide a map of knowledge’ which break down
the randomness of experience and enable us to understand it.

Concepts as anchorage points – in providing stability for exploration of the subject and
enabling cumulative understanding by learners.

Alan Blyth was one of the first serious researchers on primary education and emphasised
the need to maintain the integrity of school subjects in the teaching of young children. This

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philosophy was realised through a number of curriculum development projects, with Time,
Place and Society 8–13 (Blyth et al., 1976) providing an outstanding example. In the case
of this integrated humanities work, the key concepts were: communication; power; values
and beliefs; conflict and consensus; continuity and change; similarity and difference;
causes and consequences.
The work of the Association for Science Education provides another example. Their
‘Principles and Big Ideas of Science Education’ (Harlen and Bell, 2010) provides
comprehensive conceptual framework for teaching science and for curricular provision
throughout schooling.
And the arts are, arguably, even better prepared for a conceptually-based curriculum
through the legacy of analysis and connoisseurship which distinguishes quality. Music and
art have conceptual languages accumulated over hundreds of years. In some cases, such
powers of discrimination have been codified – as in the case of dance and movement where
Rudolf Laban (1879–1958) developed an exceptional analysis based on the concepts of
body, effort, shape and space.
Through the provision of a robust and valid framework of key concepts, it is thus
possible to maintain the integrity of subjects and their parent disciplines in very concise
ways. The subject associations, which are often sub-divided in relation to particular
sectors, play an invaluable role here.
Beyond the significance of concepts as a useful device in the toolkit of curriculum
planning and provision, they really earn their place because of their capacity to illuminate
and render accessible the deep structure of subject knowledge. This point has been made
by scholars focusing from early years and through to higher education. Thus Aubrey
(1994), in a classic collection of papers on the role of subject knowledge in the early
years of schooling, emphasised ‘the ways in which subject knowledge is acquired and
the organisation of teaching to promote the learner’s construction of meaning’. Recent
research in higher education, such as that by Entwistle (2009) has documented ‘ways
of thinking and practising in the subject’ (WTPS) and the development of ‘deep under-
standing’ through making transparent the conceptual frameworks of each discipline.
‘Threshold concepts’, which unlock disciplinary understanding, have been identified, as
have the barriers posed by forms of ‘troublesome knowledge’ (Meyer and Land, 2008).
Nor should we perhaps fail to notice that this book on reflective teaching is itself
explicit in offering a set of principles (Chapter 4) and a conceptual framework (Chapter
16) in an attempt to support deep understanding of teaching. Whilst providing practical
guidance on ‘how to survive in the classroom’, the book also aspires to support profes-
sional analysis and the development of expertise throughout a career.
Concepts then, to return to HMI’s definition, enable learners to classify, organise and
predict – and to understand patterns, relationships and meanings within subjects. They are
epistemological tools in support of high-quality, authentic learning.

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2.3 Skills
Put simply, a skill is ‘the capacity or competence to perform a task’ (HMI, 1985, p. 38) but
in the context of curriculum planning, use of the term has become more complex. Several
uses can be identified:

‘Physical skills’ normally refers to bodily coordination such as running, catching, etc., and
to fine motor skills such as writing, sewing, drawing or typing,

‘Basic skills’ usually refers to communication, literacy and numeracy, and sometimes
includes the use of technology.

‘Personal skills’ is the most fundamental and typically includes capabilities such as
self-awareness, reflection, thinking and problem solving; as well as interpersonal awareness,
cooperation and leadership with others. ‘Thinking skills’ are discussed in Chapter 2.

‘Study skills’ tends to be a specific set of capabilities focused on managing one’s own
learning, such as observing, interpreting, classifying, memorising, prioritising.

‘Subject skills’ highlights particular capabilities required for learning in subject domains,
such as mapping in geography, experimenting in science and empathising in drama.

‘Vocational skills’ identifies requirements for particular avenues of potential employment

and career, such as nursing, business, computer programming, farming, etc.

Although skills identified in these classifications often overlap, the salient point is that there
are sets of capabilities which complement and extend a curriculum which is expressed in
terms of subject knowledge. An innovative contemporary project on this is that of Opening
Minds promoted by the Royal Society of Arts. This competence framework focuses on
citizenship, learning, relating to people, managing situations and managing information
and ‘emphasises the ability to understand and to do, rather than just the transmission of
knowledge’.
One way of thinking about this is in terms of a classic distinction between declarative
knowledge and procedural knowledge. If the former sets out that which is known, the
latter describes how it is developed and used. This distinction between ‘knowing that’ and
‘knowing how’ was drawn by Gilbert Ryle (1945). His argument asserts the significance
of skills, procedures and learning activities in the development of knowledge. He also
shows how, in terms of moving beyond the dry recitation of facts towards application and
relevance to life, capabilities to apply knowledge are vital. There is no doubt then, that
skills provide a distinct and valuable element of curriculum provision.
However, as we have seen, bodies of knowledge and associated conceptual tools
represent the accumulated understanding of our societies and therefore demand attention.
Skills alone therefore, are unlikely to justify presentation as a complete curriculum. But
skills add enormous value to engagement with subjects. Indeed, they support the devel-
opment of subject knowledge, are realised through it and contribute to its transfer and
application into practice.

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246 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Systematic and embedded provision for skill development is thus a vital element of
learning within any curriculum. It is often planned for and reviewed in cross-curricular
terms, and such provision can be made at classroom, school or national levels – and most
helpfully at all three.
When the National Curriculum was first introduced in England, the National Curriculum
Council (NCC) published guidance on The Whole Curriculum (NCC, 1990) which drew
teachers’ attention to cross-curricular dimensions, skills and themes. More recently in
Wales, the Skills Framework for 3–19 Year-olds (Welsh Assembly Government, 2008,
Reading 10.5) updates this approach for a twenty-first century curriculum. Scotland’s
Curriculum for Excellence also provides a carefully developed skills framework offering
‘Skills for Learning, Skills for Life and Skills for Work’ (Scottish Government, 2009).
Figure 9.3, below, illustrates the four ‘capacities’ which have been conceptualised and
prioritised in Scotland. There is strong emphasis on the responsibilities of all educators
to support such learning through all sectors and a framework of National Qualifications
offers accreditation.

Figure 9.3 The

four capacities
Successful learners Confident individuals
of Scotland’s with with
Curriculum for · enthusiasm and motivation for learning · self-respect
Excellence · determination to reach high standards · a sense of physical, mental and
of achievement emotional well-being
· openness to new thinking and ideas · secure values and beliefs

and able to and able to

· use literacy, communication and · relate to others and manage ourselves
numeracy skills · pursue a healthy and active lifestyle
· use technology for learning · be self-aware
· think creatively and independently · develop and communicate their own
learn independently and as part of a beliefs and view of the world
group · live as independently as they can
· make reasoned evaluations · assess risk and take informed decisions
· link and apply different kinds of · achieve success in different areas of
learning in new situations activity

To enable all young

people to become

Responsible citizens Effective contributions

with with
· respect for others · an enterprising attitude
· commitment to participate respons- · resilience
ibly in political, economic, social and · self-reliance
cultural life
and able to
and able to · communicate in different ways and in
· develop knowledge and understanding different settings
of the world and Scotland’s place in it · work in partnership and in terms
· understand different beliefs and cultures · take the initiative and lead
· make informed choices and decisions · apply critical thinking in new contexts
· evaluate environmental, scientific and · create and develop
technological issues · solve problems
· develop informed, ethical views of
complex issues

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2.4 Attitudes
Attitudes were regarded by HMI as ‘the overt expression, in a variety of situations, of
values and personal qualities’ (1985, p. 41). Examples given were honesty, reliability, initi-
ative, self-discipline and tolerance which ‘may be encouraged in the formal curriculum
and the informal, and in the general life of the school’. Clearly, this affirms the significance
of the ‘hidden curriculum’ to which we drew attention at the beginning of this chapter.
Indeed, the process of induction of the young into the values of their society has always
been one of the classic roles of schools.
In recent years, there has been particular awareness of citizenship – as reflected in
our earlier discussion of educational aims. Attitudes to health, exercise and diet have
been prominent too, and it is predictable that pressure will grow for schools to introduce
children and young people to issues concerning environmental sustainability. Specific
values and priorities thus reflect particular social, cultural and economic priorities. Over
the years of a teacher’s career, these will ebb and flow with changing governments and
social norms. They may also vary depending on the particular circumstances and ambitions
of the communities which a school serves, thus enabling local variation.
This brings us back to the issues raised in Chapter 2, Section 3.1). There, we saw
how culture and language frame the interpretation of experience, and how attitudes are
influenced by family, community, peers, school and the media. The overall effect is that
children and young people form, or are socialised into adopting, attitudes which reflect the
influence of significant others in their lives.
HMI also emphasised that schools should ‘seek to promote positive attitudes through
the attention they give to content and method’ (1985, p. 41). Here we begin to focus on
the educational issues which, in contemporary terms, might be termed ‘dispositions to
learn’. There is, after all, probably nothing more important for lifelong learning than the
confidence of learners in tackling new learning challenges. In Chapter 2, again, we saw
how important it is for learners to believe in their potential to learn and to improve – to
adopt an ‘incremental’ theory of their own capability, as Dweck (1986, Reading 2.6) put it
(see p. 51).
Claxton has cogently argued that it is possible to ‘build learning power’ in schools by
nurturing attributes such as resilience, resourcefulness, reflection and reciprocity (Claxton,
2002, Reading 2.9; 2011). As he puts it:
●● Resilience covers aspects of the learner’s emotional and experiential engagement
with the subject matter of learning.
●● Resourcefulness embraces the main cognitive skills and dispositions of learning.
●● Reciprocity covers the social and interpersonal side of learning.
●● Reflectiveness covers the strategic and self-managing sides of learning. (Claxton et
al., 2011, p. 40)
Through such careful attention to learning itself, a ‘supple learning mind’ can be created
(see Figure 9.4 overleaf).

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248 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Figure 9.4 The Supple Learning Mind

The supple
learning mind Reflectiveness Reciprocity
(from Claxton et
al., 2011) • Planning: working learning out in advance • Interdependence: balancing self-reliance and
• Revising: monitoring and adapting along sociability
the way • Collaboration: the skills of learning with others
• Distilling: drawing out the lessons from • Listening/Empathy: getting inside others’ minds
experience • Imitation: picking up others’ habits and values
• Meta-learning: understanding learning, and
yourself as a learner

planning

meta- learning
imitation
distilling

RE
questioning
RES
OU

FLE
capitalising
R revising inter-

CTIVEN
making links dependence

CE

RECIP OCITY
reasoning
FU
perseverance RES LN

ESS
imagining
ILI empathy and

R
ESS
managing distractions
EN listening
noticing absorption C
E

collaboration

Resilience
• Absorption: flow; the pleasure of being rapt in
learning
• Managing distraction: recognising and
reducing interruptions
Resourcefulness
• Noticing: really sensing what’s out there
• Questioning: getting below the surface; playing
• Perseverance: stickability; tolerating the
with situations
feelings of learning
• Making links: seeking coherence, relevance and
meaning
• Imagining: using the mind’s eye as a learning
theatre
• Reasoning: thinking rigorously and methodically
• Capitalising: making good use of resources

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 249

These attributes are closely associated with ‘learning

how to learn’ (James et al., 2007, Reading 2.8) and are Expert question
viewed by many as being essential for learning in the Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
twenty-first century. For example, the 2020 Vision report classroom organisation and consultation
for the DfES in England (Teaching and Learning Review enable learners to actively participate in
Group, 2006, Reading 10.7), anticipated the necessary and enjoy their learning?
characteristics of future teaching and aspired to ‘design This question contributes to a conceptual
a new school experience’. Key elements were identified framework underpinning professional
as Personalisation, assessment for learning, learning how expertise (see Chapter 16).
to learn, pupil voice and engaging parents and carers
in their children’s education. Underpinning all this was
a commitment to pupil engagement in a meaningful
curriculum and authentic learning for life.

2.5 A balanced curriculum

The analytic power of the distinction between knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes
is particularly useful in curriculum design. A rounded curriculum will provide balance
between them, ensuring that each has its place. This is important for those who frame
national curricular frameworks, but it is also an enormous help in the creation of the
School Curriculum and in terms of classroom provision.
Reflective activity 9.3 suggests a way of mapping the elements of learning within an
area of curriculum provision.

Reflective activity 9.3

Aim: To consider knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes in schemes of work.
Method: Select topics within a programme of study in a subject area. Working on your
own or preferably with a colleague, identify and list the knowledge, concepts, skills
and attitudes which are targeted for development.

TOPICS Knowledge Concepts Skills Attitudes

Follow-up: How easy was it to identify elements in the four categories? Which were
explicit, and which implicit?
Has the activity led you to refine or extend your plans? How could the framework be
used to take stock of pupil learning in your classroom?

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3 National curricula
Structured national curricula have many attractions. For
Expert question example:
Balance: does the curriculum-as-experienced
Aims and objectives for each stage of education can clarify
offer everything which each learner has a
what both pupils and teachers are expected to do (see
right to expect?
Section 1.2 above)
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional Curriculum breadth and balance can be considered ‘as a
expertise (see Chapter 16). whole’ (see Chapter 10).

Curriculum progression and continuity can be planned

and monitored both from class to class and on transfer
between schools (see also Chapter 10).

Training and professional development programmes for teachers can be tailored to

known National Curriculum needs (see Chapter 17).

Resources for teaching and learning programmes can be developed on a large scale and
in organised, cost-effective ways (see Chapter 8).

Assessment and inspection systems can be used to reinforce intentions (see Chapter 14).

Parents, employers and other stakeholders have the opportunity to know and
understand what is being taught and may be able to offer support more effectively (see
Chapter 5).

Coherence, alignment and improvement of the system as a whole can be developed

through evaluation processes, research and refinement (see Chapter 4).

However, there are a number of dilemmas in the design of national curricula. For example,
how should the value of coherence and progression in subject knowledge be compared
with the benefits of applied understanding through more integrated study or work focused
on particular topics? How can a National Curriculum framework guarantee curricular
entitlements and guide the work of teachers whilst also enabling them to exercise
professional judgement when responding to particular learning needs?
These questions illustrate the challenge posed by two of TLRP’s principles.
Effective teaching and learning ‘engages with valued forms of knowledge’ (Principle 2),
but it also ‘recognises the importance of prior experience and learning’ (Principle 3) (see
Chapter 4).

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3.1 UK curricular structures

Secondary education
When reviewing the curricula of each of the four countries of the UK, provision in
secondary education is particularly variable because of differences in examination and
certification arrangements, school, college and academy structures, links to vocational
provision and employment, and changes in the duration of compulsory education and
training. ‘Valued forms of knowledge’ reflect national circumstances, government prior-
ities and school choices to a considerable extent – for example, at the time of writing,
newly established academies and free schools in England are not formally required to
follow National Curriculum requirements.
Across the UK, differences in examination and award structures appears to be growing.
The distinctiveness of Scotland’s ‘Highers’ is now joined by new, ‘more rigourous’ GCSEs
to be progressively introduced in England from 2014. It may be necessary to adjust
provision in Wales and Northern Ireland if comparability is sought. AS levels have been
deemed equivalent to Scottish Highers, but are to be abolished in England. A levels remain
in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, with a growing influence of universities on their
content. Many vocational qualifications in England are no longer accredited (see section
3.4 below) and in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland reviews continue.
Debate concerning optimal transitions points contributes to instability in some national
qualification structures. For example, from 2015, young people in England will remain in
full-time education or training to age 18, though statutory assessment through GCSEs is to
age 16. Kenneth Baker (2013), a former Secretary of State for Education, makes a strong
case for the National Curriculum to end with a new qualification at age 14, with a ‘new
vision’ of more diverse courses to meet particular needs from 14–18. English education is,
he argues, ‘fixated’ on exams at age 16.
However, GCSEs have been extremely important and have demonstrated steadily
improved pupil outcomes. For example, in England’s 1997 results, only 36 per cent of
pupils achieved five or more A–C GCSEs including English and Maths, but this exceeded
50 per cent by 2011. The ‘English Baccalaureate’ was introduced in 2010 as a way of
recognising the traditional ‘academic’ curriculum in school league tables (the propor-
tions of pupils attaining GCSE grade C or better in English, maths, a language, history or
geography, and two sciences). However, from 2014, secondary schools in England will
report on GCSE performance of pupils in English and mathematics and must publish a
‘progress measure’ indicating pupils’ achievement across eight subjects (including EBacc,
other academic, arts or vocational).
Policy on these issues develops continuously and, for updated information, please
consult reflectiveteaching.co.uk.

Primary education
In relation to primary education, there is a little more stability and rather more similarities
in UK systems – as there are around the world (Meyer and Kamens, 1992; DfE, 2011).

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In Figure 9.5 it can be seen that subject areas and cross-curricular skills show remarkable
consistency. In each country, the primacy of ‘basic capability’ in literacy and numeracy is
emphasised. However, this is done in interestingly different ways.
Figure 9.5 UK curricula structures for primary education (2012)

ENGLAND WALES NORTHERN SCOTLAND

IRELAND
‘Subjects’ ‘Subjects’ ‘Areas of Learning’ ‘Curricular Areas’
ENGLISH ENGLISH (except in KS1 LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES
Welsh-medium classes) LITERACY
Welsh (in Welsh-medium Irish (in Irish-speaking Gaelic (to support first
schools) schools) language speakers)
MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS AND MATHEMATICS
NUMERACY
SCIENCE SCIENCE SCIENCES
HISTORY HISTORY
GEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHY THE WORLD AROUND US SOCIAL STUDIES
DESIGN and TECHNOLOGY DESIGN and TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGIES
ICT (Computing from 2014) ICT
ART and DESIGN ART and DESIGN
THE ARTS EXPRESSIVE ARTS
MUSIC MUSIC
PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHYSICAL EDUCATION HEALTH AND WELLBEING
LANGUAGES from 2014 at
Key Stage 2
Religious education* Religious education* Religious education* RELIGIOUS AND MORAL
EDUCATION
Skills across the Skills across the Thinking skills and Skills for learning, skills for
curriculum: curriculum: personal capabilities: life, skills for work:
Developing thinking Thinking, problem solving Thinking
and decision-making Employability, enterprise and
Self-management citizenship
Working with others
Managing information
Being creative
Cross-curricular skills:
Language and literacy Developing communication Communication Literacy
Mathematical fluency Developing number Using mathematics Numeracy
Developing ICT Using ICT Health and wellbeing;
Personal, social and health Personal and social Personal development and
education education mutual understanding
(Key: UPPER CASE – statutory provision; * a statutory requirement to be taught in accordance with locally agreed syllabi; lower case – non-statutory
provision)

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In England’s primary provision from 2014, exceptional priority has been given by the
Coalition Government to English, mathematics and science (deemed ‘core subjects’ and
the focus of detailed, year-by-year programmes of study). ‘Other foundation’ subjects
remain statutory but have very condensed content coverage and minimal assessment
requirements. Whilst the core subjects are felt to be essential for future learning and work,
other subjects are seen as contributing to a broad and balanced curriculum. Assessment
and inspection arrangements reinforce this impression. However, the minimalist specifi-
cations for foundation subjects are intended to remove constraint from teachers and thus
enable innovation. Official programmes of study are mainly concerned with knowledge
and, to a lesser extent, with concepts. They almost exclusively leave consideration of
subject-related and cross-curricular skills and attitudes to teachers. In principle, a unique
‘school curriculum’ can be constructed. However, each school must publish its curriculum
on a year-by-year basis.
In Wales, curriculum structures mirrored those of England for many years although
the distinctiveness of Wales was expressed through the Curriculum Cymreig (ACCAC,
2003). This remains a statutory requirement on the cultural, economic, environmental,
historical and linguistic characteristics of Wales. In 2008, a more radical development
introduced a new School Curriculum for 3 to 19-year-olds to provide a ‘more learner-
centred and skills-focused curriculum for the twenty-first century’ (Welsh Government,
2008). This is reflected in ‘Skills Across the Curriculum’ and qualifications through
‘Essential Skills Wales’ (see Reading 10.5), although conventional subjects remain the basic
unit of curriculum planning in schools and national Literacy and Numeracy Frameworks
are being introduced. For young children, the Foundation Phase is structured in terms of
‘areas of learning’.
In Northern Ireland’s primary curriculum, subjects are set aside in favour of six ‘areas
of learning’, and teachers are encouraged to ‘integrate learning across the six areas to make
relevant connections for children’ (Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment
(CCEA), 2007). In addition, cross-curricular skills, thinking skills and personal capabil-
ities are emphasised. Guidance is offered on broad approaches to teaching and ‘ideas for
connecting learning’. Thus, for example: ‘Children learn best when learning is interactive,
practical and enjoyable. Teachers should make use of a wide range of teaching methods,
balancing whole-class, group and individual activities, to engage children in effective
learning’ (CCEA, 2007, p. 9).
Integrated approaches are also encouraged in Scotland’s primary education, where the
Curriculum for Excellence has been carefully built around the aspiration that learners from
3 to 18 should achieve the ‘four capacities’ of ‘successful learners’, ‘confident individuals’,
‘responsible citizens’ and ‘effective contributors’ (see Figure 9.3 above). Eight ‘curriculum
areas’ then structure programmes of expected ‘experiences’ and required ‘outcomes’ and
reflect explicit consideration of the contribution of each area to the four overall curricular
purposes (see Scottish Government, 2006). Subjects are recognised as ‘an essential feature
of the curriculum, particularly in secondary school’, but schools ‘have the freedom to think
imaginatively about how the experiences and outcomes might be organised and planned
for in creative ways which encourage deep, sustained learning and which meet the needs
of their children and young people’ (Scottish Government, 2008).

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In summary, within the UK’s secondary and primary

Expert questions schools, there are both similarities and differences in the
Breadth: does the curriculum represent particular curricular structures and requirements of each
society’s educational aspirations for its country, and these vary too over time. Whichever sector,
citizens? country or era you work or study in, the important thing to
Balance: does the curriculum-as-experienced note is that curriculum arrangements are social construc-
offer everything which each learner has a tions. Although they may seem ‘set in stone’, they actually
right to expect? do change and teachers are likely to see quite a few in the
These questions contribute to a conceptual course of a career. Whilst they reflect the history, culture,
framework underpinning professional ideologies and political context of their construction, the
expertise (see Chapter 16). basic elements of learning (knowledge, concepts, skills
and attitudes) endure.

3.2 Teaching, learning and national curricula

TLRP’s third principle, states that: ‘Effective teaching and learning recognises the impor-
tance of prior experience and learning’.
This poses a significant dilemma for highly structured national curricula: How can a
specified curriculum, at one and the same time, set out a specific framework for required
content and progression and yet remain flexible enough to draw on the interests, experi-
ences, approaches to learning and physical and intellectual capabilities of individual
children? Is there a risk that some pupils will feel excluded by the specified content? And
how, if content is too specified, can innovation occur?
As we have seen, England’s recent National Curriculum Review produced a tight
specification of the core curriculum in terms of both content and structure. Detailed, year-
on-year programmes of study were set out for core subjects building on the ideas of E. D.
Hirsch (1987). To a large extent then, the curriculum for schools was placed in a linear
form within core subjects – and this was, of course, backed up by formal assessment
procedures.
There are several disadvantages in this approach. First, psychologists such as Bruner
(1977, see Reading 9.5) suggest that children can learn most things at most ages if they
are taught in meaningful ways and revisited at more advanced stages – thus coining the
term ‘spiral curriculum’. Some children may thus experience and become interested in
things which a linear National Curriculum does not anticipate – and teachers may feel
constrained in following up those interests. Perhaps indeed, children’s learning is driven
by developmental considerations (e.g. Katz 1998; Pollard et al., 2000) which subject-based
national curricula may lack the flexibility to accommodate. Second, we now know that
learners do not often acquire understanding in a simple, linear way, with a step-by-step
progression (Gagné, 1965), as some behaviourist psychology might have had us believe.
Other learning theorists, influenced by Vygotsky (see Chapter 2, Section 1.3, Reading
2.3) suggest that children learn when they are able to ‘make sense’ of some experience,
particularly when they have an imaginative insight or are supported by more experienced
or knowledgeable teachers, parents or peers (Tharp and Gallimore, 1988, Reading 11.4). As

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we have seen, this is one rationale for the ‘personalisation’

agenda – to respond more effectively to individual need Expert question
(Teaching and Learning Review Group, 2006, Reading Personalisation: does the curriculum
10.7). resonate with the social and cultural
Nor do subject specialists suggest progression through needs of diverse learners and provide
a particular sequence of substantive knowledge without appropriate elements of choice?
considerable flexibility. Building also on psychological This question contributes to a conceptual
understanding, the recommendation is that a curriculum framework underpinning professional
specification should leave sufficient flexibility to enable expertise (see Chapter 16).
teachers to use their judgement in support of conceptual
development and application. Ernest made the point
particularly clearly over 20 years ago in relation to mathematics. He wrote:

One of the greatest dangers in stipulating a statutory curriculum in mathematics at

(several) levels of attainment is that it becomes a barrier which may deny a youngster
access to higher concepts and skills when he or she is ready for them … The major flaw
in this scheme (is) the mistaken assumption that children’s learning in mathematics
follows a fixed hierarchical pattern … This is nonsense. (Ernest, 1991, p. 50)

The over-riding message is perhaps that learning is not always predictable or linear, and To read a more
any curriculum that diminishes the opportunity for teachers to respond to pupil needs is extended discussion,
including Pollard’s
less likely to promote meaningful learning. resignation from a
At the classroom level, talking with pupils goes a long way in resolving this dilemma. government role on
Children and young people are perfectly capable of accepting that there is nationally this issue, see the
supplementary material
expected curriculum coverage, but will welcome teacher efforts to make appropriate for Chapter 9 on
connections with their prior knowledge, emergent understanding and their experience. reflectiveteaching.co.uk
This is the only way through which a curriculum can, operationally, ‘make sense’ to
learners.

3.3 Subject-based and integrated curricula

A subject-based curriculum is one which maintains high boundaries, distinction and
specialisation between subjects. The resulting curriculum has been seen as being typical
of secondary education. It has been called a ‘collection curriculum’ (Bernstein, 1971)
because the learner acquires their overall education through the accumulation of under-
standing in different domains. Progression within each separate subject is intended to be
strong, though coherence of learning across subjects may be weaker. ‘Cross-curricular
themes’ are often used to forge lateral links, but tend to be hard to sustain.
An integrated curriculum, on the other hand, is one which draws across subject
boundaries to construct a more holistic and, it is hoped, meaningful focus for study
(Turner-Bisset, 2000, Reading 10.3). For many years, this approach has been associated
with primary education and, in particular, with provision for younger children. ‘Topic
work’ is one classic manifestation and another rationale reflects beliefs about the value
of ‘play’ itself (Central Advisory Council on Education (CACE), 1967, Reading 9.4).

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Arguments for the desirability of an integrated curriculum include the suggestion that the
curriculum must draw on authentic pupil experiences (rather than ‘artificial’ subjects) if
effective learning is to take place. A second argument proposes that a higher priority can be
given to generic processes, key skills and attitudes if the emphasis on subject knowledge
is lessened.
However, caricatures of differences between primary and secondary education do not
stand, for there are many examples of exceptional integrated work in secondary education,
and of skilful subject teaching in primary schools. Indeed, this is once again an example
of an educational dilemma in which both positions have some merit. It is not surprising
therefore, that the best schools find ways of drawing on the strengths of each approach.
The same principle can be applied at a classroom level by varying the ways in which
curricular activity is presented to pupils.
The need for breadth in curriculum, to provide a range of learning experience, is well
established. Indeed, international comparison shows curricular breadth being maintained
in many countries to age 16 and beyond, far longer than is typical in the countries of
the UK. There has been a particular tendency in England for political concern to ‘raise
standards’ in core subjects to drive out opportunities for quality engagement with the arts,
humanities and vocational subjects.
And so we learn that, to offer an effective educa-
tional experience, the ‘basics’ have to be balanced with
Expert questions other curricular areas in responsive ways (see Chapter
10, Sections 2 and 3, for discussion of the principles of
Breadth: does the curriculum represent
curriculum planning).
society’s educational aspirations for its
citizens? The same dilemmas are faced in Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland and indeed, the Republic of Ireland, but
Balance: does the curriculum-as-experienced
at the time of writing government requirements are signifi-
offer everything which each learner has a
right to expect? cantly less prescriptive than in England. Creative teachers
in any setting will use their expertise to present the
These questions contribute to a conceptual
curriculum to pupils in meaningful ways. In so doing, the
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16). advantages and disadvantages of focusing on particular
subjects or on integrating knowledge across them always
has to be weighed. There are good arguments for both.

3.4 Academic and vocational education

In secondary education, as preparation begins for employment or for further or higher
education, there have been significant differences of opinion in relation to the most appro-
priate curriculum. These go back in history for many decades. The 1944 Education Act,
for instance, made provision for ‘technical’, ‘secondary modern’ and ‘grammar’ school
provision – thus reinforcing the principle of distinct programmes of study for particular
purposes and for selected groups of students based on assessment of aptitude and ability.
However, the Newsom Report of 1963 recorded the poor quality of education provided
to many disadvantaged pupils who were not in grammar schools, and bemoaned that

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‘half our future’ was being wasted. When comprehensive

schools were introduced and adopted in most parts of the Expert question
UK, provision for pupils with different needs was made Congruence: are forms of assessment fit for
within each school, through vocational and academic purpose in terms of overall educational
‘pathways’. Distinct courses, work experiences and objectives?
qualifications were created alongside conventional exami- This question contributes to a conceptual
nations, and were subject to a great deal of innovation, framework underpinning professional
change and confusion over the years. expertise (see Chapter 16).
In England, the Tomlinson Report of 2004 proposed a
radical overhaul of this complexity, with GCSEs, A levels
and vocational qualifications to be replaced by a single, four-level diploma ranging from
pre-GCSE to beyond A level and enabling mixed-aged classes as students progressed
through modules of study at their own rates. An interesting feature of this proposal was
that both academic and vocational learning was to be assessed on the same scale, and in
principle was thus to have party of esteem. But the proposal proved too radical, and the
scheme was not adopted.
Parallel provision of academic and vocational pathways and qualifications thus
continued to be provided – with vocational education still somewhat undervalued
officially, despite the unique opportunities it offered to many (Unwin, 2009,
Reading 9.6).
The outcomes during the decade to 2009/10 were impressive in one sense, with the
proportion of pupils attaining the equivalent of 5 GCSE at grade C or above steadily
rising. However, the complexity and overall standard of these qualifications were
questioned.
In 2009, an independent review of education and training for 14–19 year olds in
England and Wales was published, the Nuffield Review (Pring et al., 2009). In some ways,
this echoed elements of Tomlinson. For instance, it asserted ‘a broad vision of education in
which there is a profound respect for the whole person, irrespective of ability or cultural
and social background, in which there is a broader vision of learning and in which the
learning contributes to a more just and cohesive society’ (p. 4). The report recommended
that:

A new curriculum framework should introduce all young people to:

●● forms of understanding which enable them to make sense of their physical and social
worlds;
●● opportunities to excel and to have a sense of achievement;
●● practical and economically relevant capabilities;
●● issues of profound social and personal concern;
●● information, advice and guidance for future career, training and education;
●● knowledge, skills and experience which are relevant to the wider community.

A unified and inclusive qualifications framework should be developed that embraces

different forms of learning and promotes more effective choice and greater breadth of
study. (2009, p. 11)

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A very different analysis by Wolf (2011) was adopted by the Coalition Government.
This viewed the breadth, range and complexity of post-16 vocational courses as ‘leading
to dead-ends’ rather than being of intrinsic value, and saw their expansion in recent
years as a product of school strategies to improve their standing in league tables. A
radical simplification was therefore implemented, with slimming down of qualifications,
reassertion of required standards in English and maths, and expansion of apprenticeships.
In parallel with these developments, the ‘English Baccalaureate’ was introduced (see
Section 3.1, above) to promote a more academic curriculum.
What we thus see in the case of vocational education, is an area of educational policy
which has been historically unstable. Despite the strength of the case (Unwin, 2009,
Reading 9.5), a consensus about the role and status of vocational education does not exist
in England – certainly not in the way in which it does in countries such as Switzerland or
Germany. It is not surprising that the Nuffield Review urged a debate to clarify values and
intentions, or that practical decision-making in secondary, vocational and further education
is so challenging. The dilemmas between common or distinct institutions, courses, quali-
fications and standards are acute.
Similar issues have been rehearsed in the Scottish Government’s Review of Post-16
Education and Vocational Training (2011a). Interestingly however, the direction of policy
is to ‘seek a broad consensus and to create a truly coherent system with the individual
learner at its heart’. Progress towards a fully integrated system, building from the
Curriculum for Excellence is proposed.

4 Subject knowledge
Teachers with good subject knowledge are able to make more secure judgements about
the appropriate teaching of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes. Indeed, international
research studies such as the meta-analysis of Hattie (2009, Reading 4.6) suggest that the
subject knowledge of teachers is an extremely important influence on pupil attainment.
Perhaps this is not surprising, but simply having a lot of specialist knowledge is not suffi-
cient for effective teaching.
The most influential analysis of subject knowledge in education was provided by
Shulman (1986, Reading 9.7). He identified three forms of subject knowledge:
●● Content knowledge – knowledge of the subject held by the teacher.
●● Pedagogic content knowledge – knowledge of how to use content knowledge for
teaching purposes.
●● Curricular knowledge – knowledge of curriculum structures and materials.

4.1 Content knowledge

Content knowledge refers to the kind of knowledge that teachers gain from their own

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schooling, university and college courses or from personal research and interest. It can be
sub-divided into two aspects, the substantive and syntactic, as defined by Schwab (1978).
●● The substantive aspect of subject matter knowledge relates to a foundational
understanding of facts, concepts and principles of a subject and the way in which
they are organised.
●● The syntactic aspect relates to knowledge about why such knowledge is deemed
important and is justified.
Knowledge of the social structure of Tudor England and of how various political influences
affected the lives of people during this period would be an example of substantive
knowledge in history. Knowing how this knowledge has been arrived at through the use
of primary and secondary evidence and an understanding of the relative validity of such
evidence would be an example of syntactic knowledge of history.
When planning for pupil learning, primary school teachers must draw on their
substantive knowledge from across all the subjects they teach – the main curricular
challenge is one of breadth. The quote below from a reception teacher demonstrates how
she drew on substantive knowledge she had gained during her initial teacher education
course when planning a lesson on counting:

When I was planning this lesson I drew on my knowledge of the pre-requisites for
counting: knowing the number names in order, one to one correspondence, the cardinal
principle, being able to count objects that cannot be moved/touched and counting
objects that cannot be seen e.g. sounds or beats. These developmental stages formed the
progression and structure to the lesson.

Such knowledge is not always accessible from memory, and the reflective teacher will seek
to refresh and develop their substantive knowledge of topics before planning and teaching.
For example, when planning to teach a topic on ‘Egypt’, one might research both ancient
and modern Egypt drawing on geographical and historical resources. Such sources might
include schemes of work, text books, a library or the internet. Topics such as this may only
be taught annually or even bi-annually and committed teachers will refresh and develop
their substantive knowledge each time they occur in order to invigorate their own interest
and pass on enthusiasm to pupils.
Secondary teachers are appointed to teach a subject and they have subject expertise
which is the foundation of their professional identities. Subject curricula are expressed
in terms of the knowledge, concepts and skills associated with that particular discipline.
Their main challenge is thus one of subject depth – for the secondary teacher may have to
work across a wide range of syllabi and classes. Whilst it might be reasonably assumed
that the more teachers know about a subject the more their pupils will achieve, studies
have not found this straightforward correlation (Dunkin and Biddle, 1974). You may find
echoes of this in your personal experience. Can you recall an occasion when an ‘expert’
tried to explain something to you with little success? To be a successful teacher of a subject
requires both sorts of knowing – knowing the subject ‘inside out’ and knowing how best
to present it so that it can be learned.

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4.2 Pedagogical content knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge is Shulman’s (1986, Reading 9.7) second form of subject
knowledge, which he described as ‘subject matter knowledge for teaching’. It does not
simply reflect understanding of a subject, or even of how to teach. Rather, it is knowledge
of how to combine both in relation to a particular domain. It is thus a specific category of
teacher knowledge.
Teachers draw on their pedagogical content knowledge when deciding how they will
introduce a new idea or develop pupils’ knowledge or skills in relation to a specific aspect
of a subject. For example, when teaching the scientific topic of ‘our solar system’, a
primary teacher might decide to represent the sun and planets with different sized spheres
and to take pupils out onto the school field in order to demonstrate the relative distances
between objects in the solar system. When teaching about life in Victorian times, a
secondary teacher might borrow domestic artefacts from a local Victorian collection and
ask pupils to consider for what purpose they were used. These teachers would not only
have drawn on their knowledge of the subject matter and on their general knowledge of
how children of a particular age learn; they would also have drawn on knowledge of how
children learn in the particular subject. In science, much use is made of analogies since it
is not always possible to demonstrate concepts concretely. In the case above, the teacher
might have used an orange and a marble as analogies for the Earth and moon. Artefacts
are often used for historical topics when trying to help children understand how people
lived in earlier times.
Teaching another person what you know thus involves finding ways of representing
subject matter to assist their learning, as well as being aware of the new representations
that are subsequently developed. Our earlier discussion of concepts as significant elements
of learning (see Section 2.2 of this chapter) resonates here. Shulman highlights new
conceptual developments as ‘transformations’. These transformations take many forms
and are:

The most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations and demonstrations

– in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it
comprehensible to others. (1986, p. 9)

With experience, teachers develop a ‘representational repertoire’ for the subject they teach
which may itself enrich and extend their own subject understanding – it’s a truism that a
good way to understand something is to try to teach it. This repertoire is part of the result
of ‘thinking like a teacher’ about a subject and is, of course, significantly helped by the
teachers own conceptual understanding. In any one lesson a teacher may use a number
of different strategies of this kind. The successes and failures of our transformations
in making learning meaningful for our pupils, individually and as a group, add to our
knowledge – of the subject and of how it may be learned, in particular of subject-specific
difficulties which pupils experience. Reflective activity 9.4 is designed to help think about
this.

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Reflective activity 9.4

Aim: To consider the idea of transformations when preparing to teach.
Method: For a particular lesson or series of lessons focus specifically on what you know
about the content and what you want your pupils to learn about the content. If
teaching materials are prescribed, review them in the light of your understanding of
the subject matter.
How do you represent your personal understanding of this content? How might
you make it meaningful for your pupils? Consider some ways in which you might
transform the content. How might you introduce ideas/concepts/principles? How can
you best move pupils from what is known or familiar to new knowledge? Are there
any strategies, activities or tasks which seem particularly appropriate? What makes you
think they will work? Are there parts of the learning where pupils may misunderstand
or be mislead? How might you avoid this? What language will you use? How will you
approach any subject-specialist language?
If possible discuss your ideas for transformations with another teacher or student
teacher.
Follow-up: Teach the lesson and try out your transformations. How did they work?
Is there anything from the lesson that you will to add to your representational
repertoire?

4.3 Curricular knowledge

‘Curricular knowledge’ is Shulman’s third form of teacher knowledge and perhaps the
simplest.
It relates to: programmes of study, syllabi, schemes of work, resources, technologies
and instructional materials through which curricular objectives may be realised. The
selection of such material is often structured by school policies, but rests on teacher
judgement in respect of more specific activities and lessons.
For most teachers, curricular knowledge is much easier to acquire than content
knowledge or pedagogic content knowledge. Indeed, some would argue that, whilst
curricular knowledge can be obtained from text books, the internet, or from school and For discussion and
advice on the practical
National Curriculum documentation, the acquisition of content knowledge calls for development of subject
sustained study and pedagogical content knowledge requires extensive experience. knowledge, see the
Whilst there may be some truth in this view, confidence is enhanced by being clear supplementary material
for Chapter 9 on
about the nature of the expertise being developed. The elegance of Shulman’s categori- reflectiveteaching.co.uk
sation may help in this respect. In particular, for the reflective teacher, it should be possible
to analyse the nature of the subject knowledge which one has in relation to the role one is
required to fulfil. If there are discrepancies, then the new challenges can be faced.

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262 Part 3 Teaching for learning

4.4 Applying subject knowledge

As we have seen, having decided what it is that pupils should learn, the reflective teacher
draws on their subject matter knowledge and their pedagogical content knowledge in
relation to a particular group of pupils in order to decide what they need to do in a lesson.
For example, when teaching the skill of overarm throwing, the teacher must be sure
of what this involves – subject matter knowledge. They might decide that the best way
to teach this would be by demonstrating it themselves before asking pupils to practise
– pedagogical content knowledge. They will certainly want their pupils to try overarm
throwing for themselves rather than just reading about it or watching a teacher demon-
stration since their syntactic knowledge of PE informs them that physical action is
necessary for learning in this subject. The reflective teacher will consider the difficulty
that some pupils might have with this and perhaps break the movement down into smaller
actions for some pupils to practice – knowledge of pupils. Therefore, in order to decide
what they need to do and what their pupils need to do in order to learn how to throw
overarm, the reflective teacher draws on a number of categories of knowledge for teaching.
Pedagogical content knowledge might be considered to be the key to effective teaching
and the reflective teacher will give careful consideration to how they ‘represent and
formulate the subject to make it comprehensible to others’. In the teaching of mathematics,
the choice of examples (Watson and Mason, 2005), the use of representations (Drews and
Hansen, 2007) and the making of connections (Askew et al., 1997) have all been found to
be important aspects of pedagogical content knowledge.
More generally, experienced teachers with thorough subject knowledge have been
found to be more likely to adapt and modify text books and other published materials
where they find the organisation of content and the representations of concepts unsatis-
factory (Hashweh, 1987). Teachers with deep subject knowledge are also more likely to
identify where learners might misunderstand, to recognise dawning insights and to see
where connections might be made within the subject and with other subject areas.
Rowland, Turner, Thwaites and Huckstep (2009) formalised this understanding through
the development of what they call a ‘knowledge quartet’. Their framework has its
empirical origins in observations of trainee and beginning teachers teaching mathematics
(Rowland, Huckstep and Thwaites, 2005; Turner, 2009). The ‘quartet’ highlights four
aspects of subject knowledge.

Foundation – content knowledge in substantive and

Expert question syntactic forms, which enables and circumscribes the
Coherence: is there clarity in the purposes, available teaching repertoire.
content and organisation of the Transformation – the capacity to re-present content
curriculum and does it provide holistic
knowledge in ways that are pedagogically powerful, as
learning experiences?
described above.
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional Connection – the expert teacher’s awareness of the
expertise (see Chapter 16). structures and sequencing of knowledge, so that particular
elements can be related to a more holistic understanding.

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 263

Contingency – the teacher’s capacity to respond to classroom events and pupil actions in
ways which, though unexpected, still build towards understanding.

This work on mathematical content knowledge found that trainee and beginning teachers
did not always use the most appropriate representations in their teaching and did not
always make connections that would support the mathematical understanding of their
pupils. However, when helped to reflect on the mathematical content of their teaching
using the knowledge quartet framework as a tool, teachers often identified such limitations
in their practice and suggested how they might make improvements (Turner, 2009).

Conclusion
National curricula provide a significant means of attempting to fulfil national objectives
and of attempting to provide coherence and progression in the learning of pupils. They also
clarify the aims and role of teachers. Even when, as in England, significant numbers of
secondary schools in the independent and academy sectors are formally exempt, national
curricula influence exam boards and thus schools.
However, by the very act of setting out ‘requirements’, a ‘framework’ or a set of ‘guide-
lines’, the architects of national curricula select particular content for teaching, study,
learning and assessment. This material tends to cater for the majority, but must inevitably
be more suitable and interesting for some learners than for others. Children and young
people with particular special needs, or coming from disadvantaged backgrounds, may not
relate well to such curricula and alternative provision may suit them better.
Indeed, the specification of a National Curriculum raises the immediate question,
‘Whose curriculum is it?’ Any curriculum reflects values, views of knowledge and of
learning. Reflective teachers will recognise that dominant opinions and influence can
change over time and that they are not always clear-cut or coherent. Ambiguities and
dissonances within and between the different agencies that govern education are also
commonplace. Where teachers have views on such matters, perhaps based on study,
experience, evidence and reflection, to make their voices heard in educational debates is
a valuable professional contribution. Subject, phase or other professional associations are
important vehicles for this.
Nor should we forget the clarification with which we began this chapter. The official
curriculum of any country is a very different thing from the whole school curriculum,
which includes the hidden curriculum and the curriculum-as-experienced by pupils. There
is enormous scope for creativity, adaption and extension in the School Curriculum.
At the end of the day, teachers must use their expertise to manage a constructive inter-
action between the knowledge society deems to be important, and the specific needs of
children and young people.
In the next chapter we focus on the practical implementation of the curriculum through
whole school policies, programmes of study, schemes of work, lesson planning and
evaluation.

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264 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Key readings
A balanced and highly influential overview of the nature, scope and design of school
curricula is:
Her Majesty’s Inspectors (1985) The Curriculum from 5 to 16. Curriculum Matters
2. An HMI Series. London: HMSO. (Reading 10.1) (available at educationengland.
org.uk)

Extending common principles across primary and secondary education (Reading 9.1) are:
Male, B. and Waters, M. (2012) The Primary Curriculum Design Handbook.
London: Continuum.
Male, B. and Waters, M. (2012) The Secondary Curriculum Design Handbook.
London: Continuum.

The ways in which curriculum design has been developed in England, Northern Ireland,
Scotland and Wales is described and analysed in:
Wyse, D., Baumfield, V., Egan, D., Hayward, D., Mulme, M., Menter, I., Gallagher,
C., Leitch, R., Livingston, K. and Lingard, R. (2012) Creating the Curriculum.
London: Routledge.

For sophisticated analysis and proposals on the primary curriculum, see:

Alexander, R. (ed.) (2010) Children, Their World, Their Education. Final Report and
Recommendations of the Cambridge Primary Review. London: Routledge.

An incisive history of the development of aims, values and structures in the secondary
curriculum is presented in:
White, J. (2011) The Invention of the Secondary Curriculum. London: Palgrave
Macmillan.

The distinction between the ‘knowledge of the powerful’ and ‘powerful knowledge’ for
all is drawn in:
Young, M. (2008) Bringing Knowledge Back In. London: Routledge. (Reading 9.2)

Shulman provided the classic text analysing key dimensions of subject knowledge:
Shulman, L. S. (1986) ‘Those who understand: knowledge and growth in teaching’,
Educational Researcher, 15, 4–14. (Reading 9.7)

A strong case for developing personal capabilities, dispositions and skills through
contemporary curricula has been through the work of Guy Claxton, such as:
Claxton, G., Chambers, M., Powell, G. and Lucas, B. (2011) The Learning Powered
School: Pioneering 21st Century Education. Bristol: TLO. (see also Reading 2.9)

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 Chapter 9 Curriculum 265

The classic argument for young children learning through direct experience was
expressed in the Plowden Report:
Central Advisory Council for Education (1967) Children and their Primary Schools.
London: HMSO. (Reading 9.4)

A wonderful book making the point that any curriculum must take full account of
learning and developmental processes remains:
Bruner, J. S. (1966) Towards a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. (see also Reading 9.5)

English secondary education is undergoing a period of considerable change at present,

with new school, examination and accountability structures. For interesting overviews
with constructive proposals, see:
Baker, K. (ed.) (2013) 14–18: A New Vision for Secondary Education. London:
Bloomsbury.
The Academies Commission Report (2013) Unleashing Greatness: Getting the Best
from an Academised System. London: RSA/Pearson.

For a wonderful supply of ideas and innovation from UK subject associations, see the
regular flow of practical journals on various subjects for teachers. These include:
British Journal of Religious Education (Professional Council for Religious Education)
British Journal of Teaching Physical Education (Physical Education Association of
the United Kingdom)
Mathematics Teaching (Association of Teachers of Mathematics)
School Science Review and Primary Science (Association for Science Education)
Teaching English (National Association for the Teaching of English)
Teaching History and Primary History (The Historical Association)
The Journal of Design and Technology Education (Design and Technology
Association).

Reference to official websites for UK countries that provide information about national
curricula and links to subject can be found on reflectiveteaching.co.uk.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk also offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These
may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Planning
How are we
implementing the
curriculum?
10
Introduction (p. 268) 4 Short-term planning (p. 279)

4.1 Lesson plans (p. 279)

1 The school curriculum (p. 269) 4.2 Differentiation (p. 287)
4.3 Personalisation (p. 289)
2 Long-term planning (p. 271)

2.1 Programmes of study (p. 271) 5 Evaluating curricular provision

2.2 Breadth and balance (p. 272) (p. 290)

2.3 Connection and coherence (p. 273)

5.1 Key evaluation questions (p. 292)
5.2 Evaluation through Lesson Study
3 Medium-term planning (p. 274) (p. 294)

3.1 Schemes of work (p. 274)

3.2 Progression (p. 276) Conclusion (p. 297)
3.3 Relevance (p. 278)
268 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Introduction
This chapter discusses the implementation of curriculum planning by moving through
three successive levels of detail, considering the same issues which teachers or trainee
teachers must review when planning their teaching programme. It then focuses on
processes for evaluation and further development.
In case all this sounds over-structured, we must once again affirm the uniquely enriching
role of the creativity and imagination of individual teachers in providing high-quality,
responsive curriculum experiences for pupils in their classes. Qualities of experience
which may be produced – excitement, surprise, awe, spontaneity, concentration, humour,
amazement, curiosity, expression, to name but a few – are created through the rapport and
interaction between a teacher and his or her class. From the pupil’s point of view, this
brings the curriculum ‘alive’.
But it is easier to be imaginative and responsive if you are also secure. Good planning
is thus enabling.

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on providing high-quality cur-
ricular experiences:

Effective teaching and learning engages with valued forms of knowledge.

Teaching and learning should engage with the big ideas, facts, processes, language
and narratives of subjects so that learners understand what constitutes quality and
standards in particular disciplines. (Principle 2)

Effective teaching and learning recognises the importance of prior experience

and learning. Teaching and learning should take account of what the learner
knows already in order to plan their next steps. This includes building on prior
learning but also taking account of the personal and cultural experiences of different
See Chapter 4 groups of learners. (Principle 3)

A valuable set of conceptual tools for thinking about the curriculum is embedded in the
various sections of this chapter – breadth, balance, coherence, connection, relevance,
progression, Personalisation and differentiation. Most of these concepts derive from HMI
(DES, 1985, Reading 10.1) and have been at the heart of national curriculum planning in
each UK country for many years (Wyse et al., 2012).
The particular formulation of conceptual tools for analysing curricular provision
offered here contributes to the holistic analysis of teacher expertise, which is the subject
of Chapter 16.

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 Chapter 10 Planning 269

1 The school curriculum

There are many similarities in the curricula offered by schools, but also important differ-
ences of emphasis. The statutory requirements of the National Curriculum in each country
assert pupil entitlements, but schools have significant scope to develop their own approach
to curriculum whilst remaining constrained by assessment and inspection conditions and
by parental expectations. In any event, after decades of centralised prescription in each
country of the UK, the trend of public policy is towards granting schools more curricular
autonomy (see Chapter 9, Section 3). For example, in England from 2014, maintained
primary schools are invited to develop their own School Curriculum – as long as they also
satisfy statutory requirements.
Governance: The governing body of each school has legal responsibility for the
curriculum and will receive and approve curricular proposals from the headteacher or
senior leadership team. The governors should ensure that the review, development and
articulation of the school’s curriculum is carried out to a high standard. Many governing
bodies have a curriculum and standards committee with responsibility for making sure
that professionals within the school review and update subject and curriculum policies
in accordance with the school’s aims and in the light of its recent performance, parental
expectations, professional judgement and statutory requirements.
The development of national curricula in recent decades has drawn attention to the
need for progression and coherence from year to year, but also for the responsibility on
schools to provide a broad and balanced curriculum experience (see Male and Waters,
2012, Reading 9.1 and Section 2.2 below).
Aims: Irrespective of national requirements (see Chapter 9, Section 1.2), curriculum
planning should be influenced by the overall philosophy and specific aims of a school.
Many schools emphasise personal development and state their aim to ensure that each
child achieves his or her potential and that each becomes a well rounded, successful, caring
and knowledgeable person. For example, many English schools have been influenced by
the agenda of ‘Every Child Matters’ (DfES, 2003). This made the commitment that every
child:
●● is safe, feels safe and knows how to stay safe;
●● is healthy and can look after his or her own health;
●● enjoys their childhood, their learning and achieves well;
●● makes a positive contribution to school life and to the wider community;
●● is prepared well in order that s/he can achieve economic and personal wellbeing.
Policies: School policy statements reflect the overall philosophy and aims of a school but
provide more detailed guidance for practical implementation. They are likely to address
significant aspects of the life of the school (e.g. special educational needs and equal
opportunities) and may also frame the school’s schemes of work for particular areas or
subjects within the curriculum. They must be endorsed by school governors, with dates
set for review.

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270 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Figure 10.1
School philosophy, Aims and values of the curriculum.
policies, schemes Nationally derived, institutionally adopted
of work and and adapted by the school.
teacher planning

Policies: subject, cross-subject and management based.

Providing purposes, rationale and broad guidelines. Regular
review by school staff and governors.

Long term plans.

Broad framework of curricular provision. Coverage of curriculum
subjects, review of ‘blocked’ and ‘continuing’ units of work.

Medium term plans.

Detailing objectives, activities, assessment opportunities and
resource/health and safety considreations for termly/ half-termly
units of work. Inclusion of cross-curricular considerations.

Weekly plans.
Providing an overview of the ‘curriculum
in action’ across curriculum subjects.

Lesson plans.
Providing lesson objectives, procedures,
differentiation strategies and assessment criteria.

Assessment and evaluation, which feeds back into

all levels of planning and informs policy change.

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 Chapter 10 Planning 271

The timetable: The configuration of the timetable is a particularly important planning

decision. Indeed, once constructed, a timetable enables or prohibits aspects of planning.
The first step then, is to define the basic framework. What should be the pattern of the
teaching week? How long is a teaching session? Where do the breaks come? How long
are the breaks? When does school start and finish? Making decisions about start and
finish times may involve considerations of pupils’ travelling time, the operation of school
buses, before and after school activities, etc. Length and positioning of breaks will involve
thinking about providing food, the rhythm of the day, pupil and staff stamina. Other
decisions about school organisation (for instance, in mixed classes, bands, streams or sets)
will also be reflected in the timetable and may also enable or constrain it. These decisions
have very significant consequences for the time which is available for pupil learning.
Time frames for planning: In most schools, curriculum planning is managed in three
time frames:
●● long term (whole Key Stages)
●● medium term (yearly, termly or half-termly) and
●● short term (fortnightly, weekly or for specific lessons or sequences of teaching)
Figure 10.1 provides a model of the links between national and school policies and the
subsequent levels of curriculum planning. We will consider these levels in more detail
through this chapter.
Review: Curriculum planning is not a once-and-for-all affair. The curriculum needs to
reviewed and revised from time to time to make sure it is relevant, up to date and enabling
all children to achieve their potential. Good practice is to tie this review process closely in
with school improvement planning.

2 Long-term planning

2.1 Programmes of study

Long term planning of programmes of study must develop with awareness of national and
organisational requirements.
In primary education, national curricula frameworks may provide guidance on the
specific knowledge, concepts and skills which should be covered in each subject.
Sometimes this is organised by Key Stage, sometimes by year. More detailed require-
ments tend to be produced for core subjects such as English, mathematics and science.
For example, following a curriculum review in England, the primary school curriculum
is tightly prescribed for these core subjects whilst other ‘foundation subjects’ (art and
design, design and technology, geography, history, computing, music, physical education
and foreign languages) focus only on ‘essentials’. This is intended to leave scope for the
development of particular school curricula as locally determined. Programmes of study for
each subject must, however, be organised by academic year and published.

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272 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Secondary teachers at Key Stage 4 and Post-16 have a particularly strong frame for
their work in the shape of the specifications (or syllabi) which are set by the exami-
nation boards. Schools and subject teams select appropriate accredited courses and, once
selected, specifications are provided which teachers use to create specific programmes of
study. Some exam boards offer large quantities of support materials for schools. However,
teachers and departments need to decide how to respond to such provision. Whilst
academies in England are not constrained by the National Curriculum, they must still
respond to national systems for qualifications and accountability so the specifications set
by exam boards remain extremely influential.

2.2 Breadth and balance

As we also saw in Chapter 9, Section 1.2, the requirement that the curriculum in England
and Wales should be broad and balanced is longstanding. It was affirmed in the Education
Act, 2002 and through the curriculum review for England of 2011–13. It is expressed with
reference to ‘spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development’ and preparing
pupils for ‘the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life’. Similar state-
ments apply to Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. Taken seriously, breadth and balance
address holistic questions about educational provision (see TLRP’s first principle, Chapter
4). Thus, whilst the statutory curriculum contributes an important part, it should not be
seen as the whole educational experience. This is the reason why most countries try to
achieve balance in the knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which are expected across
the curriculum as a whole – and argument explicitly made, for example, in the Welsh
Assembly Government’s Skills Framework for 3–19 Year-olds (2008, Reading 10.5).
Inspection reports in all parts of the UK have, for decades, testified that children are
likely to achieve most progress in the core skills or literacy and numeracy if they learn in a
rich, broad and balanced curriculum which provides them with stimulating content to talk,
read and write about and to explore mathematically, scientifically, socially or creatively.
The same point is revealed by international evidence which found that a broad curriculum
was a distinctive feature of high performing jurisdic-
tions (DfE, 2011). Following this through, reference to
Expert questions
provision for ‘spiritual, moral, social and cultural devel-
Breadth: does the curriculum represent
opment’ occurs no less than three times in the criteria of
society’s educational aspirations for its
Ofsted’s 2012 inspection framework.
citizens?
However, it is sometimes necessary to have a concerted
Balance: does the curriculum-as-experienced
focus on certain aspects of the curriculum, particularly if
offer everything which each learner has a
children have for some reason fallen behind. Sustained
right to expect?
efforts to keep cohorts of children together so that they are
These questions contribute to a conceptual
‘ready to progress’ from year to year is again a feature of
framework underpinning professional
high performing counties such as Singapore and Finland
expertise (see Chapter 16).
(DfE, 2011).

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 Chapter 10 Planning 273

2.3 Connection and coherence

Connection. The concept of ‘connection’ draws attention to the extent to which curricular
experiences are meaningful to pupils. The advent of national curricula has arguably
improved provision of entitlements, but this success brings with it a degree of standardi-
sation. For some, the school curriculum simply fails to make connections with other parts
of their lives. The extent of disengagement in schooling is disproportionately concentrated
among children from poorer backgrounds, with lower outcomes at all ages. Parents in
some communities can also lack confidence in approaching those in schools. And yet,
as one of TLRP’s projects emphasised, there are ‘funds of knowledge’ (Moll, 1970) in
all communities and progress may be found if methods of ‘home–school knowledge
exchange’ can be established (Hughes and Pollard, 2000, Research Briefing on p. 107).
Engagement with their communities has been a traditional strength of rural schools and
there are many exemplary cases in urban settings too.
Curriculum innovation is thus an established response by schools to the problem
of disengagement (Rawling, 2006). This has been encouraged by governments across
the UK, within the parameters of their national requirements. For instance, a former
curriculum authority for England, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, promoted
a ‘big picture’ curriculum (QCA, 2007) to encourage flexibility and connectedness
between different forms of knowledge and areas of experience. Schools have tried skills-
led programmes, such as Opening Minds (RSA, 2013).
An explicit attempt to explore the potential for greater connection between schools and
their communities is the Area Based Curriculum which has been promoted by the RSA
(Thomas, 2010, Reading 10.4). This approach encourages teachers to begin with the formal
curriculum through connections to the pupils’ locality and lives outside school, and to
expand their pedagogic repertoire to use resources, people and opportunities from beyond
the classroom. The overall idea is to do everything possible to create authentic learning
experiences which enable pupils to apply more abstact knowledge in ways which are
contextually meaningful to them.
Coherence. This concept refers to the extent to which the various parts of a planned
curriculum relate meaningfully together to reinforce the knowledge, skills, concepts or
content being learned. The opposite would be fragmentation and confusion.
Clearly this is an important issue if we conceive of learning as a process of ‘making
sense’ (Haste, 1987; Watkins, 2003). Indeed, Gestalt
psychologists such as Lewin (1935) established the
significance which developing an overarching frame of Expert question
reference has on learning. People tend to enjoy learning Connection: does the curriculum engage
more when they understand it as a whole. They feel more with the cultural resources and funds-
in control and are more willing to think independently and of-knowledge of families and the
take risks. On the other hand, perceptions of incoherence community?
can lead to feelings of frustration and to strategies such This question contributes to a conceptual
as withdrawal. framework underpinning professional
Coherence is often sought across subjects and this, expertise (see Chapter 16).

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274 Part 3 Teaching for learning

of course, has been a prime goal of integrated curricula

Expert question (Turner-Bisset, 2000, Reading 10.3) and of cross-curricula
Coherence: is there clarity in the purposes, planning of themes and skill development (e.g. Siraj-
content and organisation of the Blatchford and Siraj-Blatchford, 1995). However,
curriculum and does it provide holistic coherence is also necessary, and is not assured, within
learning experiences? single subjects. The ability to convey such understanding
This question contributes to a conceptual is, as we saw in Chapter 9, Section 4, likely to be
framework underpinning professional associated with the extent of subject confidence and
expertise (see Chapter 16). expertise of the teacher.
The quality of the teacher’s content knowledge and
pedagogic content knowledge are thus clearly significant
variables in achieving coherence, but coherence ultimately derives its force from the sense,
or otherwise, which the pupils make of the curriculum which is provided.

3 Medium-term planning

3.1 Schemes of work

Schemes of work provide a practical curriculum plan for each subject or area of learning.
If schools commit to publishing their year-by-year curriculum for parents, schemes of
work are likely to underpin such documentation.
Schemes of work describe how the curriculum may be taught by individual teachers
and thus, in aggregate, represent the work of the staff team as a whole. They are likely to
incorporate, but may also adapt and supplement, the Programmes of Study of the National
Curriculum. Schemes of work may draw on other published resources and are frequently
modified in the light of both experience and curriculum initiatives. A key intention is that
such schemes of work should give a clear view of how progression and depth in learning
is provided in relation to each subject or area of learning. Teachers will also be concerned
to ensure that the curriculum is presented in ways that are relevant to the pupils. We will
return to these themes.
It is recommended that each scheme of work should address four basic issues:
●● What do we teach? To outline knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes to be
developed, links between subjects and cross-curricular elements.
●● How do we teach? To cover how the curriculum and learning processes are to be
organised, units of work, learning activities and processes, forms of grouping to
provide differentiation, resources needed, time allocations and opportunities for
assessment.
●● When do we teach? To address the issues of curriculum continuity and progression
throughout appropriate Key Stages.
●● How do we know that children are learning? To monitor progress and attainment,
and to set future learning targets.

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 Chapter 10 Planning 275

This level of planning is usually undertaken in secondary schools by teachers working in

subject teams and departments, and in primary schools by class teachers, individually or
in year group teams, and with the support subject specialists. It is likely to be updated, as
with all planning, on the basis of teachers’ views on the quality of activities, performance
data, and changes in school or year group organisation.
Schemes of work are thus each teacher’s essential medium-term planning tool, but need
to be developed in the light of the policies and priorities of the school as a whole. Without
such plans we have little basis on which to define the purposes of teaching sessions, or to
assess pupil progress.
There are many ways of setting out a scheme of work, but they tend to begin by
recording the following:
Class/subject details. Brief details are provided of the year group, Key Stage, time period
in which the work will be carried out, and the subject/curriculum areas encompassed in
the plan. Medium-term plans may be shared with colleagues, and such details enable the
context of the document to be understood.
Learning objectives. Objectives express what we intend the pupils to learn in terms of
knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes. More tangibly, ‘learning outcomes’ may also be
used to state what the children will be ‘able to do’ as a result of the teaching and learning
programme. Such statements may be used to formulate sequences or ‘ladders’ of success
criteria on a gradient of complexity or ‘difficulty’. Teachers and children can thus use
these to review their progress and to help in understanding the level of challenge in a task.
A further refinement could be to specify ‘must’, ‘should’ and ‘could’ criteria as a bridge
between curriculum planning and assessment for learning (see Chapter 13).
Activities. This section indicates what the pupils will be doing in order to satisfy the
stated objectives. Only a very brief description of activities is required at this stage of
planning, and this may well be set out in a tabular form with each row being assigned for
a lesson-by-lesson or week-by-week description of topics and activities. Other columns
may record links back to objectives, necessary resources and key assessment points. For
example:

Lesson/ Topic/s Activities Link to Resources Assessment

Week objectives
1
2
3
Etc ...

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276 Part 3 Teaching for learning

This layout provides a holistic overview of the teaching programme and makes it possible ‘at
a glance’ to review whether activities are appropriately varied and therefore likely to maintain
pupil interest. It is also possible to begin to plan where activities will need to be differentiated
for different year groups or for children of different attainment in the same class. With such
planning, resources which need preparation or pre-ordering can be organised.
Reflective activity 10.1 suggests learning more about schemes of work by working with
a colleague.

Reflective activity 10.1

Aim: To consider the quality of activities in schemes of work.
Evidence and reflection: Work with a colleague to compare the activities presented in
a selection of schemes of work, either for your own class or for a specific age range.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the layouts used? Are the anticipated
activities incremental in terms of pupil learning? What is the balance of types of
activity? Are activities likely to enthuse and motivate pupils? Are outcomes clearly
articulated? Is success in key learning points described?
Extension: Which activities would you replace, what with, and why?

When planning schemes of work, a reflective teacher should remember, as we saw in

Chapters 2 and 9, that learning does not necessarily occur in a smooth, upward fashion.
Unpredictable developments of insight and understanding may be experienced, just as
occasional plateaux may occur and be needed. A reflective teacher thus needs to monitor
activities closely to try to ensure the best balance between boredom from too easy tasks,
frustration from tasks that are too hard, comfort from consolidation tasks and excitement
from tasks that are challenging but not too daunting. The scheme of work is an excellent
tool when taking stock of such issues.

3.2 Progression
‘Progression’ is a powerful concept in the analytic toolkit of reflective teachers (Haynes,
2010, Reading 10.6) – however, it is used in several significant ways.
First, in HMI’s conception (1985), progression is linked to providing continuities in
children’s development as learners. They write:

Children’s development is a continuous process and schools have to provide conditions

and experiences which sustain and encourage that process while recognising that it does
not proceed uniformly or at an even pace. If this progression is to be maintained, there is
a need to build systemactically on the children’s existing knowledge, concepts, skills and
attitudes, so as to ensure an orderly advance in their capabilities over a period of time.
Teaching and learning experiences should be ordered so as to facilitate pupils’ progress,
with each successive element making appropriate demands and leading to better
performance.’ (Her Majesty’s Inspectors, 1985, p. 48)

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This understanding of progression recognises variation, diversity and uncertainty in

learning and urges teachers to personalise the curriculum in relation to pupils’ existing
knowledge.
Second, a rather more generic application can be illustrated through by National
Curriculum ‘levels’. Using the case of England prior to 2014, Male and Waters (2012)
provide an example from the geography curriculum in which we can see recognition of
the need to balance subject matter and intellectual challenge to achieve positive learning
outcomes. They write:

If we look at the elements of the national geography currculum that refer to places, we
find:

Level 2 – to describe the places they visit.

Level 3 – to make comparisons and contrasts between one place and another.
Level 4 – to begin to recognise patterns and make generalisations.
Level 5 – to give geographical explanations for those patterns.
Level 6 – to take account of different sources of evidence.
Level 7 – to explain relationships between causes.

These are criteria that apply to any topic within geography. Whether students are
engaged in a fieldwork study of a local village or the analysis of another country,
they could be working at one of the above levels. These are intellectual levels that are
concerned with the ways in which students process the knowledge they are acquiring. In
turn the way they are processing extends and deepens that knowledge. (2012, p. 162)

A third, and rather different, emphasis comes from those who are concerned in the first
place with the integrity of subject knowledge, for they tend to expect more specific
progression in the substantive and logical dimensions of each domain. For example,
Hirsch’s Core Knowledge Curriculum, based on Cutural Literacy: What Every American
Needs to Know (1988) and which had a considerable influence on the latest version
of the curriculum in England, orders information to be learned in great detail but
leaves pedagogic implications for teachers to determine. The English review harvested
national curricula from around the world and built up its programmes of study from a
process of comparison, drafting and consultation about
such knowledge (DfE, 2013). So the outcome offers
progression and very high expectations, but is primarily Expert question
justified in subject terms rather than in terms of the Progression: does the curriculum-as-
learning of that subject knowledge. delivered provide an appropriate
A final use of progression focuses at more detailed sequence and depth of learning
level on the cognitive challenge of each curricular experiences?
element. In Scotland, promotion of the concept of ‘depth’ This question contributes to a conceptual
gives particular prominence to this issue. We will explore framework underpinning professional
it further in Section 4.1 below, when discussing Bloom’s expertise (see Chapter 16).
taxonomy of educational objectives in relation to planning
learning tasks and activities.

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3.3 Relevance
Relevance is of vital importance in the selection of content.
There is little doubt that children and young people learn most effectively when they
understand the purposes and context of the tasks and challenges with which they are faced.
When a pupil complains that an activity is ‘pointless’, is ‘boring’ or that they ‘don’t see
what it’s for’, then the curriculum is failing to satisfy the criterion of relevance.
In such circumstances, motivation may fall and with it may go concentration,
commitment and quality (see Watkins, 2003; Teaching and Learning Review Group, 2006,
Reading 10.7; Pollard and Triggs, 2000). Progress and standards of work are thus likely to
decrease unless the teacher can justify the activity and bolster motivation. Indeed, even
when an activity could have great relevance, this may not have been adequately explained
to or appreciated by learners. One long-running finding
regarding teaching has been that, very often, pupils have
Expert question not known why they are doing an activity – hence the
Relevance: is the curriculum presented need to make learning ‘visible’ (Hattie, 2010, Reading 4.6;
in ways which are meaningful to 2012, Reading 16.5).
learners and so that it can excite their A key consideration here is the value of incorporating
imagination? practical activities and first-hand experience into the
This question contributes to a conceptual teaching programme through the scheme of work. This
framework underpinning professional should be done in ways which are appropriate to the
expertise (see Chapter 16). age of the pupils, but is an essential part of curriculum
provision. If this is ever doubted, try asking your pupils.

Reflective activity 10.2

Aim: To explore the extent to which sharing learning intentions or success criteria
influences feelings of engagement for pupils.
Evidence and reflection: The simple method here is to ask the pupils. Having taught a
lesson, or seen one taught (pupils will often ‘open up’ more to someone who is not
their own teacher), select a small group of children – ask them some or all of the
following:
●● What was the lesson mainly about?
●● What did they think that they were supposed to be learning and what did they
think that they learned?
●● Do they see any connections with other work that they have done in the same
subject?
●● Do they see any connections with work that they have done in other subjects?
●● Did they enjoy the lesson?
●● If the lesson was being taught again to a similar group how could it be improved?
Extension: Review what you have learned about the pupils’ views. Share your findings
with the class teacher if they were not ‘your’ pupils. What are the implications for
the future?

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4 Short-term planning

4.1 Lesson plans

When devising lesson plans, reflective teachers will be aware of relevant programmes
of study and schemes of work. They will also consider the existing understanding and
motivation of their pupils so that specific objectives can be refined and provision can be
differentiated.
Against this background, a particular learning session can be planned effectively.
Of course, such plans provide a teacher with structure and security and it should not be
forgotten that the resulting confidence can be used to be responsive to the children during
the session. Good planning underpins flexibility.
Elements of a lesson plan are likely to include:
a) Context
b) Learning intentions
c) Phases of the lesson
d) Learning tasks
e) Success criteria
f) Resources, ICT and safety
g) Supporting adults.
Figure 10.2 sets this out as a form and each element is discussed below.

Figure 10.2
Elements of a lesson plan The lesson plan Elements of a
a) Context lesson plan

b) Learning intentions

c) Structure of the lesson/s

d) Learning activities and tasks

e) Success criteria

f) Resources, ICT and safety

g) Supporting adults

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a) Context
It is helpful for an initial section to summarise basic organisational information such as:
●● the class and any groups within it;
●● the date and duration of the lesson/s;
●● the subject/s and focus of the session/s.
Second, it is essential to take stock of, and carefully consider, the existing understanding
of the learners. This should be recorded in an appropriate way.
●● What are the present capabilities, knowledge and experience of the pupils?
b) Learning intentions
It sounds obvious, but it is important to be clear what pupils are expected to learn! Within
the broader context of overall schemes of work, objectives for a lesson sequence or single
lesson should be relatively focused. Clear learning intentions enable appropriate practical
decisions to be made, for instance in selecting learning activities and tasks.
It is useful to give some thought to how learning intentions are expressed. One
frequently used formulation adopts the opening phrase: ‘By the end of this lesson pupils
will be able to ...’ which certainly encourages precision. The things pupils ‘will be able
to do’ should be observable so it is useful to select active verbs such as ‘list, describe,
compare, identify, explain, solve, apply, discuss, evaluate, demonstrate the ability to, or
demonstrate an understanding of ...’ Alternatively, objectives can be expressed more devel-
opmentally. Pupils might be expected, for example, to: ‘be aware of, have had practice
in, been introduced to, have considered, developed the ability to, gained increased insight
into, improved performance in, have considered, have an understanding of, begun to
analyse …’. As well as general objectives for the class, we may want or need to define
objectives for particular groups or individuals.
As we saw in Chapter 1, it is good practice on appropriate occasions to consult with
pupils and to share learning intentions (Rudduck and McIntyre, 2007, Reading 1.3), and
also to discuss appropriate criteria to for judging success. Clarke (1998) coined the
acronym ‘WILF’ (what I’m looking for) and has emphasised ‘active learning through
formative assessment’ (2008), whilst Hattie (2009) has assembled international evidence
on the significance of ‘visible’ teaching and learning (see Readings 4.6 and 16.5). Clear
success criteria shared with pupils also help them to
get a good fix on the object of their learning and what
Expert question it will look and feel like when they have accomplished
Congruence: are forms of assessment fit for it. Thus it can empower pupils to monitor, regulate and
purpose in terms of overall educational feedback on their own and each others’ progress. Some
objectives? years earlier, Gage and Berliner (1975) made a similar
This question contributes to a conceptual point by identifying the power of ‘advance organisers’.
framework underpinning professional This simply means offering learners a clear explanation
expertise (see Chapter 16). of what is going to happen, why, and what is expected
of them.

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 Chapter 10 Planning 281

●● Are the key learning objectives clear, and how may they be shared with pupils?
c) Structure of the lesson/s
Thinking through the structure of a lesson or lesson sequence is one of the most important
aspects of planning. Of course it involves thinking about the specific pupils in the class
and the lesson objectives, but also, in particular, it requires the application of pedagogical
content knowledge (see the discussion in Chapter 9, Section 4.3).
However, before becoming too daunted by the detail, it is worth considering the overall
strategy to be adopted. Barnes et al. (1986) identified three approaches to teaching:
‘closed’, ‘framed’ and ‘negotiated’.
Closed: Content controlled by the teacher; pupils accept teachers’ routines; typical
methods – teacher exposition, worksheets, note-giving, copying, individual exercises,
routine practical work; teacher evaluates.

Framed: Content defined by the teacher, criteria for activities and tasks made explicit
for pupils; pupils operate within teacher’s framework, join in teacher’s thinking, make
hypotheses, set up tests; typical methods – teacher exposition with discussion eliciting
pupil ideas; individual or group problem-solving; lists of tasks given, discussion of
outcomes; teacher adjudicates.

Negotiated: Content discussed, joint decisions; pupils

involved in discussion of goals and methods, share
responsibility for frame and criteria; typical methods –
group and class discussion and decision-making, pupils
Expert question
plan and carry out work, make presentations, evaluate Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise
outcomes. sufficiently creative, skilled and wide-
ranging to teach all elements of learning?
Each approach arguably has a place in a teacher’s This question contributes to a conceptual
repertoire and in combination could certainly provide framework underpinning professional
variety. It may be worth considering the use of these expertise (see Chapter 16).
approaches in different parts of a lesson.

Reflective activity 10.3

Aim: To structure teaching and learning in a curriculum area.
Method: For a topic you plan to teach, think about how the knowledge might be
presented and how teaching might be sequenced. Using your pedagogic subject
knowledge and understanding of your pupils, what steps or ‘chunks’ might you
plan for?
Review the appropriate use of closed, framed and negotiated teaching strategies.
Identify possible tasks and activities. Experiment with the scheduling of activities to
arrive at your first draft plan.
Examine the structure you are considering and identify where there will be teacher
input, where pupil activity? What does the balance look like? Where are the
opportunities for interaction?

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Think about the ways in which your selection provides for progression (see Section 3.2
above), differentiation and Personalisation (see Sections 4.2 and 4.3 below).
Think about time. How many sessions will you need? Have you got enough? How
does the programme divide into lessons? Will you need to keep pupils together or is it
possible to plan for fast and slow tracks?
Identify the elements of your proposed curriculum which are likely to be seen as
highlights by the pupils. Do they come at appropriate places?
Are there opportunities for you to take stock with the pupils to share what has been
achieved, what is working well and what barriers they are encountering?
Revise your programme as necessary.
Follow-up: Keep structure under review as you plan. Make it a focus of your evaluation
and adjust your planning accordingly.

d) Learning activities and tasks

A mark of good teaching is the ability to transform what has to be learned into manageable
tasks and activities, which are matched in size, complexity and depth to learners’ existing
capabilities. In this way, pupils are both stimulated and able to cope – and thus they
succeed.
Judgements about progression and depth of cognitive challenge in tasks are particularly
significant. Indeed, such judgements are probably the most important that a teacher makes.
The international research, certainly says this. For example:

Powerful and accomplished teachers are those who focus on students’ cognitive
engagement with the content of what it is that is being taught … (Hattie, 2012, p. 19,
New Zealand, Reading 16.5)

We have come to the conclusion, that the design of instructional and assessment tasks
is the fundamental determinant of the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom.
(Hogan, 2012, p. 103, Singapore, Reading 4.2)

Our key point is that it is the intellectual demands embedded in classroom tasks that
influence the degree of student engagement and learning. (Newmann, Bryk and Nagaok,
2001, p. 31, USA)

Central to the idea of cognitive challenge is the

proposition that there are different forms of thinking.
Expert question
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956)
Progression: does the curriculum-as-
identified six different kinds of thought processes:
delivered provide an appropriate
recall; comprehension; application; analysis; synthesis;
sequence and depth of learning
evaluation.
experiences?
The taxonomy implies a hierarchy. Thus recall and
This question contributes to a conceptual
comprehension are basic forms of knowing. Application
framework underpinning professional
and analysis come when knowledge is put to use.
expertise (see Chapter 16).
Synthesis and evaluation are only possible with deeper

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Figure 10.3
Bloom’s Bloom’s taxonomy
taxonomy
and deeper
learning
Recall Comprehension

Deeper learning
Application Analysis

Synthesis Evaluation

forms of understanding. Much of the work derived from Bloom is concerned with
developing ‘higher-order’ and ‘deeper’ thinking in pupils through activity or teacher
questioning.
Bloom’s classification (or variations on it) have been used to analyse the range and
variety of activities and tasks in both primary and secondary schools. For instance, in a
study conducted in infant schools, researchers distinguished between five types of task
demands:

Incremental: which introduces new ideas, concepts, procedures and skills which are
acquired during a task.

Restructuring: which requires children to invent or discover for themselves, so that

existing skills, knowledge and concepts are advanced.

Enrichment: through which, by using familiar ideas, concepts, procedures, knowledge

and skills on new problems, learning is applied.

Practice: which reinforces ideas, concepts, procedures, knowledge and skills which are
assumed to be already known.

Revision: which reactivates known skills, concepts, knowledge, etc., which may not have
been used for some time. (Bennett et al. 1984)

The study found that 60 per cent of tasks set in Language and Maths were intended as
short-term practice, 25 per cent were `incremental’, 6 per cent were enrichment, 6 per cent
were intended as long-term revision and only 1 per cent were intended as ‘restructuring’.
Practice tasks may be useful in confirming knowledge or skills, but one also has to
consider at what point such tasks might become boring and counter-productive.
A secondary study was undertaken in five comprehensive schools and focused on first
year mixed ability classes (Year 7). As indicated in Figure 10.4, tasks were designated
‘low-level’ or ‘high-level’ for cognitive demand (Kerry 1984).

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Figure 10.4 The cognitive demand of common secondary school tasks

Low-level tasks High-level tasks

Reinforcing or practice of a skill already Imaginative tasks – includes writing poems,
learned stories
Copying from the board Collecting evidence, problem-solving,
Drawing and colouring in deducing, reasoning, such as devising
Reading aloud around the class questions to be answered and finding
answers
Silent reading; listening; watching
Application tasks – using knowledge gained
Memorising – learning dates/vocabulary
in a new situation
Observing results of a demonstrated
Analysis tasks – find out why, differentiate
experiment or replicating a demonstration
facts from hypotheses, find patterns, clarify
Note-taking with information supplied in relationships
textbook, worksheet or by teacher
Synthesis tasks – reorganising ideas in a
Looking up factual information new statement, developing plans to test
ideas, discovering relationships, proposing
changes or improvements
Evaluation tasks appraise, assess, criticise
against justified criteria

Analysis of tasks set suggested that 85 per cent of

tasks were low-level and only 15 per cent high-level.
Expert question Of the low-level tasks, the three most frequent were:
Expectation: does our school support high reinforcing/practising (16 per cent), copying (16 per cent)
staff and student expectations and aspire and drawing and colouring (14 per cent).
for excellence? The findings are strikingly similar to those from the
This question contributes to a conceptual infant school study. The concern raised by both studies is
framework underpinning professional the comparative rarity with which pupils met with stimu-
expertise (see Chapter 16). lating and demanding tasks.
The difficulty here is that there is a tendency for
teachers and pupils to interact together in comfort zones.
Routinised teaching produces drift in pupil learning and, through this mutual accommo-
dation, everyone gets through the day (see Pollard, 1985). But such coping strategies are
exactly the reason why inspectors, government ministers and others persist in challenging
the profession to have ‘high expectations’.
One way of approaching this is to review the stimulus and variety of tasks over time.

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 Chapter 10 Planning 285

Reflective activity 10.4

Aim: To evaluate the stimulus and variety of tasks and activities.
Method: This evaluation could be carried out by an observer, by yourself or by involving
the pupils.
It can be carried out by focusing on a particular pupil for a relevant period, or on an
analysis of whole-class or group provision.
The tasks in which pupils engage should be considered in terms of their motivational
appeal, cognitive challenge and activity (write, read, talk, draw, listen, watch, move,
sing, etc.).
Some questions which might be asked could include:
●● How were the pupils introduced to the activity?
●● Was there a motivational highlight?
●● Was the level of cognitive challenge appropriate?
●● How much writing were pupils required to do?
●● What is the balance between active and passive tasks?
●● What is the balance between collaborative and individual activity?
Follow-up: Consider the findings from this exercise and try to deduce the reasons for
any patterns you identify. How do you evaluate the results? Discuss your thoughts
with others. If you judge it appropriate, what could be done to increase the
stimulus and variety of activities and tasks?

e) Success criteria
Assessment forms a vital element of every stage of planning. Without assessment and
the consequent re-evaluation of planning, effective teaching cannot be developed and
maintained. When preparing a lesson plan, it is good practice to think through and record
appropriate success criteria for the lesson. Objectives are then much more likely to be
borne in mind when explaining tasks, interacting with pupils and in providing feedback.
For example, a lesson objective for a Year 2 class might be:
●● Pupils should be able to understand the operation of subtraction and its related
vocabulary with numbers up to 20.
Success criteria should specify evidence of progress/success with respect to the objective.
Of course, the anticipated outcomes will be influenced by the age of the pupils, by
previous assessments of their capabilities, and by the precise nature of the activity. Thus,
this objective is likely to lead to very different anticipated outcomes in a Year 1, Year 2 or
Year 3 class. For example, anticipated outcomes for the above objective might lead to the
following success criteria in a Year 2 lesson plan:
●● Work demonstrates an understanding that subtracting zero leaves a number
unchanged.
●● In discussion, pupils demonstrate an understanding of the terms ‘take away’ and
‘find the difference between’.

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Such clarity of thinking at the planning stage allows

Expert questions the teacher to share with the pupils not only the broad
Authenticity: do learners recognise routine lesson objectives but also to clarify specific expectations,
processes of assessment and feedback as targets and outcomes. Teacher feedback to pupils can be
being of personal value? much more precise. Furthermore, if pupil involvement in
Feeding back: is there a routine flow of assessing their own work is desirable, and Chapter 13,
constructive, specific, diagnostic feedback Section 2.1 argues strongly that it is, then explicating
from teacher to learners? success criteria is a powerful tool in helping teachers
Development: does formative feedback to develop self-assessment as part of the pupil learning
and support enable learners to achieve process (Clarke, 2001; Muschamp, 1994, Reading 13.4).
personal learning goals?
These questions contribute to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).

f) Resources, ICT and safety

The use of checklists (actual or mental depending on experience) is highly recommended
for making absolutely sure that all the practical necessities for a successful lesson are in
place. This is basic, but essential.
Safety considerations should be considered and there should be no short cuts in
recording the issues anticipated and the provision made. If something does go wrong, such
records assume considerable significance.
If the use of ICT is important for the lesson, a specific part of the lesson plan may be
devoted to it. Clearly it would be impossible to outline how an interactive whiteboard was
to be used in each phase of a lesson, though there may be phases of the lesson where its
use by pupils, or its combined use with other resources for demonstration purposes by the
teacher, merits a reference in the lesson plan
g) Supporting adults
Effective planning is essential to get the benefits from teaching assistants, volunteer
parents or any one of a range of other adults who may be contribute to classroom work.
It is important that the teacher shares the nature of lesson activities with any supporting
adult, and make it clear which pupil or pupils should be the focus of their attention. Above
all however, it is also vital to share the learning intentions for an activity if the supporting
adult is to play a full part in promoting learning (see Chapter 8, Section 4.2 for a fuller
account of the effective use of adult learning support). Some teachers do this verbally, but
many have a record to which supporting adults can refer that defines the lesson learning
intentions, the activity and their role.
The topics above are likely to feature in effective lesson plans, whatever variations
there may be in their presentation. Degrees of detail will vary between the novice and
more experienced teachers, between exploratory and established lessons and in relation to
teacher confidence generally.

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Reflective activity 10.5

Aim: To review existing lesson planning.
Evidence and reflection: For trainee teachers, we suggest that you select one lesson
plan that you were responsible for creating. Review the plan in the light of the
seven topics discussed above. To what extent does your plan reflect these elements
and the issues associated with them? What might be done to improve your specific
plan or the next plan in the teaching sequence? Compare your planning with that
of another trainee or with another teacher in a different teaching team in your
school. What are the similarities and differences? How might your planning be
improved?
Extension: Most teachers will agree that planning becomes more streamlined with
experience. From the perspective of school inspectors, clearly stated objectives, task
differentiation strategies and assessable outcomes are key features that are looked
for in any plan.
Review some lesson plans over at least three curriculum areas. Are these features clear
in your planning?

There are, of course, numerous lesson plans available on the internet and as published
materials. Whilst many materials are of high intrinsic quality, there are a lot of weaker
publications. Any resource should therefore be carefully evaluated before use in school,
with due consideration given to its appropriateness to your school’s aims, your objectives
and methods, and perhaps most importantly to the overall suitability for the specific needs,
motivations and circumstances of your pupils.
We move now to consider two issues which underlie all elements of lesson planning.
These concern differentiation and Personalisation. Put another way, they concern how we
can design lessons which maximise meaningful connections between the knowledge to be
taught and the children and young people who are to learn. Beyond the specific details of
planning, what are the underlying issues?

4.2 Differentiation
The concept of differentiation highlights the cognitive demands which a curriculum or an
activity make of the learner (Haynes, 2012, Reading 10.6). This is of enormous importance,
as David Ausubel asserted:

If I had to reduce the whole of educational psychology to just one principle, I would say
this: ‘The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already
knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly’. (Ausubel, 1968, p. vi, cited in Hattie,
2012, Reading 16.5)

In terms of lesson planning, differentiation relates to the appropriateness, or otherwise, of

particular tasks and activities to the learner’s existing understanding and needs. How well

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‘matched’ are pupil and task? To achieve differentiation,

Expert question teacher expertise is required at four key stages:
Differentiation: are curriculum tasks and ●● e stablishing the intentions of the teacher and the
activities structured appropriately to pupil;
match the intellectual needs of learners?
●● identifying the pupil’s existing knowledge, concepts,
This question contributes to a conceptual
skills and attitudes;
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16). ●● o bserving and interpreting the process by which the
task is tackled;
●● analysing and evaluating the outcomes from the task,

so that appropriate plans can be made for future learning opportunities.

A mismatch could occur at any (or all) of the stages. To take an example at the first stage, a
teacher could set a task for a particular purpose but, if this was not explained appropriately,
then the pupil might misunderstand. Any task might be done ‘wrongly’, or it may be
done ‘blindly’, i.e. without seeing the point of it. There could also be a mismatch at the
second stage. The task may be too hard for a pupil because it requires certain knowledge
or skills which they do not have. A mismatch at the third stage can be illustrated by a task
which may be set with an instruction to use certain apparatus, or to present the outcome
in a certain way. However, the apparatus may not be necessary and may actually confuse
the pupil, or the style of presentation may assume some skill which the pupil has not yet
acquired. Additional problems could also arise from a mismatch at the fourth stage. For
instance, teachers often mark the end product of children’s learning. However, a high
percentage of ‘errors’ cannot necessarily be assumed to relate to ‘bad’ work or ‘poor’
learning. Indeed, errors can provide important clues about where misunderstandings may
have occurred.
Various differentiation strategies can be used in lesson planning – and Kerry and Kerry
(1997) identified no less than 15 different methods. However, the classic distinction is
between differentiation by task and differentiation by outcome.

Differentiation by task requires lesson plans in which, for all or part of the lesson,
particular groups of children will be engaged in different activities. This may be because
the pupils are grouped according to their attainment in a subject, or because it has been
judged appropriate for particular children to focus on different topics. In such cases, the
lesson plan should specify the particular groups, activities and objectives.

Differentiating by outcome calls for lesson plans in which the same basic task can be
tackled in many ways – thus making it possible for students to respond in ways which
are appropriate to their present level of knowledge, skill or understanding. A lesson plan
might specify overall learning objectives but define differentiated outcomes in terms of
what ‘all’, ‘most’ or ‘some’ pupils will be expected to accomplish.

Experience will show of course that the neat distinction between differentiation by task
and outcome is, in reality, often blurred.
It is worth bearing in mind that there are dangers in relying on differentiation by

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 Chapter 10 Planning 289

outcome too much because it can become a euphemism for ‘just seeing how well they do’.
It allows teachers to avoid going through the vital process of envisaging what success will
look like for particular groups of learners within the class.
However it is achieved, the cognitive challenge of tasks in your lessons should be
matched to the cognitive needs of the learners in your class.

4.3 Personalisation
‘Personalisation’ is a relatively new educational concept
which reflects both cumulative international under-
Expert question
standing about learning and contemporary commitment Personalisation: does the curriculum
resonate with the social and cultural
to reducing inequalities in outcomes. Whilst echoing
needs of diverse learners and provide
the cognitive issues associated with differentiation, it
appropriate elements of choice?
extends and broadens these to also embrace the social,
This question contributes to a conceptual
emotional and motivational dimensions of learning (see
framework underpinning professional
the Research briefing on p. 291).
expertise (see Chapter 16).
The idea was cogently expressed by the Chief Inspector
of Schools for England in a report setting out ‘A Vision
for Teaching and Learning in 2020’. She wrote:

Personalising learning means taking a more structured and responsive approach to each
child’s learning, so that all pupils are able to progress, achieve and participate. This will
be evident in high-quality, challenging teaching that engages pupils and helps them to
take ownership of their learning. Better assessment, whether of learning or for learning,
will promote the progress of every child and young person. All children will experience
an engaging curriculum that helps them to develop the knowledge, skills, understanding
and attitudes they need to thrive throughout their lives. (Teaching and Learning Review
Group, 2006, p. 41, Reading 10.7)

2020 Vision drew on a US research review (Bransford et al., 2000, Reading 4.1) to declare
that:

Personalising learning is learner-centred and knowledge-centred ...

Close attention is paid to learners’ knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes.
Learning is connected to what they already know (including from outside the classroom).
Teaching enthuses pupils and engages their interest in learning: it identifies, explores
and corrects misconceptions. Learners are active and curious: they create their own
hypotheses, ask their own questions, coach one another, set goals for themselves,
monitor their progress and experiment with ideas for taking risks, knowing that mistakes
and ‘being stuck’ are part of learning. Work is sufficiently varied and challenging to
maintain their engagement but not so difficult as to discourage them. This engagement
allows learners of all abilities to succeed, and it avoids the disaffection and attention-
seeking that give rise to problems with behaviour.

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... and it is assessment-centred

Assessment is both formative and summative and supports learning: learners monitor
their progress and, with their teachers, identify their next steps. Techniques such as open
questioning, sharing learning objectives and success criteria, and focused marking have a
powerful effect on the extent to which learners are enabled to take an active role in their
learning. Sufficient time is always given for learners’ reflection. Whether individually or
in pairs, they review what they have learnt and how they have learnt it. Their evaluations
contribute to their understanding. They know their levels of achievement and make
progress towards their goals.

On this definition, personalised learning can be seen as a synoptic concept, drawing

together many threads of good practice. However, it does this by particularly emphasising
the engagement of ‘children, young people and their parents as respected users of the
education service, giving them choices about how they access learning, listening to what
they think about the service they receive and even designing those services with them’
(Teaching and Learning Review Group, 2006, p. 39).
The emphasis on engagement and on meeting the needs of individual learners can seem
daunting until one realises that the needs of many children and young people are shared
in common. This is picked up elsewhere in this book, for instance on learning how to
learn (Chapter 2), pupil consultation (Chapters 1 and 6), parental involvement and new
technologies (Chapter 8), and assessment for learning (Chapter 13).
In the context of lesson planning, the concept of personalised learning can be used
to review what has been planned and to pose questions for oneself regarding the likely
efficacy of the provision. In addition to tasks being appropriately differentiated, will
they really engage pupils, connect with their culture and expectations, and support their
learning?
However it is achieved, Personalisation should enable learners to identify with
classroom activities in meaningful ways – a point which may have to be asserted (see the
Research Briefing on p. 291).

5 Evaluating curricular provision

In this section we begin by considering three generic questions which can be used to inter-
rogate our own practice, with a particular focus on the application of subject knowledge
in the curriculum. Addressing them will illuminate some issues on which personal
improvement can be focused.
We then move on to consider ‘lesson study’ – a systematic approach to curricular
improvement in collaboration with other colleagues. The latter is attracting a lot of inter-
national attention as a process to support high-quality teaching, learning and professional
development.
These approaches illustrate, in different ways, TLRP’s principle that ‘pupil learning
depends on teacher learning’ (see Chapter 4, Section 2.9).

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Research
Briefing
Personalising learning

In January 2004, David Miliband, then Schools Minister in England, suggested that personalised learning included: ‘high expectation of
every child, given practical form by high quality teaching based on a sound knowledge and understanding of each child’s needs’ (North
of England Conference Speech). Building on this, the DfES 2020 Vision expansively emphasised children ‘taking ownership’ of their
learning:

Personalising learning means taking a more structured and responsive approach to each child’s learning, so that all pupils are able
to progress, achieve and participate. This will be evident in high quality, challenging teaching that engages pupils and helps them to
take ownership of their learning. All children will experience an engaging curriculum. (2006, p. 41)

However, the English teacher training agency was restrictively focused on performance and national standards:

The term ‘personalised learning’ means maintaining a focus on individual progress, in order to maximise all learners’ capacity to learn,
achieve and participate. This means supporting and challenging each learner to achieve national standards and gain the skills they
need to thrive and succeed. (TDA Standards, 2007)

TLRP analysed the concept of personalised learning as it emerged, and published a Commentary identifying four particular challenges.

Key TLRP questions and findings: Implications:

Conceptualisation: Are the components of personalised leaning A really powerful concept sounds attractive, is intellectually
and the relationships between them empirically supported and coherent and practically robust. The many versions of
sufficient? There is a tension between expansive interpretations ‘personalised learning’ could make implementation difficult, but
and restrictive definitions. Personalisation could be about the also provide considerable scope for professional interpretation.
development of learner identities and dispositions – but it could
also be about more pupil assessment and target setting.

Authenticity: Is this initiative really about learning? Or is it, Personalisation is in some tension with the commitment, in
despite the title, still primarily about teaching and curriculum England, to regular and end of key stage assessment. The
delivery? By drawing attention to the personal, and to learning rhetoric may be perceived as an ideological ‘smoke screen’.
rather than teaching, ‘personalised learning’ enlists a softer Things may be easier in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
vocabulary than that of targets, performance and delivery. But
can a simple reconciliation be achieved? It seems unlikely where
high-stakes assessment remains.

Realism: Are the ambition and rhetoric over-reaching The problem of scaling up is considerable and workforce reform
themselves? The school system has been subject to deep and introduces fresh challenges. Personalisation represents a huge
wide change in recent years. There are questions about the challenge to the teaching profession. Whilst innovative schools
system’s ability to cope with further innovation. Nor is it safe to show the way, can others follow?
assume that practices which prove effective in some places will
succeed in others.

Risks: What are the major difficulties likely to be and how The profession should contribute actively to the definition of
can they be managed? The concept of personalised learning personalised learning. Continued constructive negotiation on
continues to be interpreted in many ways. The response workloads is likely to be necessary. Appropriate support for
of the profession is a major risk factor and concerns about teachers will be needed. Government agencies should work to
workload are important. Personalisation challenges the mutual achieve consistency.
accommodations which often grow up in routine teacher–pupil
classroom practices and calls for high expectations, positive
responses and new forms of learner-aware pedagogy.

Further information:
James, M. and Pollard, A. (2004) Personalised Learning: A TLRP Commentary. Swindon: ESRC. Available at www.tlrp.org/pub (accessed 18 November 2013).
Sebba, J., Brown, N., Steward, S., Galton, M. and James, M. (2007) An Investigation of Personalised Learning Approaches used by Schools. (Research Report RR843).
London: DfES.

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292 Part 3 Teaching for learning

5.1 Key evaluation questions

All plans, at whatever level, should be open to modification and change depending on their
success in aiding the development of learning in the classroom. A reflective teacher clearly
understands the intimate links between the processes of planning, teaching, assessment
and evaluation (see Figure 3.5, Chapter 3).
Three evaluation questions may be posed:
●● Did pupils learn what was expected, and why?
●● How did teacher knowledge support learning?
●● How did classroom activities facilitate learning?
Question 1: Did pupils learn what was expected, and why?
‘Assessment’ and ‘evaluation’ are often confused because they are intricately entwined.
For example, the question, ‘Did pupils learn what was expected?’ focuses on both
the learner and the teaching intentions. In order to answer the question, the reflective
teacher needs assessment information on pupil performance. This information comes
from formative assessment (see Chapter 13). Assessment thus involves collecting evidence
about how pupils related to particular teaching/learning experiences and what (if any)
knowledge, understanding or skills were developed. Evaluation, on the other hand,
considers why the particular teaching and learning experience supported or did not support
intended or unintended learning.
Assessment and evaluation thus go ‘hand in hand’ since it is not possible to consider
the why without the how and the what. Evaluation of why pupil performance took the form
it did is likely to lead to deeper analysis of teacher action – hence our other two questions.
Question 2: How did teacher knowledge support learning?
Evaluation of knowledge for teaching includes consideration of both content knowledge
and pedagogical content knowledge (see Chapter 9, Section 4) and whether these were
sufficient to support learning. The reflective teacher will have given some thought to these
issues when planning. However, it may only be possible to fully answer this evaluation
question after the teaching/learning has taken place. The reflective teacher will consider
how well learning was supported by their knowledge of the subject and how to make this
accessible to learners. Specific questions to ask include:
●● Did I use appropriate and accurate language?
●● Did I need to rely on text books or other sources of content matter?
●● Did pupils give responses to questions or make suggestions about which I was
uncertain?
●● Had I predicted what pupils would find easy or difficult and any misconceptions
they might have?
●● Did my explanations and/or demonstrations aid pupils’ understanding of the
content?

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 Chapter 10 Planning 293

●● Did I use the most appropriate examples and representations?

●● Did I introduce ideas in an order which enabled understanding to be built?
●● Did I make connections between ideas presented in the lesson and with pupils’
learning more generally?
This is not intended to be a definitive list but gives an idea of the sorts of questions
reflective teachers might ask which relate to their own knowledge for teaching.
The precise nature of evaluative questions to ask about their own knowledge for
teaching will vary depending on the subject matter of the teaching/learning experience
being evaluated. For example, in a Religious Education lesson a teacher might ask ‘did the
artefacts I used portray accurate information about the religious rites?’ Of essence here, is
that the reflective teacher considers whether their pedagogical content knowledge facili-
tated learning. That is, did they know enough about not only the subject but also about how
to teach the subject – so that pupils were able to learn?
The purpose of evaluating knowledge for teaching is not to identify limitations in
teacher knowledge. Rather, it is to understand better how to meet the learning needs of
pupils. Having evaluated our use of language, ability to respond to pupils, sequencing of
content, etc., this analysis can be used to inform our own learning and future teaching.
Focusing on the way in which subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content
knowledge supports learning, facilitates the development of knowledge for teaching
(Turner, 2013). In this way future teaching and learning are enhanced.
Question 3: How did classroom activities facilitate learning?
The evaluation of classroom activities thus requires careful analysis of how children
respond to activities, what they learn from them and why that learning takes place.
Certain pupil and/or teacher activities may facilitate learning of some types of subject
content better than others, and understanding this is important if the teacher is to develop
their repertoire of teaching strategies for particular subjects.
It is also necessary to focus on individual pupils. For example, analysis of an activity
might suggest that some children learned from physically manipulating objects while
explaining what they were doing, whilst other children learned from watching and
listening. Yet other children may have failed to learn through listening, but then physically
manipulated the objects and learned for themselves. There
are many possibilities.
Analysis of why activities are successful for different Expert question
types of content and with different pupils may lead to
Reflection: is our classroom practice
more generic pedagogical learning. Like the other two based on incremental, evidence-
key evaluative questions, the answer to this question is informed and collaborative improvement
only useful to the teacher if it leads to developments in strategies?
their planning for teaching and learning. Provided that This question contributes to a conceptual
careful analysis is carried out, it is possible to learn about framework underpinning professional
how to develop planning for teaching and learning both expertise (see Chapter 16).
from activities that worked well and those that did not.

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294 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Reflective activity 10.6

Aim: To evaluate a teaching session with particular reference to the appropriate
application of subject knowledge.
Evidence and reflection:
1 Plan to teach a session involving some new learning. In doing so, consider: what
you want pupils to learn; what knowledge you need in order to support their
learning; and what classroom activities are most appropriate. Having thought about
the possibilities be prepared to respond to pupil input.
2 Obtain some sort of record of what happens. For instance, you could set up a video,
make an audio recording or ask a colleague to observe you. In the case of the latter,
try to get your colleague to make detailed notes on what is said by both you and
the children.
3 Teach the session.
4 Analyse what happened under headings of the three key evaluative questions:
●● Did pupils learn what was expected, and why?
●● How did teacher knowledge support learning?
●● How did pupil and teacher activities facilitate learning?

Extension: Discuss your findings with a colleague and consider the consequences of
what you have learned.

In the discussion of lesson study below, we see that this sort of evaluation activity can be
made more systematic, collaborative and cumulative.

5.2 Evaluation through Lesson Study

Lesson Study blends teacher creativity with scientific rigour to establish systematic
processes for teacher learning about classroom practice. It has a long history in Japan, and
has spread across Asia and into the West. It can be seen as a rigorous form of evaluation,
with direct developmental implications.
The creative element is found in the fact that teachers work together to refine, innovate
or create new teaching approaches or curricular designs. The scientific element is found
in the ways in which these teachers gather from research evidence, information about
teaching approaches that could be effective and then, equally systematically, gather
evidence of their pupils’ learning (from their observations as well as from the perspectives
of the pupils themselves) as they try out, refine, re-try and re-refine their new teaching
approaches. This process of trialling and refining is carried out over a cycle of mini, group
enquiries called ‘research lessons’ (RL). In these research lessons the group will study
how the pupils are learning, in order to tease out ways of teaching the approach they are
trialling that have the biggest effect on pupil learning.
Whatever teachers learn, they then make public. Learning and development does not
remain the property of that classroom or school. Japanese teachers are culturally very

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collaborative and teacher knowledge is viewed with the same importance as medical
knowledge in the West. Japanese teachers read the accounts of other teachers’ lesson studies
with interest as part of the literature they consult before engaging in their own classroom
research. When they have completed a lesson study they will also invite colleagues to
their classrooms for ‘open house’ events where they teach their new approach or an aspect
of their new curriculum in public in front of an invited audience from local schools or
colleges, before discussing it with their guests (and their pupils).
Lesson Study groups work best if they have several perspectives on the lesson and also
include teachers with a range of experiences. A minimum of three is preferable, though
in Japan such groups are often very much larger. Sometimes a Lesson Study group will
include a teacher from outside the school who has particular expertise in the pedagogical
or curriculum area under focus and who can bring this expertise to bear. Alternatively the
group may include a member who has participated in lesson studies that have successfully
developed new approaches in similar aspects of teaching.
There are productive ways in which trainee and newly or recently qualified teachers
can gain most from participation in Lesson Study. These are explored in detail in Dudley
and Gowing (2012).

What do you do in a Lesson Study?

A Lesson Study involves collaboratively planning (in great detail) a lesson, teaching the
lesson with colleagues present, and observing the pupil learning that occurs – and then,
immediately afterwards, analysing the evidence collected by the group members. This
is done over a number of ‘research’ lessons so that there is comparison, refinement and
cumulation in the pedagogy which is adopted.
Lesson study has itself evolved over a long period and a number of deliberate steps
have become established. These are:
1 Members of a lesson study group will draw up or agree to observe a protocol
which ensures that the group come together as equals in learning and enquiry and
that whatever experience individual members bring to the process, it is treated with
respect as an equal contribution to the group’s collective endeavour.
2 The group will agree their focus – which can usefully be expressed as a research
question – although it always takes a similar form ‘How can we teach X more
effectively to Y in order to improve their learning?’ (where X will be an aspect of
curriculum or subject knowledge and Y will be a learner group such as ‘Year 5’ or
‘boys in Year 4 who have fallen behind in narrative writing’).
3 Members will investigate what is ‘out there’ in terms of evidence of successful
approaches developed elsewhere in relation to their focus. They will meet to pool
their research findings. They may also plan their first research lesson. They will
need to agree whose class will be used. They will often identify a small number
of ‘case pupils’ who will be the subject of particular attention in the lesson study.
Case pupils represent or typify learner groups in the class. They may, for example,
represent high, middle and lower attaining pupils.

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296 Part 3 Teaching for learning

4 When planning the research lesson, the lesson study group plans for the whole
class but pays specific attention to the planned learning for the case pupils. The
group predicts and sets out what they hope each case pupil will achieve by the end
of the research lesson (very like success criteria) and they also list what they hope
each of the pupils will be doing at each stage of the lesson.
5 One of the teachers then teaches the research lesson. The others observe the class
taking note of everything that goes on but paying particular attention to the case
pupils and noting what they do. Observation notes are made on copies of the
lesson plan which the teachers use as an observation proforma.
6 After the lesson the teachers interview a sample of pupils in order to ascertain their
perspective on the research lesson – what worked more or less well and how it
could be improved next time.
7 After the lesson and pupil interviews, the teachers discuss what they observed as
soon as they can after the lesson is over – and preferably on the same day. The
discussion should always follow the following structure:
a Sharing what each member observed of the learning of each of the case pupils
compared with the predictions the group had made for the case pupil, and a
discussion about why such differences may have occurred.
b Discussion about the learning of the class as a whole.
c The discussion will then turn to the lesson itself and the teaching – but this
is after much discussion about the learning and is always based on observed
evidence of the learning that took place.
d Discussion about what to do in the next research lesson to address issues from
the one just taught.
8 The group then plans the next research lesson.
9 After a sequence of three or more research lessons, the group has usually had a
chance to reassess some of the pupils whose learning they will now understand
in much greater detail. They will also usually have agreed some changes to the
teaching or to the lesson designs that are to be adopted in the future and shared
with colleagues. And so progress is made.
Figure 10.5 summarises the lesson study cycle diagrammatically.
Participating teachers tend to feel that, because the research lessons are jointly planned
and analysed, they are the property of the group, rather than of the person who happens
to teach the lesson. Therefore, if something goes wrong it is part of the whole group’s
learning and not something for the individual teacher to worry about. Teachers say that as
a result of this they are more prepared to take risks and to tackle aspects of the curriculum
or subjects which they feel least secure with (Dudley, 2011).
Furthermore, in a lesson study teachers are learning from and with each other while
focused on a common endeavour – that of improving the learning of pupils and improving
the quality of their teaching. This helps even experienced teachers to see their classrooms,
their teaching and their pupils’ learning with fresh eyes. They thus become more aware

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 Chapter 10 Planning 297

First Lesson Study Cycle Figure 10.5 The

Joint Teach / Interview Post RL1 lesson study cycle
Initial meeting of
LS group to planning observe students discussion
determine what of first first and initial
it is that you research research plans for
want to improve. lesson lesson RL2

Second Lesson Study Cycle

Post RL2 Interview Teach / Joint
discussion students observe planning
and initial RL2 of second
plans for research
RL3 lesson

Third Lesson Study Cycle

Joint Teach / Interview Post RL3 Write up/present
planning observe students discussion what you have
of 3rd RL3 and agree discovered.
research overall Conduct a public
lesson findings research lesson.

of familiar or habitual practices that are not normally noticed but which, because they are
suddenly more visible, can be changed and improved.
An ongoing lesson study programme of curriculum review and renewal can help a
school to ensure that the structure and content of its curriculum is constantly evaluated
and improved in terms of the learning and teaching that it generates. Furthermore, such
improvements are passed on to other teachers and schools for further critique and adaption,
thus generating a second wave of professional learning. In this way the curriculum is
kept alive and appropriate progression, relevance, differentiation and Personalisation are
renewed.
In Japan, lesson study is also used as a key tool within a much wider-ranging and
longer-term cycle of whole school curriculum review and renewal. Many Japanese
schools are very explicit about the kinds of person they want their education to create as
well as the type of learners they hope their pupils will become. This means their school
aims extend well beyond knowledge, skills and understanding – to the values, attributes,
personal qualities and characteristics of their learners that will help them in adult life and
help society as well. Kuno (2011) demonstrates how collaborative Lesson Study can be
deployed for such whole-school development and for the promotion of breadth, balance,
connection and coherence.

Conclusion
Curriculum planning is a highly skilled activity underpinned by understanding of key
principles (Her Majesty’s Inspectors, 1985, 10.1; Hattie, 2012, Reading 16.5). Whilst it
requires awareness of curriculum requirements at national level and of whole-school

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298 Part 3 Teaching for learning

policies, this must be complemented by understanding of the prior knowledge of pupils,

of subject knowledge and pedagogic knowledge.
As we have seen, these forms of expertise must be combined with sound practical
organisation to deliver an interesting and appropriately challenging set of learning
experiences. In the hands of a skilled and sensitive teacher, structure and purpose will be
tempered by flexibility and intuition, and enriched by imagination and commitment.

Key readings
For the classic statement of a planned whole curriculum framework and introduction
to the conceptual tools of breadth, balance, coherence, progression, relevance and
differentiation, see:
Her Majesty’s Inspectors (1985) The Curriculum from 5 to 16. HMI Series,
Curriculum Matters No 2. London: HMSO. Reading 10.1 (available at
educationengland.org.uk)

Excellent overviews of curriculum planning issues, including the significance of breadth

and balance, are provided in:
Male, B. and Waters, M. (2012) The Primary Curriculum Design Handbook. London:
Continuum.
Male, B. and Waters, M. (2012) The Secondary Curriculum Design Handbook.
London: Continuum. (Reading 9.1)

The importance of subject domains is addressed in Chapter 9, Section 4, and in Young

(2008, Reading 9.2) and Wilson (2000, Reading 9.3). This is complemented by the case for
study of topics across subjects and for cross-curricula planning. A committed argument is
made by Turner-Bissett and by Hunter and Scheirer, whilst the Siraj-Blatchfords explore
specific strategies for cross-curricula provision.
Turner-Bissett, R. (2000) ‘Reconstructing the primary curriculum’, Education 3–13:
International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 28 (1),
3–8. (Reading 10.3)
Hunter, R. and Scheirer, E. A. (1988) The Organic Classroom: Organizing for
Learning 7 to 12. London: Falmer.
Siraj Blatchford, J. and Siraj Blatchford, I. (1995) Educating the Whole Child: Cross-
curricular Skills, Themes and Dimensions. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Establishing curricular connections and relevance for the lives of pupils is a constant
challenge for teachers. To help in meeting this need there have been calls for more use of
local resources within the curriculum and attempts to personalise provision in a range of
ways.
Thomas, L. (2010) The RSA Area Based Curriculum: Engaging the Local. London:
RSA. (Reading 10.4)

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 Chapter 10 Planning 299

Teaching and Learning in 2000 Review Group. (2006) 2020 Vision: Report of the
Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Group. London: DfES. (Reading 10.7)

On lesson planning, Haynes provides accessible and practical guidance. Hattie draws
implications from his exceptional synthesis of international evidence on effective lesson
design and teaching practices.
Hattie, J. (2012) Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximising Impact on Learning.
London: Routledge. (Reading 16.5)
Haynes, A. (2010) The Complete Guide to Lesson Planning and Preparation.
London: Continuum. (Reading 10.6)

The link between curriculum planning and assessment is further elaborated in Chapter 13.

Systematic and open evaluation of lessons is key to improvement, as Hattie’s work

has shown, and the Lesson Study approach suggests practical ways of framing this in
collaboration with colleagues. On this, see:
Dudley, P. (2011) Lesson Study: a Handbook. Cambridge: Dudley. (Available at
lessonstudy.co.uk)

For stimulating views on the principles that underpin curriculum planning and design,
and stressing learner engagement, see:
Egan, K. (1988) An Alternative Approach to Teaching and the Curriculum. London:
Routledge.
Eisner, E. (1996) Cognition and Curriculum Reconsidered. London: Paul Chapman.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists and activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Pedagogy
How can we develop
effective strategies?

11
Introduction (p. 302) 4 Pedagogic repertoire (p. 313)

4.1 Using talk for whole-class, small group

1 Enacting the art, craft and and individual teaching (p. 314)
science of pedagogy (p. 303) 4.2 Scaffolding whole-class, small group
and individual learning (p. 317)
1.1 Art, craft and science in action (p. 303)
1.2 Analysing pedagogy (p. 305)
5 Enacting a series of lessons
(p. 318)
2 Pedagogy, knowledge and
learning (p. 307) 5.1 The art, craft and science of pedagogy
over time (p. 318)
2.1 The development of pedagogic 5.2 Analysing pedagogy (p. 320)
principles (p. 307)
2.2 Perspectives (p. 308)
Conclusion (p. 321)

3 Enacting learner development

(p. 311)

3.1 Building from prior learning (p. 311)

3.2 Analysing pedagogy (p. 312)
302 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Introduction
Pedagogy can be seen as the skilful interplay of teachers’ craft knowledge and their creative
responsiveness to specific classroom situations, as informed by theory and research.
Teachers move between these different sources of experience, strategic judgement and
understanding, as they take decisions ‘in action’. In this chapter, we use case study
vignettes to represent decision-making in action.

Figure 11.1 The

science, craft and
art of pedagogic Pedagogy as the
expertise SCIENCE
of teaching –
research-informed
decision-making

Pedagogy as the Pedagogy as the

CRAFT ART
of teaching – of teaching –
mastery of a full responsive, creative
repertoire of skills and intuitive
and practices capacities

As Figure 11.1 shows, the art, craft and science of teaching each contribute to the
overall concept of pedagogy (GTC E, 2010, Reading 11.2). Craft is seen as the repertoire
of teachers’ accumulated skills, strategies, methods, approaches and practices from which
they select and to which they continue to add through experience. Art is seen as teachers’
moment-by-moment responses to what is happening in the classroom in ways that are
secure, grounded, creative or innovative, as the occasion demands. Science is seen as
teachers’ knowledge, understanding of and engagement in evaluation, reflection and
research, in search of evidence to inform the professional choices and decisions they make.
This approach to pedagogy can be contrasted with understandings of ‘folk pedagogy’
which unfortunately still exist in contemporary cultures (Bruner, 1996, Reading 11.1).
Indeed, to establish the profession of teaching, it is vital to move beyond folk pedagogy to
establish the nature of teachers’ expertise.
Pedagogic judgement enables teachers to reach between subject knowledge of the
curriculum and their understanding of the needs of learners. In particular, teachers develop
a repertoire of skills to ‘scaffold’ and extend learners’ understanding and to support
engagement in learning.

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 Chapter 11 Pedagogy 303

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on teacher strategies and peda-
gogic repertoire:

Effective teaching and learning requires teachers to scaffold learning. Teachers

should provide activities which support learners as they move forward, not just
intellectually, but also socially and emotionally, so that once these supports are
removed, the learning is secure. (Principle 4)
Effective teaching and learning promotes the active engagement of the
learner. A chief goal of teaching and learning should be the promotion of learners’
independence and autonomy. This involves acquiring a repertoire of learning
strategies and practices, developing positive attitudes towards learning, and
confidence in oneself as a good learner. (Principle 6) See Chapter 4

In discussing pedagogy, we also acknowledge the crucial importance to pedagogy of

subject knowledge, which we take to mean the concepts, knowledge and understanding,
within and between domains of learning, on which teachers’ subject-specific planning
and teaching draws. For detailed discussion of subject knowledge, see Chapter 9, Section
4. Of course, this is complemented by the need for understanding about learning.
Whatever aspirations or expectations may exist, it is essential to take account of the
existing knowledge, experience and understanding of children and young people. For
more detailed discussion of learning, see Chapter 2. Pedagogic expertise, as you can see,
draws on a wide range of understanding and capabilities – which is what makes it so
interesting.
In this chapter, we begin with a case study vignette enabling us to see the ‘pedagogy
in action’ of a successful student teacher. A short discussion of how thinking about
pedagogy has developed is then provided, for its significance to the profession has not
been fully established in the UK until recently. Section 3 is focused on pedagogic judge-
ments to support learner development, and we then return to the issue of pedagogic
repertoire. This is illustrated through a discussion of the use of talk to ‘scaffold’ student
understanding through whole-class, small group and individual teaching. Finally, we look
at the way in which pedagogy develops over time, as can be seen even through a short
series of lessons.

1 Enacting the art, craft and science of pedagogy

1.1 Art, craft and science in action

We offer a vignette as a starting point for thinking about how pedagogy, as defined in the
previous section, might be enacted in the classroom.

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304 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Case study 11.1 Studying teenage magazines

Fiona, an English trainee teacher, is working with a diverse Year 7 class. They have been
exploring broadsheet and tabloid newspaper design and language and are now moving
on to focus on magazines. They have all brought in a magazine of their choice which
they have already thought about for homework. The students arrive in dribs and drabs
at the start of the lesson. Fiona welcomes them individually and encourages them to
settle quickly, using a variety of strategies such as her warm tone of voice and reminders
of customary routines to achieve quiet. A partially completed spider diagram on teenage
magazines is projected onto the whiteboard and students are rapidly engaged in trying
to add to it. One boy wonders aloud: ‘What do girls read?’ When the students become
over-excited and start to interrupt one another, Fiona re-gains the whole class’s attention
by a range of means, in particular through: showing that she is listening to people’s
suggestions with genuine interest; asking students to extend their contributions;
insisting students attend to one another’s points of view; and collating suggestions
clearly on the board for them to respond to. Furthermore, Fiona helps students develop
their ideas by contextualising them in terms of marketing and publishing. Another slide
on the board reveals that the terms unique selling point (USP) and target audience are
important ideas for this lesson. Fiona then projects images of the front covers of two
popular magazines on the board: one on football apparently targeting boys, and one
about pop music apparently geared towards girls. Immediately, the students demon-
strate some of their differing values as they comment on aspects of the covers such
as the selection of celebrities featured and their forthright attitudes about them, and
the free gifts being offered as marketing ploys. Fiona skilfully weaves in this unsolicited
information to expand students’ learning about USPs and target audiences, moving
on to even more detailed analysis and using specialist terms from the discourse of
magazine publishing such as ‘persuasive’ and ‘promotion’, words which some students
then appropriate themselves. The discussion turns to the magazines each individual has
brought in, including how much they cost and how they are displayed in newsagents
and supermarkets to catch the attention of their target audiences. At this point, the
students are learning about different magazines than the ones they read themselves
(and the boy who wondered what girls read is getting some answers). Fiona, too, is
learning things about her class such as their reading preferences, their interests, their
spending power. She now asks them to apply what they have been learning about
USPs and target audiences. The task is to imagine they have been asked by a publishing
executive board to market one of the company’s teenage magazines. They can either
create a new one or use the one they have brought with them. One student has brought
along a weekly supplement produced by one of the main broadsheet newspapers. Fiona
holds it up for the class to see whilst the student reports on how and why she would
persuade teenagers to read it. From her report, and from some probing questions by
Fiona, it is clear that although the supplement is intended for adult readers of the broad-
sheet, it is also of some interest to younger readers than its target audience. During the
student’s contribution, Fiona realises that one of the boys has given in to the temptation
of reading what he has brought in himself – a copy of a Simpsons’ magazine – rather
than listening to what is being said. Without interrupting the student who is speaking,
Fiona quietly walks over to his desk, picks up the Simpsons magazine and returns to

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the front of the class. Having responded to the first student’s ideas, she engages the
boy whose magazine it is by making a virtue of the fact she now has two magazines in
her hand. Fiona invites the watching class good-humouredly to compare and contrast
the two very different magazines in terms of target audiences and USPs, not in order
to say whether one is better than the other, but to reflect on how differently they are
being marketed. A misdemeanour is transformed by Fiona into a positive and purposeful
teaching point. Everyone benefits.

1.2 Analysing pedagogy

It is interesting to look at this vignette of Fiona’s lesson in the light of the introductory
definition above in order to analyse how it exemplifies her pedagogy. Her craft is apparent
everywhere: the interactions with students she uses to settle them and engage their
attention; preparation of pre-written material on attractive and legible slides projected on
the whiteboard; deftness in collating ideas in writing on another board, as they emerge
from discussion; choice of language and use of features such as warmth, interest and
firmness to simultaneously steer, control and encourage students’ work. However, the
structure and intent of the lesson do not occur by chance. Both are informed by science,
by theories of planning, teaching and learning which Fiona has encountered in her prior
experience as a learning support assistant and her teacher training. The way she relates to
individual students and orchestrates whole-class discussion draws on theories of dialogic
teaching and learning, for example the power of what Alexander calls ‘reciprocal’ and
‘cumulative’ teaching (2008a, p. 113) which incorporates the ideas students contribute
that are new to her but have the potential to extend everyone’s learning about magazines.
Although it is predominantly a whole-class lesson with some opportunities for pair and
individual work, there is a clear sense that Fiona sees herself as the teacher who has
specific knowledge and understanding which she wants students to be learning. Her plan
for the lesson is differentiated accordingly. She acknowledges that not all students’ under-
standing is at the same stage and that she will be working in the relevant Vygotskyan zone
of proximal development with different students (see Chapter 2).
The way Fiona handles her realisation that a boy is not attending to the class
discussion but reading his Simpsons’ magazine nicely exemplifies the art of her
pedagogy. Although she appears to act intuitively, her quick-thinking enables her to
seize the opportunity to transform a confiscated magazine into material for learning.
She also understands the way in which a firm but encouraging tone of voice can engage
students such as these, communicating that she enjoys discovering their views about the
topic. Furthermore, she assumes an understanding that they, in return, are interested in
her ideas. The students do, indeed, react in a lively way to her responses: dismissive
of the celebrities who appear on the magazine covers she has chosen. They learn that
she is genuinely surprised and can see how her new knowledge goes on to shape the
rest of the lesson. Fiona’s and the students’ attitudes towards the magazines and their
marketing are not, therefore, neutral. Instead, the unit of work is deeply connected

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with societal attitudes and values, including monetary values, and there is considerable
potential for students to be dismissive of one another’s selections. However, a spirit of
genuine enquiry permeates the lesson: even though the stated objectives and outcomes
are framed in terms of what students will know, understand and do, the enacted lesson
takes on several features of an exploration.
In terms of her subject knowledge, Fiona has studied English at Advanced Level, has
a good English literature degree and is training as an English teacher. During her teacher
education course, she has learnt about studying a wide range of texts from literary, linguistic
and media perspectives, including mail order catalogues, newspapers, magazines, websites
and TV programmes. She has good conceptual knowledge and understanding of this area
of English studies, a range of well-honed analytical skills and a confident meta-language
to steer her through the unit of work. She is well positioned to review the English depart-
ment’s existing work on magazines and select from it as she deems appropriate. She is
also able to draw on her own personal history of reading magazines herself, past and
present. With her fellow student teachers, she has had the chance to explore some of the
magazines young people like her Year 7 class read, though not the idiosyncratic variety
of this particular class. What we see, however, is Fiona’s substantive content knowledge
(see Chapter 9, Section 4) being transformed for teaching this particular class, not merely
transmitted to them raw, and her pedagogical content knowledge giving shape to the lesson
overall.
Although the above vignette and analysis focus only on a tiny part of Fiona’s pedagogy,
they are designed to show that pedagogy is multifaceted and constantly shifting, hence the
need for all teachers not only to try and identify what constitutes their pedagogy but also
to keep it under constant review. Whilst this example illustrates pedagogy in action within
a single lesson, later in the chapter we will look at the pedagogy of a teacher focusing on
the learning of an individual child and, finally, on pedagogy within a sequence of lessons.

Reflective activity 11.1

Aim: To identify aspects of the craft, art and science of pedagogy in our teaching.
Evidence and reflection: Think back to a lesson you have taught very recently. On a
blank piece of paper, make a rough sketch of the diagram in Figure 11.1 above. In
each circle, note down anything from the lesson you can identify as aspects of the
craft, art and science of your pedagogy. What is the balance between the different
aspects? At what stage of the lesson were different aspects prevalent? How might
you account for any difference in emphasis?
Extension: Add to your sketch instances where you feel your subject knowledge related
to these aspects of your pedagogy.

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2 Pedagogy, knowledge and learning

2.1 The development of pedagogic principles

How is pedagogy represented in a selection of the literature? In the introduction to the
TLRP commentary, Professionalism and pedagogy: A contemporary opportunity, we are
reminded that ‘the relative lack of reference to pedagogy in educational discussion within
the UK, compared with practice in many other successful countries, has been the focus of
academic debate for the best part of thirty years’ (GTC E, 2010, p. 4, Reading 11.2). The
origin of concern about this lack is traced to Brian Simon’s thought-provoking chapter
written in the 1980s entitled ‘Why no pedagogy in England?’ (Simon, 1981) (Reading 11.3).
In this text, Simon defines the term pedagogy as the ‘science of teaching’ (Ibid., p. 124),
arguing that although the concept of pedagogy has long been revered in many European
countries, in England it has been shunned. The chief reason is:

the practice and approach of our most prestigious educational institutions (historically
speaking), the ancient universities and leading public schools. Until recently, and even
perhaps today, these have been dominant, both socially and in terms of the formation
of the climate of opinion. It is symptomatic that the public schools, in general, have
until recently contemptuously rejected the idea that a professional training is in any way
relevant to the job of a public schoolmaster. (Ibid., p. 125)

The view that education of teachers was only needed for those teaching in the elementary
schools, meant that education ‘as a subject of enquiry and study, still less a “science”, has
had little prestige in this country’ (Ibid., p. 128). Teachers in the public schools thus only
needed a good knowledge of their subject rather than professional training. However, the
challenges for teachers working in the elementary schools did eventually force school
boards to take a more systematic approach and a science of teaching emerged which could
be incorporated into teacher education. Hence, there began to be some recognition of the
importance of pedagogy. Simon’s challenging question has been revisited on numerous
occasions from different perspectives, not least because the concept of pedagogy has
continued to carry uncertain weight and meaning. It remains the case that teachers working
outside the maintained sector are not required to have qualified teacher status, although
many, of course, do.
However, whilst Simon argued that the development of teaching was dominated by a
concern with the individual differences between learners and groups of learners, and how
to respond to them, he also offered an interesting, but contrasting, viewpoint:

To develop effective pedagogy means starting from the opposite standpoint, from what
children have in common as members of the human species; to establish the general
principles of teaching and, in the light of these, to determine what modifications of
practice are necessary to meet specific individual needs. (Ibid., p. 141)

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It was on the basis of Simon’s appeal, to the establishment of ‘general principles of

teaching’ that TLRP began its work on the principles which underpin effective teaching
and learning (see Chapter 4).
Despite numerous government interventions in education in England during the two
decades following Simon’s seminal essay, Alexander was able to write an article over
20 years afterwards entitled ‘Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance
in primary education’ (2004). Although teachers were, by then, required to pay more
attention to pedagogy, Alexander argued that the concept was very narrowly conceived,
unlike the continental view of pedagogy which:
especially in northern, central and eastern Europe, brings together within the one
concept the act of teaching and the body of knowledge, argument and evidence in which
it is embedded and by which particular classroom practices are justified. (Alexander,
2004, p. 10)

From a wide-ranging comparative study, Alexander

Expert questions argues that pedagogy involves teachers engaging with
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise the complexity of domains which include what is to be
sufficiently creative, skilled and wide- taught, to whom and how, along with attention to the
ranging to teach all elements of learning? effect of policy and institutional contexts within which
Warrant: are our teaching strategies teaching takes place and the culture and values of all
evidence-informed, convincing and those involved, whether schools, teachers or students,
justifiable to stakeholders? acknowledging this complex dynamic of pedagogy is
These questions contribute to a conceptual what marks ‘the transition from teaching to education’
framework underpinning professional (Alexander, 2008a, p. 49, Reading 12.3). Indeed, more
expertise (see Chapter 16). recently, this view has led Alexander to describe pedagogy
as ‘the heart of the enterprise [which] gives life to
educational aims and values, lifts the curriculum from the
printed page, mediates learning and knowing, engages, inspires and empowers learners –
or, sadly, may fail to do so’ (Alexander, 2010, p. 307).
The concept of pedagogy has thus, over the years, become transformed from Simon’s
notion of a science of teaching to a much more holistic idea, one which requires teachers
to reflect on whether and how their pedagogy develops from established principles. We
now review some of these developments.

2.2 Perspectives
Critical pedagogy: In some parts of the world educators have used the concept of
pedagogy to challenge the status quo. One of the most well-known of those educators is
the Brazilian, Paulo Freire, whose central argument in Pedagogy of the Oppressed (2000)
is that pedagogy is the means by which the most oppressed people can be taught to reflect
critically on their oppression and actively participate in liberation from it. Freire’s notion
of pedagogy is of teaching through which the oppressed learner becomes literate and gains
the power of self-direction, rather than merely adopting the forms of education offered

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by the oppressor or, indeed, being filled up like an empty vessel. Instead, he views the
literacy process as a dynamic one in which ‘reading the world always precedes reading the
word, and reading the word implies continually reading the world’ (Freire, 2000, p. 37).
Education of this kind means making connections between language and life so that each
illuminates the other. Freire’s pedagogy, often referred to as critical pedagogy to indicate
the expectation that some form of action will arise out of the stance being adopted, stems
from very particular attitudes and values but resonates with educators in many different
parts of the world. In writings about his work it is possible to identify aspects of craft,
science and art that he believes teachers command, integrally related to their subject
knowledge.
Theories of mind: Meanwhile, other prominent educators, for example Jerome
Bruner in the United States, have viewed pedagogy from the perspective of educational
psychology with different consequences again. Bruner, strongly influenced by the work of
Vygotsky, is interested in how theories of the human mind affect teachers’ practice. As we
saw above, in his analsyis of ‘folk pedagogy’ (1996, Reading 11.1), he demonstrates that
the way teachers perceive learners’ minds affects how they teach, a powerful argument
for a science of teaching which would enable us to understand the workings of the mind
as clearly as possible. Drawing connections between ‘models of mind and models of
pedagogy’ (1996, p. 53), he demonstrates how a theory of mind which holds that learners
acquire knowledge through imitation will lead to a very different pedagogy than a theory
of mind which privileges learning through inter-subjective exchange. Bruner is not
arguing for one model over and above another; rather, he suggests that what is needed is
the forging of different perspectives on learning into ‘some congruent unity, recognised
as parts of a common continent’ (1996, p. 65). Echoes of Dweck and Sfard are clear (see
Chapter 2).
Pedagogical discourse: Deborah Britzman, an American critical ethnographer with
a keen interest in teacher education, likewise argues the need for teachers to learn how
theoretical perspectives inform their pedagogy. In Practice Makes Practice: A Critical
Study of Learning to Teach (2003), she explores how it is not just important to identify
and reflect critically on theoretical perspectives but also on different discourses which can
crucially affect the way in which teachers, teaching and pedagogy are construed:

every curriculum, as a form of discourse, intones particular orientations, values, and

interests, and constructs visions of authority, power, and knowledge. The selected
knowledge of any curriculum represents not only things to know, but a view of
knowledge that implicitly defines the knower’s capacities as it legitimates the persons
who deem that knowledge important. This capacity to privilege particular accounts over
others is based upon relations of power. (Britzman, 2003, p. 39)

Teachers therefore need to remain keenly aware of the way different discourses shape their
thinking and that of their students. Discourses which characterise learners as ‘Level 4s’ or
‘C/D borderlines’ need to be defamiliarised and challenged, as they are by the UK team
who conducted the ‘learning without limits’ research (Hart et al., 2004, see Reading 1.4).
The researchers and the teachers with whom they worked set out to explore what changed
when students’ potential achievements were viewed as ‘limitless’, modifying their

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perspective to ‘formulate the teaching task not primarily in terms of opposition to

something negative, but as one of commitment to something positive: transforming the
capacity to learn’ (2004, p. 262).
Pedagogical thoughtfulness: One of the four aspects of pedagogy being discussed in
this chapter is the art of pedagogy. Defined in TLRP terms as the teacher’s ‘responsive,
creative and intuitive capacities’ (Pollard, 2010, p. 5), it is not surprising to find it
sometimes characterised as something a teacher either has or does not have, rather than as
an aspect of pedagogy which teachers can be taught. However, the art of being attentive
and responsive is certainly a quality that can be developed. A key exponent of such
capacities is Max van Manen, a Canadian who has written extensively about what he calls
pedagogical ‘thoughtfulness’ (van Manen, 1991, Reading 11.5). Considering parents and
teachers simultaneously, he draws comparisons between how they relate to young people.
His aim is to emphasise that their roles are equally important, but different. A particularly
interesting angle from which he explores the concept of pedagogy is from the student’s
viewpoint (van Manen, 1999). In an early work, The Tact of Teaching: The Meaning of
Pedagogical Thoughtfulness (1991), he urges the need for teachers to attend closely to
individual children, exercising pedagogical ‘tact’ in how they engage with the young
people they teach by which he means the constantly shifting everyday classroom dynamics
through which learning happens and the ‘thoughtfulness’ with which they reflect on their
practice (van Manen, 1991). (For further examples, see Chapter 2.) Explicitly seeking out
and researching students’ perspectives on pedagogy is rare, but van Manen’s selection of
student descriptions of their own classroom experiences in a later work serves as a vital
reminder that pedagogy is not the province of the teacher alone; students – their values,
attitudes, responses, prior knowledge – are a key aspect of pedagogy, too.
Learning and experience: As van Manen’s ideas remind us, pedagogy is inextricably
linked with learning. Pedagogy is concerned – but not solely concerned – with the subject
matter or topic being learned; it is also concerned with children and young people’s learning
much more broadly. John Dewey, the great American philosopher of education working in
the early years of the twentieth century, is highly critical of any form of instruction which
merely instils facts in learners’ minds but does not encourage genuine thinking. In his key
work, Democracy and Education (1916), he makes this point forcefully:

There can be no doubt that a peculiar artificiality attaches to much of what is learned in
schools. It can hardly be said that many students consciously think of the subject matter
as unreal; but it assuredly does not possess for them the kind of reality which the subject
matter of their vital experiences possesses. They learn not to expect that sort of reality of
it; they become habituated to treating it as having reality for the purposes of recitations,
lessons and examinations. That it should remain inert for the experiences of daily life is
more or less a matter of course. The bad effects are two-fold. Ordinary experience does
not receive the enrichment which it should; it is not fertilised by school learning. And
the attitudes which spring from getting used to and accepting half-understood and
ill-digested material weaken vigour and efficiency of thought. (Dewey, 1916, p. 155)

Early years and primary teachers are particularly well-placed to understand children’s
learning holistically. They spend much of their time each day with the same group of

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children and are often therefore aware of the interconnections children may make between
ordinary experience and school learning. However, the case study enactments of this
chapter also demonstrate how secondary teachers can likewise increase effectiveness by
drawing on students’ learning beyond the classroom and the school.

3 Enacting learner development

3.1 Building from prior learning

The extent to which ordinary experience may be enriched or ‘fertilised’ (to use Dewey’s
metaphor from the previous section) by school learning is explored in the vignette which
follows. It exemplifies TLRP Principle 3 which links teaching to prior experience and
learning and ‘includes building on prior learning but also taking account of the personal
and cultural experiences of different groups of learners’ (James and Pollard, 2006, p. 8).
In it, we see an early years trainee teacher, Siobhan, carrying out focused observations and
analysis of an individual child, Alfie, and how both of these form part of her pedagogic
practice.

Case study 11.2 Studying a child’s reading development

Siobhan, an early years trainee teacher, conducts a study into 6-year-old Alfie’s reading
development over the course of a six-week school placement. At the start of the
placement she collects evidence of the child’s current attitudes to, and attainment in,
reading from:
1 classroom observations of the child reading in a variety of situations;
2 reading to and with the chosen child;
3 a reading interview;
4 a running record;
5 observations and assessments of phonics lessons and guided reading lessons.
During the placement she continues to gather observational and assessment evidence
from phonics and reading lessons and repeats the initial activities towards the end.
From her initial observations of the child reading in a variety of situations, Siobhan
notes that Alfie frequently chooses to read during ‘independent’ time in the classroom,
selecting a range of texts from Beano comics to factual books about dinosaurs and
poetry books about monsters. He often engages other children in what he is doing,
attempting to tell them what the book is about and asking them to read with him. He
reads aloud to his peers in an excited and animated fashion, making sound effects and
loud exclamations. It is evident that he has read many of the texts in the book corner.
Siobhan elects to conduct a running record on a book about monsters and this he reads
with confidence and fluency. Whether reading books with his peers, or on a one-to-one
basis with an adult, Alfie enjoys the opportunity to share his enthusiasm and to discuss

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texts. In contrast, during phonics and guided reading sessions Alfie appears distracted
and not engaged in the content of the sessions or the books, only becoming so when
phonics sessions contain images of monsters or when the content of the book in guided
reading sessions captivates him. When asked about books he doesn’t like reading, he
states, ‘the ones at guided reading are so boring’. His parents have contacted the school
to say that the books that are being sent home are not engaging him and he has
committed them to memory.
The reading interview elicits further information about Alfie’s attitudes to reading.
He confidently asserts, ‘I like reading a lot’ but with the caveat ‘not when we have to
read on the carpet and my legs get itchy and I can’t see the pictures. I like seeing the
pictures’. At home he reads with his older brother, and his dad sometimes. He makes
frequent reference to his older brother and how he reads his ‘chapter books’, especially
his monster books and also his Beano comics.

3.2 Analysing pedagogy

Siobhan’s study enables her to make reflective observations about Alfie’s learning and
demonstrates how focused observations and analysis of an individual child are central to
pedagogy (see Chapter 2 for further examples). Siobhan comments on the holistic nature
of young children’s learning and development and reveals how a teacher’s pedagogy is
underpinned by knowledge of the individual learner, both in school and beyond, and their
responses to a wide variety of classroom interactions. Alfie’s keen interest in reading is not
evident from his responses in guided reading and phonics sessions but is apparent through
the observations Siobhan makes of him reading independently and with his peers and
also from the comments he makes during the one-to-one
reading interview. He benefits greatly from having adults
Expert questions and peers share his enthusiasm and read with him individ-
Reflection: is our classroom practice based ually and the impact on his self-esteem and his attitude
on incremental, evidence-informed and to reading in contrast with his behaviours during more
collaborative improvement strategies? structured reading sessions is notable. Alfie’s comments
Empowerment: is our pedagogic repertoire about his discomfort on the carpet and frustration about
successful in enhancing wellbeing, not being able to ‘see the pictures’ indicate the pedagogic
learning disposition, capabilities and value of listening to young children’s individual voices
agency? and taking account of their physical and emotional needs.
These questions contribute to a conceptual Finally, we see through the notable influence of Alfie’s
framework underpinning professional older brother on his reading, the crucial impact of home
expertise (see Chapter 16). literacy experiences on school learning and the potential
this has to fertilise learning and teaching.

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Reflective activity 11.2

Aim: To reflect from a learner’s perspective on aspects of pedagogy.
Evidence and reflection: Reflect back on a significant moment from your own early
education, and what you remember about yourself as a learner. Recall what
happened. To what extent were your values, attitudes, responses and prior
knowledge taken into consideration by the teacher in this episode? What aspects of
pedagogy might, or could, your teacher have been drawing on at this point?
Extension: In the light of your current thinking about pedagogy, how might you have
acted had you been in the teacher’s position?

4 Pedagogic repertoire
The idea of pedagogy is multifaceted and needs to be constantly refined through teachers’
reflections on their classroom experience from their own and their students’ perspectives.
We need to question whether our pedagogic expertise is sufficiently creative, skilled and
wide-ranging and whether our teaching strategies are evidence-informed, convincing and
justifiable. Some aspects of pedagogy may appear to be more visible and, possibly, more
urgent than others but ultimately all of them need to be in play.
A key step is to link the learning intentions of a lesson with appropriate teaching
strategies. The planning of lessons is discussed extensively in Chapter 10, Section 4, and
particular emphasis is placed on differention and Personalisation so that the cognitive and
motivational appropriateness of planned activities can be maximised. Being able to draw
on a range of strategies complements this by enabling the selection of effective teaching/
learning processes. Overall intentions can then be shared with pupils (Hattie, 2012,
Reading 16.5). In summary, to be most effective, aims and methods should be matched and
understood.
As Robin Alexander argues, ‘teachers need a repertoire of teaching approaches from
which they can select on the basis of fitness for purpose
in relation to the learner, the subject-matter and the oppor-
tunities and constraints of context’ (Alexander, 2008a, p. Expert questions
109, Reading 12.3).
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise
Alexander’s analysis of pedagogic repertoire concen- sufficiently creative, skilled and wide-
trates on three broad aspects: the organisation of interaction ranging to teach all elements of learning?
(see also Chapter 8, Section 4.1), talk for teaching, and
Warrant: are our teaching strategies
talk for learning (Alexander, 2008a). evidence-informed, convincing and
We focus here on talk for teaching and on some of justifiable to stakeholders?
the research informing it. For those relatively new to
These questions contribute to a conceptual
teaching, it is pedagogy as craft, and talk as a key feature framework underpinning professional
of that craft, which often makes the most immediate and expertise (see Chapter 16).
pressing demands. We therefore explore this aspect of the
pedagogic repertoire in some depth.

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4.1 Using talk for whole-class, small group and

individual teaching
As Alexander (2008a, Reading 12.3) stresses, choices about when, how and to what
extent to interact with the whole class underpin a teacher’s pedagogic craft. A paradox
in teaching is that whilst teachers use talk as the main tool of their trade, many are not
aware of the range of ways they could use it when interacting with students. Broadly
speaking, as teachers we use talk to provide information, check understanding and
maintain control. However, there is much we can also do such as link present activities
to past experience, set up future activities, relate existing ideas to new educational
frames of meaning and model ways of using language (Mercer and Littleton, 2007,
Reading 11.6; see also Chapter 8). One interesting way of thinking about and reflecting
on different teacher and learner interactions is to use categorisations such as those
suggested by Mortimer and Scott (2007). They divide whole-class interactions into
four types of communicative approach along two dimensions, the first representing a
continuum between dialogic and authoritative talk and the second between interactive
and non-interactive talk:

Interactive/dialogic: the teacher and students explore ideas, generating new meanings,
posing genuine questions and offering, listening to and working on different points of
view.
Non-interactive/dialogic: the teacher considers various points of view, setting out,
exploring and working on the different perspectives.
Interactive/authoritative: the teacher leads students through a sequence of questions and
answers with the aim of reaching one specific point of view.
Non-interactive/authoritative: the teacher presents one specific point of view.
(Mortimer and Scott, 2007, p. 39)

The first two approaches allow for whole-class dialogue where the teacher engages pupils
and elicits their ideas, gets extended responses and allows pupil contributions to shape
the dialogue. However, in the second pair, through authoritative talk, the teacher pursues
a direction or ‘story’, presents new information for children to consider and/or learn and
is unlikely to seek extended contributions. We return to the concept of dialogic talk more
extensively in Chapter 12, but in relation to pedagogy, a reflective teacher will consider
the affordance these different types of whole-class interactions offer to particular learning
situations.
The findings of one large investigation into classroom talk, the Observational Research
and Classroom Learning Evaluation (ORACLE) research, showed that approximately 80
per cent of teachers’ time, in Key Stage 2 classrooms, was spent in talk between the teacher
and children – 56 per cent with individuals, 15 per cent with the whole class, 7 per cent
with groups (Galton, Simon and Croll, 1980). In a more recent study Galton et al. found
that ‘for the typical pupil, 75 per cent of all pupil–teacher exchanges are experienced as a
member of the class, exactly as they were twenty years ago’ (1999, p. 84). Interestingly, a

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similar large project, the Primary, Assessment, Curriculum

and Experience (PACE) research, found that in Key Stage Expert questions
1 classrooms, the proportion of whole-class work was Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
also very high, with a lower figure for individual work classroom organisation and consultation
(Pollard and Triggs, 2000). Reflective teachers may want enable learners to actively participate in
to consider their own pedagogy in the light of such and enjoy their learning?
findings. Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk scaffold
There is a strong body of research in the past 30 understanding to build on existing
years, both internationally and recently in the UK, which knowledge and to strengthen dispositions
supports the view that by working in groups and inter- to learn?
acting with others, students’ academic performance and These questions continbute to a conceptual
attitudes to learning can be improved. Galton (2007) framework underpinning professional
summarises the key benefits of training students to work expertise (see Chapter 16).
in groups as follows:

First, the process promotes independent thinking, such that pupils gain a sense of control
over their learning. Second, it can develop speaking and listening skills, allowing pupils
to share feelings and ideas. Third, it can encourage positive self-esteem, allowing pupils
to build confidence in their own abilities. Fourth, it can improve classroom relationships,
enhancing pupils’ sense of social responsibility. (Galton, 2007, p. 110)

Considerations about the organisation of collective and collaborative group work and
activity between students are therefore part of a teacher’s pedagogic repertoire, as the
enactments in this chapter demonstrate.
An example of a project which also demonstrates how teachers aim to enhance the
learning potential of pupils working in classroom groups (at Key Stages 1–3) is the
SPRinG project (Baines et al., 2008). It began in 2000 and continues in a number of ways.
It actively involved teachers collaborating with researchers in a programme designed to
raise levels of group work during typical classroom learning activities and to enhance
students’ skills of listening, explaining, sharing ideas, building trust and respect, planning,
organising and evaluating. The project also aimed to develop the skills of the teacher
in group work through supporting, guiding, monitoring, fostering independence and
providing classroom management. Findings from the study have important implications
for pedagogy (see the TLRP Research Briefing on p. 316). Involvement in SPRinG had
positive effects on pupils’ academic progress in relation to usual classroom practices. In
Key Stage 1, benefits were seen in reading and mathematics. In Key Stage 2, group work
benefited all types of knowledge in science but especially conceptual understanding and
inferential thinking, while at Key Stage 3 the success depended on the type of topic but
appeared to benefit higher cognitive understanding. Across the three Key Stages, pupils
were more likely to sustain high level interactions, engaging in more autonomous learning
relative to comparison pupils, and teachers were more likely to monitor interactions
between pupils and engage less in direct teaching.

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316 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Research
Briefing
Improving pupil group work

This project, SPRinG, was designed to develop principles and strategies to improve the quantity and effectiveness of group work.
Teachers and researchers collaborated to develop children’s capacity to work in groups (listening, explaining, sharing ideas, building trust
and respect, planning, organising, evaluating), and to develop the role of the teacher in group work (support, guide, monitor, fostering
independence, providing classroom management) (see the Improving Practice workbook by Baines et al., 2008 below).
An experimental design was used so that the success of the intervention programme could be evaluated against a control group
who were not exposed to the intervention. Pupil progress in the experimental and control groups were monitored over a school year and
measures of attainment, motivational, attitudinal and behavioural evidence were recorded.

Key findings: Implications:

Integrating group work: Thoughtful and committed teachers Children need to be actively taught group work skills and
successfully implemented structured group work into encouraged to appreciate supportive relationships. A whole
mainstream curriculum areas in primary and secondary schools school approach to group work is desirable, with CPD on
and across the whole curriculum. teaching strategies.

Pupil attainment: Involvement in structured group work had There is a need to rethink pedagogic strategies which favour
positive effects on pupil’s academic progress and higher teacher-led situations and individual work. The effectiveness of
conceptual learning. peer-based co-learning has been relatively neglected.

Pupil behaviour: Involvement in the structured group work Given the space and time to develop pupils’ group-working
had positive effects on pupil behaviour through an increase in skills, teachers can bring about a transformation in the learning
active on-task interactions, more equal participation in learning, environment.
sustained interactions and higher level discussions.

Relationships: Personal relationships between teachers and the Teachers were freed up to engage with learning rather than
class and between pupils within the class improved, provided being sidetracked by classroom management. Beneficial
teachers take time to train pupils in the skills of group working. groupwork strategies were also applied by children beyond the
classroom.

Previous research had indicated that there can be positive learning and social effects of cooperative group work. But this evidence did
not provide teachers with the basis for adopting group work for everyday classroom life. The SPRinG project was distinctive in providing
a general programme that applies group work across the curriculum, over the school year, and when a range of learning tasks may be
undertaken simultaneously.
The main impetus for the SPRinG project was thus to address the wide gap between the potential of group work and its limited use
in schools.
A new approach was needed in order to integrate group work into the fabric of the school day. We therefore embarked on an
ambitious project in which we worked with teachers to develop a programme of group work that could be successfully integrated into
school life. This programme was then systematically evaluated by examining pupil progress over a full school year, and in comparison to
a control group in terms of attainment, motivation for group working, and within-group interactions.
Further information:
Blatchford, P., Galton, M. and Kutnick, P. (2005) Improving Pupil Group Work in Classrooms. TLRP Research Briefing 11. London: TLRP.
Baines, E., Blatchford, P. and Kutnick, P. (2008) Promoting Effective Groupwork in Primary Classrooms. TLRP Improving Practice Series. London: Routledge.
A helpful website can be found at: www.spring-project.org.uk. ‘Practitioner applications’ on the TLRP website offer ideas for developing group work skills.
This project involved the universities of London, Brighton and Cambridge.

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 Chapter 11 Pedagogy 317

Although such studies demonstrate the benefits of group work, a consistent finding in
research since the 1970s is that whilst pupils may sit in groups they rarely work as groups
(Alexander, 2008b) so that this arrangement is not as productive as could be. Amongst
factors which Galton (2007) identifies as causing teachers to desist from setting up group
work are the perception of a loss of teacher control over the learning environment and
the difficulty in ascertaining whether talk in groups is on-task. Issues that can impede
effective group work are constructing tasks appropriate for the arrangement and the degree
of structure required. Size and composition of groups can also create difficulties. (These
aspects of group work will be discussed further in Chapter 12.)
Whatever the challenges in setting up effective group work, from a cognitive
perspective, the social constructivist ideas of Vygotsky point to the benefits of estab-
lishing group work as part of a repertoire of strategies. In the same way that a more
knowledgeable adult can help a student move through the zone of proximal development,
so too more knowledgeable peers can support learning. However, it is not unusual to
see teachers setting up group work and then almost immediately beginning to circulate
and check understanding and give comments. Galton and Williamson (1992) found that
when a teacher’s intervention occurs too early in the group’s deliberations, then students
can quickly feel a loss of ownership and control over discussion. Judgements therefore
need to be made about when it is appropriate to scaffold discussion. It is to this aspect of
pedagogic craft that we now turn.

4.2 Scaffolding whole-class, small group and

individual learning
Scaffolding is a term that is often used loosely to describe all kinds of support that teachers
may offer (Pea, 2004). However, in the sense that the term was used by Wood, Bruner and
Ross (1976) in their seminal paper, the concept offers much more than this. They described
scaffolding as the support given to a less experienced learner by a more experienced adult or
peer – which Tharp and Gallimore (1988) refer to as assisted performance (Reading 11.4). In
scaffolding learning, teachers actively, temporarily and contingently provide learners with
just the right amount of cognitive support to bring them closer to independence. Over time,
an adult, or more experienced other, can reduce the degree of freedom to make a complex
task more manageable for the student so that they can achieve independent competence.
Their idea of scaffolding can thus be seen to develop the work of Vygotsky and the concept
of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD) (see Chapter 2 and Reading 2.4).
Established conceptualisations of scaffolding see it as an interactive process occurring
between teacher and student in which both participate actively and where learners
are ‘guided by others’ (Stone, 1998, p. 351) to develop understandings that would be
problematic for them to achieve unaided. Van de Pol, Volan and Beishuizen (2012) discuss
literature around scaffolding and argue that its characteristics are threefold. The first of the
characteristics is ‘contingency’, which suggests that the teacher’s scaffolding approaches
are tailored to the specific needs and current levels of performance of the learners. The
second characteristic is ‘fading’, whereby scaffolding is gradually withdrawn according to

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the learner’s developing understanding and competence. Thirdly, transfer of responsibility

occurs. In considering how, where and when to scaffold learning a teacher therefore needs
to take into account:
●● how approaches are tailored to the specific needs and current levels of performance
of learners;
●● how the level of scaffolding can be withdrawn depending on the learner’s progress;
●● how learners can take responsibility for their learning.
Teachers are often urged to use modelling as a way to scaffold learning. Recently,
for example, it has been a key feature of the recommended teaching sequence for
writing in primary classrooms where teachers are encouraged to demonstrate the skills
of an expert writer to the class. The basis for the approach was set out in the joint
United Kingdom Literacy Association (UKLA) / Primary National Strategy (PNS)
publication, Raising Boys’ Achievements in Writing (2004). However, when a teacher
models something in the classroom, the children should not be expected simply to imitate
it. As Bruner says:

what the teacher must be, to be an effective competence model, is a day-to-day working
model with whom to interact. It is not so much that the teacher provides a model to
imitate. Rather, it is that the teacher can become a part of the student’s internal dialogue
– somebody who respects what he wants, someone whose standards he wishes to make
his own. (Bruner 1966, p. 124)

Scaffolding, which includes modelling, is thus a dynamic

Expert question interaction that needs to be finely tuned to the learner’s
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise ongoing progress. Support given by the teacher depends
sufficiently creative, skilled and wide- on the characteristics of the situation, for example the
ranging to teach all elements of learning? type of task and the responses of the student. Scaffolding
This question contributes to a conceptual strategies therefore need to be adapted for each classroom
framework underpinning professional situation, which is what makes it a key part of teachers’
expertise (see Chapter 16). pedagogic repertoire.

5 Enacting a series of lessons

5.1 The art, craft and science of pedagogy

over time
In the following vignette of a trainee English teacher studying a novel with a Year 7 class,
the reader is once again invited to consider ways in which aspects of the science, craft and
art of pedagogy are played out, this time over a sequence of lessons. It is also an oppor-
tunity to reflect on the extent to which in this example the pedagogic expertise is skilled
and creative and what evidence appears to inform the teaching.

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 Chapter 11 Pedagogy 319

Case study 11.3 Learning in the graveyard

A Year 7 class is reading Neil Gaiman’s The Graveyard Book (2008) with Nadia, a trainee
English teacher. She has planned a unit of work to last several weeks during which time
they will read the whole novel and undertake creative writing. In one lesson, she plays
them Saint-Saëns’ tone poem, ‘Danse macabre’, dimming the classroom lights to create
a more ghostly atmosphere. Chapter 5 of Gaiman’s novel revolves around the concept
of the danse macabre and Nadia explains the traditional ‘dance of the dead’ to the class,
embellishing her explanation with the idea of the violin being the devil’s instrument.
Nadia projects a traditional image of the devil and dancing skeletons on the board,
writing up suggestions from the class for words and phrases to describe the music. One
student’s idea is skeletons using their rib cages as instruments. Nadia’s lesson evalua-
tions show that although students find it challenging to write from music as distinct from
pictures or objects, their responses make her realise she could have afforded to include
more information about resonances of the danse macabre. She also ponders the issue
of how far students learn their own use of literary language by adopting the author’s
usage for themselves. In another lesson, Nadia focuses more on devising characters
using language alone, afterwards evaluating what happens when, as she puts it, ‘I am
putting in input, giving instructions, disseminating ideas and criteria, and students are
on the receiving end of this, left alone with their thoughts and imagination to act as
the “furnace” for this input, galvanising ideas, making things their own, applying it to
their thoughts and producing a character’. She is mindful of an element of competition
between students creeping in. Although it is probably because they are eager to please
her it is not something she wants to encourage. Indeed, she is very aware of a particular
student, Damian, who appears comparatively passive and negative and she realises she
needs to be more proactive in encouraging him to contribute and praise him explicitly
when he does.
A high point of the unit of work is the lesson in which Nadia takes the class on a
seven-minute walk to the church graveyard in order to undertake some creative writing
in a very concrete setting. She has remembered from her PGCE subject studies the value
of making sure students have something specific to write about. The advice has merged
with a school-based professional studies session about the benefits of learning outside
the classroom. Nadia has enlisted the support of the class teacher for the graveyard trip,
but has undertaken all the planning and preparation herself including: trying out the
walk to the site to check the route and the timing; sending a letter home to parents;
leaving a note on the classroom door to inform anyone who might drop by where they
have gone; acquiring a whistle to take with her as a way to re-gather the group. Her
plan for the lesson includes precise instructions to the class about behaviour and safety
regulations and a word about respect: she reminds students that they are ambassadors
for the school whenever they leave the premises and ‘it’s even more important in a
cemetery, a place where people are sensitive’.
The day is an uncharacteristically warm English spring day, a point which makes a
difference to the learning the students do. On arriving in the graveyard, they sit in a circle
underneath a yew tree ready to begin their writing lesson. Now Nadia tells them they are
like ‘field scientists collecting data for their hypotheses back in the lab’. On this occasion,
they are hunting for words to create a sense of the atmosphere of the graveyard as

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320 Part 3 Teaching for learning

well as the headstones and tombs within it. The students collect words avidly but more
important for their learning is the change to their perceptions about graveyards. To date,
they have tended to characterise graveyards as ‘dank, creepy and mysterious’. This trip
has shown them how much more like a garden such places may be. At the start of the
visit, the students sit and write what they can see, hear, smell, and feel: birdsong, the
rustling of leaves, the distant hum of cars, the sound of a chainsaw, wheels of a baby
buggy being pushed along. They also write about the feeling of fresh air, the animals
and insects they can see, the smell of recently cut grass. However, aspects of the gothic
genre also prevail for example as students peer into a stone tomb and claim to be able
to see real bones inside and afterwards their writing still includes references to twisted
trees and deadly air.
Back in the classroom the following lesson, Nadia offers a model poem for students
to explore and use as a basis for their own writing, the popular but anonymous ‘I saw
a peacock’ poem. The first half of each line begins ‘I saw …’ the second half of the
line describing what was seen. One student suggests, in the light of their work in the
graveyard, that they might begin each line with one of the five senses, not just ‘I saw’,
an idea that Nadia welcomes and includes in the lesson.

5.2 Analysing pedagogy

This brief glimpse of Nadia’s planned unit of work based on The Graveyard Book and
students’ associated creative writing, affords further reflection on the pedagogy involved.
In this instance, the focus is on continuity and progression between lessons. Planning
a whole unit of work involved Nadia bringing together different strands of subject
knowledge, in particular a literary novel written for young people which draws heavily
on the gothic genre as well as English history, Christian iconography, murder mystery and
suspense. Nadia had not focused on gothic literature within her English degree, but said
most of her knowledge was gleaned from popular culture. She was, however, steeped in
other aspects of literary knowledge from both the study and the production of texts. She
was, therefore, able to select ideas from a variety of approaches to creative writing and
think more broadly about the possible relationships between models of literary writing
such as Gaiman’s book and how inexperienced writers learn. She is drawing, therefore, on
longstanding traditions linking reading with writing: most children’s authors when asked
what advice they would offer to aspiring writers will say ‘read, read read!’. Educational
theorists make the same claim for the influence of the reader in the development of the
writer, drawing on research as warrant (see for example Barrs and Cork, 2001, Reading
12.5). Because Nadia is a trainee teacher, her lesson plans and evaluations make very
explicit the craft of her pedagogy as she manoeuvres between each lesson, reflecting on
the last and looking ahead to the next. Whether designing the sequence of activities and
giving shape to her literary and creative plans for the class, or reflecting on what to try
next to engage students who remain unenthused, Nadia scans her growing repertoire to
select and justify what she judges to be the best options. Although she has planned very
carefully, the unforeseen arises and needs responding to. She had not anticipated quite

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 Chapter 11 Pedagogy 321

how difficult it might be to retain the concentration of a whole class of interested students
when out in the open air of the graveyard and surrounded by enticing distractions.
Precisely because of the richness of the environment, there were unexpected challenges
to the anticipated outcomes of the lesson. However, whilst the craft of her pedagogy
enabled her to retain firm control of the lesson, the art of her pedagogy ensured she was
responsive to what students were actually learning; for example, the realisation that their
assumptions about a typical graveyard were being overturned, or the way they wanted
to adapt the firm poem structure she had suggested they use when they spotted a more
appropriate framework.

Reflective activity 11.3

Aim: To explore how principles about pedagogy relate to our own planning and
teaching.
Evidence and reflection: Review a sequence of three lessons you have recently planned
and taught. Identify as many different aspects of pedagogy as possible within and
between the three lessons, explaining and justifying them in the light of what you
have just read. What is the balance between the different aspects (science, craft and
art) and how do you account for it? What challenges did the sequence present in
terms of your subject knowledge?
Extension: What implications are there for classroom interactions and teachers’
scaffolding of students’ learning in this series of lessons?

Conclusion
In this chapter we have explored the interconnected aspects of pedagogy: art, craft and
science. We have also shown how they are closely related to teachers’ subject knowledge
and awareness of learning processes. As our readings, discussion and enactments show,
pedagogy is a rich and fascinating concept, constantly being shaped and re-shaped by
teachers. At times some elements of pedagogy will appear more pressing than others.
Nevertheless, how we teach and respond to learners will be crucially informed by our
understanding of pedagogy as a whole. Whilst some ideas about teaching and learning
endure, others change and are transformed, not only as new research is undertaken by
teachers in classrooms or professional researchers but also because teaching and learning
are human enterprises and hence are never static. No two teachers are the same; no two
learning contexts are the same. We all need, therefore, to reflect on our pedagogy as and
when our own understanding is further developed by experience. At all times, we need
to juggle our concern with subject knowledge and the need to consider learners holisti-
cally. As the vignette of Alfie above demonstrates, the importance of listening to students’
individual voices cannot be underestimated.

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322 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Key readings
TLRP’s overall school findings, including ‘ten principles for effective teaching and
learning’, are discussed in Chapter 4 of this book. For a simple explanation of the idea
of pedagogy seen as science, craft and art, and an exposition of ‘conceptual tools’ for
tackling enduring educational issues, see:
Pollard, A. (ed.) (2010) Professionalism and Pedagogy: A Contemporary Opportunity.
London: TLRP. (Reading 11.2) (see also Chapter 16)

Alexander’s comparative analysis of pedagogic issues has generated a strong conceptual

framework which is applicable to any setting. See:
Alexander, R. (2000) Culture and Pedagogy. International Comparisons in Primary
Education. Oxford: Blackwell.
Alexander, R. (2008) Essays on Pedagogy. London: Routledge. (Reading 12.3)

An influential application of a synthesis of global research is:

Hattie, J. (2012) Visible Learning for Teachers. London: Routledge. (Reading 16.5)

A classic summary of research on teaching is provided in a US handbook, and many

other overviews are also available:
Anderson, P. M. (2008) Pedagogy. A Primer. New York: Peter Lang.
Joyce, B., Weil, M. and Calhoun, E. (2009) Models of Teaching. New York: Pearson.
Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2011) Effective Teaching. London: SAGE. (Reading 8.7)
Richardson, V. (2001) Handbook of Research on Teaching. Washington: AERA.

There are many excellent guides to practical teaching strategies and skills. Among the
best are:
Kyriacou, C. (2009) Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and Practice. Cheltenham:
Nelson Thornes.
Petty, G. (2009) Teaching Today: A Practical Guide. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
Sotto, E. (2007) When Teaching Becomes Learning. London: Continuum.

An exceptional collection of readings on pedagogy is cited below. In this volume, Leach

and Moon explore the interplay between ‘school knowledge’, ‘subject knowledge’ and
‘pedagogic knowledge’.
Leach, J., and Moon, B. (1999). Learners and Pedagogy. London: SAGE.

To explore the particular significance of dialogue in classroom pedagogy, see:

Mercer, N. and Littleton, K. (2007) Dialogue and the Development of Children’s
Thinking. London: Routledge. (Reading 11.6)

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 Chapter 11 Pedagogy 323

There is a long tradition of thinking about teaching as a creative and organic process.
This approach emphasises how teaching must connect with the learner as a person and
with their construction of meaning. See:
Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press. (Reading 11.1)
Dixon, A., Drummond, M. -J., Hart, S. and McIntyre, D. (2004) Learning Without
Limits. Maidenhead: Open University Press. (see also Reading 1.4)

For consideration of more radical approaches to pedagogy, try:

Kincheloe, J. L. (2008) Critical Pedagogy Primer. New York: Peter Lang.
Leach, J. and Moon, B. (2008) The Power of Pedagogy. London: SAGE.

In one way or another, most of Reflective Teaching’s chapters are concerned with
pedagogy and, for readings on more specific issues – such as relationships, engagement,
behaviour, assessment, etc. – please consult the relevant chapter.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links, and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

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Communication
How does use of
language support
learning?
12
Introduction (p. 326) 4 Writing (p. 342)

4.1 Teaching writing (p. 343)

1 Characteristics of classroom 4.2 Researching writing (p. 344)
communication (p. 327)

5 Knowledge about language

2 Talking and listening (p. 328)
for communication (p. 345)
2.1 Questioning, responding, instructing
and explaining (p. 329) 5.1 Knowledge about grammar (p. 345)

2.2 Dialogic teaching and learning (p. 331) 5.2 Some differences between spoken and
written language (p. 346)
2.3 Inter-thinking and group work (p. 333)
5.3 English as an additional language
2.4 Creative talk (p. 334)
(p. 347)

3 Reading (p. 335)

Conclusion (p. 349)
3.1 Teaching reading (p. 336)
3.2 Theories of reading (p. 337)
3.3 Reading and engagement (p. 337)
3.4 Reading across the curriculum (p. 339)
3.5 Reading multimodal texts (p. 340)
3.6 School values and reading (p. 340)
326 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Introduction
In this chapter we address speaking, listening, reading and writing as crucial forms of
classroom communication between all teachers and their students, and consider some of
the ways in which each is vital to learning. In order for teachers to deepen their under-
standing, we consider what it is helpful to know about spoken and written language,
discussing some essential ideas about grammar, dialect and standard English. We show
how teachers model, respond to and engage knowledgeably with the many varieties of
language and modes of communication that are used in their classrooms every day. We
focus on different kinds of texts that students may read or write, whether verbal, visual
or multimodal. Furthermore, we outline some of the key features involved in supporting
students who have English as an additional language (EAL).
The idea of communication always includes purpose, audience, context and style, a
notion first drawn to teachers’ attention by James Britton and colleagues in their classic
research study, The Development of Writing Abilities (11–18) (Britton et al., 1975). Why
are these four ideas so important for teachers and learners? Although much of the time
language is taken for granted, when we reflect on it we realise that these four elements are
always in play. For example, communication in the playground often involves children
talking together to negotiate how they play and their choice of language is informed by
the fact that they are with their peers in a very familiar context. Hence, their talk will be
informal in style. By contrast, in a whole-school assembly, communication could involve
talk in a very formal style by an adult addressing an audience of students about the topic of
road safety with a didactic purpose. In both instances, the purpose, audience, context and
style determine the characteristics of the communication, as is the case in any authentic
communicative interactions, whether spoken, written or visual.

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on the use of language in teach-
ing and learning:

Effective teaching and learning requires teachers to scaffold learning. Teachers

should provide activities which support learners as they move forward, not just
intellectually, but also socially and emotionally, so that once these supports are
removed, the learning is secure. (Principle 4)
Effective teaching and learning fosters both individual and social processes
and outcomes. Learning is a social activity. Learners should be encouraged and
helped to work with others, to share ideas and to build knowledge together.
Consulting learners about their learning and giving them a voice is both an
See Chapter 4 expectation and a right. (Principle 7)

These ideas about the social and interactive nature of communication underpin the whole
of this chapter.

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 Chapter 12 Communication 327

1 Characteristics of classroom communication

There are many aspects of classroom communication which have an impact on how
effectively teachers and students communicate in early years, primary and secondary
classrooms. For example, it is valuable to remember that high-quality communication is
important across the whole curriculum, not just in English. The Bullock Report (DES,
1975) advocated the importance of paying attention to language across the curriculum
to underline the argument that educationally productive talk is the responsibility of
all teachers, not solely English teachers. Thirty-five years later, the final report of the
Cambridge Primary Review (Alexander, 2010) emphasised high-quality talk as funda-
mental to effective teaching and learning, including the character, quality and uses of
reading, writing and talk and the development of students’ understandings of the distinct
registers, vocabularies and modes of discourse of each subject. Alexander asserts, ‘oracy
must have its proper place in the language curriculum. Spoken language is central to
learning, culture and life and is much more prominent in the curricula of many other
countries’ (2010, p. 24).
Language skills are fundamental to communication but the interpersonal nature of
communication also calls for significant social skills. A great deal of what we say is
conveyed by non-verbal means. Tone, pitch, volume and how we project our voice are
all part of the communication process. Non-verbal language such as facial expression,
effective eye contact, posture, gesture and interpersonal
distance or space, is usually interpreted by others as
Expert question
a reliable reflection of how we are feeling (Nowicki
Coherence: is there clarity in the purposes,
and Duke, 2000). However, non-verbal signals may also
content and organisation of the
confuse or contradict what we are trying to communicate.
curriculum and does it provide holistic
This may be particularly so in communication between
learning experiences?
people from different cultures and backgrounds. Siraj-
This question contributes to a conceptual
Blatchford argues that ‘language involves more than
framework underpinning professional
learning a linguistic code with which to label the world
expertise (see Chapter 16).
or to refer to abstract concepts; language also involves
learning how to use the code in socially appropriate and
effective ways’ (2000, p. 20).

Reflective activity 12.1

Aim: To investigate who speaks and how much during a lesson.
Evidence and reflection: We recommend that you begin with an audio recording of
part of a lesson. You may want to gather data on your own teaching.
Now sit back, relax and listen … Consider:
●● How much speaking is there?
●● Who is doing the speaking?
●● Which pupils speak?

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328 Part 3 Teaching for learning

●● When does the teacher speak?

●● When do the pupils speak?
Reviews of this kind can highlight the pattern of talk in a classroom. It can often reveal
aspects which surprise us, because it is so difficult to be aware of how much we talk,
to whom and when, whilst we are engrossed in the process of teaching itself.
Extension: Having identified the pattern of talk, we need to decide whether what we
do is consistent with our aims. You might like to see if you can develop the way
you teach in the light of what you have learned in this activity. You could also use
a similar approach to investigate different aspects of classroom interaction, e.g.
teacher–pupil interaction in group work; pupil–pupil interaction, generally or in
small group work. You will find suggestions for other observations in subsequent
Reflective activities in this chapter.

Since communication in classrooms is often focused on some meaningful topic, it requires

appropriate cognitive capacities in addition to language and interpersonal skills. It requires
knowing something about the subject under consideration and being able to think about
and process what we want to communicate to others as well as what they are trying to
communicate to us. Nor can the attitudes of the participants be forgotten: developing the
cognitive relationship between them and the context itself is also very important if they
are to remain motivated to learn. Furthermore, when students consciously examine these
relationships, their metacognitive capacities will come into play (Whitebread et al., 2010).
A great many skills and processes therefore are in play in good classroom communi-
cation. In this chapter, we focus chiefly on talk, listening, reading and writing, but it is
helpful to bear these other facets in mind.

2 Talking and listening

As discussed in Chapter 11, teachers’ pedagogic reper-
Expert questions toire crucially includes classroom talk (Alexander,
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise 2008a, Reading 12.3). In classroom situations, teachers
sufficiently creative, skilled and wide- and students act as both speakers and listeners. In the
ranging to teach all elements of learning? following section we outline some of the key literature
Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk scaffold which informs teachers’ thinking and practice, empha-
understanding to build on existing sising in particular the notion of achieving a strategic
knowledge and to strengthen dispositions balance between authoritative and dialogic discourse
to learn? (Mortimer and Scott, 2007).
These questions contribute to a conceptual We begin by discussing the impact of teacher-
framework underpinning professional initiated talk on students’ learning, for example through
expertise (see Chapter 16). questioning, responding, instructing and explaining, and
then move to discuss more overtly collaborative forms of

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spoken communication, whether between teachers and students or amongst small groups
of students themselves.

2.1 Questioning, responding, instructing and

explaining
How good are we at asking questions? Questions can be used for a wide range of
purposes and are a vital tool for teaching and learning. They can be thought of in terms
of the level of demand they make on children’s thinking and can be broadly divided into
two main categories: lower-order and higher-order questions. Lower-order questions are
often closed or literal requiring relatively brief, factual answers which are either right or
wrong. Higher-order questions invite a range of possible answers and require children to
apply, reorganise, extend, evaluate or analyse information. A useful way of thinking about
categorising types of questions is Bloom’s taxonomy (1956). This identifies six levels
of cognitive processes: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation (see also the discussion at p. 163). It also provides examples of questions which
can elicit different types of thinking.
Asking questions can provide teachers with immediate feedback on students’ thinking:
on what they know and, most importantly, how they can improve its quality. However,
research shows that teacher-led patterns of talk are overwhelmingly prevalent (Mortimer
and Scott, 2007) rather than interchanges which elicit higher-order thinking from students.
Kyriacou and Issitt (2008) argue that when teachers’ use of talk is linked to good learning
outcomes, they use strategies other than closed question exchanges and help students
appreciate the value of dialogue for learning. Moreover, Rojas-Drummond and Mercer’s
research (2003) shows that the most effective teachers are those who use question and
answer sequences, not just to test knowledge but also to guide the development of
children’s understanding.
Questioning and response interactions have often been characterised as initiation-
response-evaluation (IRE) or initiation-response-feedback
(IRF). In the former, the teacher initiates an exchange
by posing a question, the student responds with a brief Expert questions
answer and the teacher acknowledges the answer and
Relationships: are teacher–pupil
moves on to the next question. In the context of IRE, relationships nurtured as the foundation
teachers ask many questions but too often they are of good behaviour, mutual wellbeing and
‘closed’, requiring only short responses and not enough high standards?
of the kinds of questions that get children thinking or Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
encourage extended answers. Smith, Hardman, Wall and classroom organisation and consultation
Mroz (2004) found that in literacy and numeracy lessons enable learners to actively participate in
most of the questions asked were of a low cognitive and enjoy their learning?
level designed to funnel students’ responses towards a These questions contribute to a conceptual
required answer that the teacher already knows. In a framework underpinning professional
worthwhile IRF exchange, on the other hand, the teacher expertise (see Chapter 16).
makes an evaluation of the student’s response, gives

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feedback or elaborates on the answer and this pattern then often becomes a more positive
chain of interactions between a teacher and an individual student (Mortimer and Scott,
2007). The process can thereby help a class construct a common basis of knowledge and
provide vital information about where learners are in their understanding (see Chapter
13). As Dawes (2004) suggests, learners benefit from having their ideas rephrased and
elaborated. Critically though, the value of these exchanges depends on the quality of
the feedback. Wells (1999) evaluates the IRF sequence and argues that the teacher’s
feedback can also be used to clarify, exemplify, expand, explain or justify a student’s
response and can help students to plan ahead for a task they are about to carry out or
review and generalise from lessons they have already learnt. Wragg and Brown (2001)
note the teacher’s response should provide reinforcement, feedback and encouragement.
It is important that all answers are considered and here non-verbal features of communi-
cation such as a teacher’s body language, gesture and facial expression also come in to
play. An atmosphere of trust in which students are not afraid of saying the wrong thing
is essential.
In analysing the kinds of questions teachers use, Nystrand et al. (1997) (Reading 12.1)
distinguish between test questions and authentic questions. Of course test questions have
their place but they are retrospective rather than prospective and do not take forward
students’ thinking. Nystrand’s findings have made a particular contribution to under-
standing about the nature of classroom discourse and its effect on student learning.
However, he argues that the relationship cannot be simply reduced to measuring ‘authentic’
versus ‘recall and display’ questions; the inappropriate
use of authentic questions can be counter-productive and
Expert question the skilful use of a lecturing style can, on occasion, be
Authenticity: do learners recognise routine effective. A concise, clear exposition by the teacher may
processes of assessment and feedback as be a more efficient way of explaining the nature and
being of personal value? purpose of the task and authentic questions unrelated to
This question contributes to a conceptual the objective of the lesson are unlikely to develop students’
framework underpinning professional understanding. What matters most is not the frequency
expertise (see Chapter 16). of particular types of exchange but how far students are
treated as active participants in the construction of their
own knowledge.
Diagnostic questions take time and thought to devise but elicit valuable information
about students’ learning. Some whole-class questioning skills that have long been
understood as being effective in eliciting thoughtful and informative responses include
pausing, prompting, asking for further clarification and relating students’ contributions
to other relevant aspects of their learning (Perrot, 1982, Reading 12.2). In Wolf, Crosson
and Resnick’s (2004) research into talk about literary texts, effective strategies included:
teachers reformulating and summarising what students say, providing opportunities for
other students to build on these ideas; teachers encouraging students to put the main idea
in their own words; and teachers pressing the students for elaboration of their ideas, e.g.
‘How did you know that?’ ‘Why?’. As well as those questions asked by teachers, Harlen
(2006) highlights the importance of students asking questions because these can show
what they neither know nor understand, demonstrating the limits of their understanding

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and the nature of their own ideas. Students can also gain satisfaction and motivation for
learning when they are given the opportunity to investigate their own questions (Hodgson
and Pyle, 2010).
Although it may seem an obvious point to make, students need to have time to answer
questions. In the ORACLE study of group work in the 1980s, Galton and his colleagues
found that that the average time teachers allowed children to respond was two seconds
before either repeating the question, rephrasing it, redirecting it to another child, or
extending it him- or herself (Galton, Simon and Croll, 1980). Without ‘wait time’ children
will give less well-formulated answers than they may otherwise have done or even have
no answer to give. According to Alexander (2008b), increasing the wait time from three
to seven seconds resulted in an increase in: 1) the length of student responses; 2) the
number of unsolicited responses; 3) the frequency of student questions; 4) the number of
responses from less capable students; 5) student–student interactions; and 6) the incidence
of speculative responses. Another shortcoming in teacher questioning is not distributing
questions around the class. One strategy which Harrison and Howard (2009) propose to
alleviate this is to have a no-hands-up policy. This conveys the message that all children
are expected to have an answer and ensures that the child who thrusts his or her hand up
enthusiastically is not always chosen.

Reflective activity 12.2

Aim: To identify question and response patterns in a lesson.
Evidence and reflection: For this activity you could either choose to audio/video record
a lesson you teach or, with her or his agreement, observe a colleague’s lesson.
Choose three five-minute periods in the teaching sessions (e.g. at the beginning,
middle and end) and note the questions asked. Identify the questions which are
closed and those which are open. How many follow either an IRE or an IRF pattern?
Were there opportunities for children to formulate their answers because they were
given wait time?
Extension: Were there opportunities for children to ask questions themselves, of you
and of each other?

2.2 Dialogic teaching and learning

As discussed in Chapter 11 and above, research shows that teachers do the majority of
speaking in the classroom. Drawing in the main on the theoretical ideas of Bakhtin and
Vygotsky however, a number of authors have advocated the potential of teacher–student
communication which enables students to play a more active part in shaping classroom
discourse. Wells (1999, see also Reading 2.4) formulates the concept of dialogic inquiry,
in which knowledge is co-constructed by teachers and students as they engage in joint
activities, stressing the potential of collaborative group work and peer assistance. Nystrand
et al. (1997) describe dialogic instruction, characterised by the teacher’s uptake of

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students’ ideas, authentic questions and the opportunity

Expert questions for students to modify the topic, making a strong case
Engagement: do our teaching strategies, for the effectiveness of dialogically-organised instruction
classroom organisation and consultation over a monologic approach. He argues that classroom
enable learners to actively participate in talk should require students to think, not just to report
and enjoy their learning? someone else’s thinking.
Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk scaffold Whilst the term dialogic teaching is increasingly used
understanding to build on existing in education discussions, it is helpful to be aware of
knowledge and to strengthen dispositions its origins if it is to be understood and implemented.
to learn? Alexander (2008b, Reading 12.3) argues that dialogic
These questions contribute to a conceptual teaching demands a balance of talk, reading and writing;
framework underpinning professional management of classroom space and time; a productive
expertise (see Chapter 16). relationship between speaker and listener; and attention to
the content and dynamics of talk itself. Dialogic teaching,
he suggests, is characterised by five key criteria. It is:
●● c ollective: teachers and children address learning tasks together, as a group or as a
class;
●● r eciprocal: teachers and children listen to each other, share ideas and consider
alternative viewpoints;
●● supportive: children articulate their ideas freely, without fear of embarrassment
over ‘wrong’ answers, and they help each other to reach common understandings;
●● c umulative: teachers and children build on their own and each other’s ideas and
chain them into coherent lines of thinking and enquiry;
●● purposeful: teachers plan and steer classroom talk with specific educational goals.
(Alexander, 2008b, p. 28)
The main pedagogic implication for reflective teachers is an emphasis on the importance
of social learning through teacher–student and student–student dialogue. A dialogic
approach to teaching and learning requires teachers and
students to build actively on each other’s ideas, posing
Expert questions questions and constructing shared interpretations and new
knowledge. For teachers, it involves using open-ended,
Personalisation: does the curriculum
resonate with the social and cultural
higher-order questioning, feeding in ideas and reflecting
needs of diverse learners and provide on and interpreting students’ contributions to a lesson.
appropriate elements of choice? For learners, it encourages articulation and justification
Relevance: is the curriculum presented
of personal points of view, appreciating and responding
in ways which are meaningful to to others’ ideas and taking turns in whole-class and group
learners and so that it can excite their interactions (Mercer and Littleton, 2007, Reading 11.6).
imagination? In contrast to a teacher-led, transmission approach, a
These questions contribute to a conceptual dialogical pedagogy signals the co-presence of the teacher
framework underpinning professional as a member of a community of learners, available to
expertise (see Chapter 16). guide and coach the learner, modelling the exploratory
nature of dialogue. However, as Mortimer and Scott

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 Chapter 12 Communication 333

(2007) discuss (see Chapter 11), teachers need to make decisions about where and when a
transmissive approach may in fact be appropriate to guide learners.
In all this, we emphasise the need for teachers to be aware of the individuals in their
classroom and how meaningful contexts and audiences for developing students’ talk and
listening are key. Alexander (2008b) stresses that ensuring the ethos and the conditions
of the classroom are conducive is essential in order for dialogic teaching and students’
learning to take place.

2.3 Inter-thinking and group work

All forms of classroom communication call for particular types of awareness about the
rules of communication. Student behaviour in small groups largely mirrors the discourse
modelled by, and the expectations communicated by, their teachers (Webb et al., 2006). In
communicating with students therefore, the reflective teacher needs to model appropriate
discourse and expectations. In order to participate productively, the rules must be clear
and each participant must understand and accept these rules. In the ‘Thinking together’
project, Mercer and Littleton (2007, Reading 11.6) show how children and teachers collec-
tively construct and agree some ground rules for good, productive discussion. Critically,
these rules are not predefined and imposed but emerge from collective discussion and
consideration and therefore can expose the particular concerns of children, taking account
of their own perspectives of group work. Having been negotiated and agreed, ground rules
can then be summarised and displayed so that they can be referred to by the children and
the teacher when appropriate.
As discussed in Chapter 11, cooperative group work can, at its best, be a particu-
larly good context for learning. It fits well with Vygotskyan ideas about the importance
and meaningfulness of the social context in which the learner acts (see Chapter 2). In
Johnson and Johnson’s (1997) review of 378 studies, collaborative learning activities
were shown to benefit learning and conceptual development, especially for complex
tasks. So too, in a research survey for the Cambridge Primary Review (Howe and
Mercer, 2007), talk in groups was shown to be good for children’s learning. Mercer
and Littleton (2007) argue that by talking together, students do more than interact: they
‘interthink’. This means that they engage in collective thinking which enables them to
share strategies, construct new strategies together, examine others’ strategies and make
decisions only once all group members are satisfied. It also helps them learn to think
better on their own.
A series of Thinking Together projects, reported by Mercer and Littleton (2007),
assessed the impact of dialogue-based intervention on students’ educational attainment,
indicating that students who had been taught using this approach made better, more rapid
progress in both maths and science. Other school-based studies have provided convincing
evidence for the educational value of talk in collaborative learning, but only when guided
and organised by teachers (Kyriacou and Issitt 2008; Howe, 2010).
What then is the role of the teacher in facilitating and contributing to group work and
what kinds of interaction among students are necessary to achieve its potential? Clarity

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of goals, the appropriateness of the task, the composition of the group and the degree
of help students have been given in developing group-work skills are significant. Bains
et al. (2008) argue that teachers need to adapt grouping practices for different purposes
and learning tasks and that adults should support and guide groups, monitoring progress
in ways that encourage independence rather than directly teaching students. Above all,
teachers should ensure that the talk used in group work is productive.
Mercer and Littleton (2007, Reading 11.6) characterise three different ways in which
students in classrooms talk together as ‘disputational’, ‘cumulative’ and ‘exploratory’.
They argue that exploratory talk constitutes a powerful way for students to think and
reason together. Its effectiveness is due to three main reasons. First, participants appro-
priate successful problem-solving strategies and explanatory accounts from each other;
secondly, they jointly construct new, robust, generalisable explanations; and thirdly,
participation in external dialogue promotes internal dialogue. According to Mercer,
Dawes, Wegerif and Sams (2004) in their study of science learning, students with
experience of exploratory talk achieve significantly better than students without this
experience.

Reflective activity 12.3

Aim: To analyse and categorise an example of classroom talk.
Evidence and reflection: After seeking and gaining permission, record a group
discussion and make a transcript. Analyse the transcript, categorising the types of
talk using Mercer and Littleton’s three categories: disputational, cumulative and
exploratory talk. (See Reading 11.6 for examples) Reflect on which of the three were
most commonly in use. How would you account for this?
Extension: With reference to Mercer and Littleton’s ideas about interthinking, what
might be the next steps in developing students’ capacity to think together?

2.4 Creative talk

A key aspect of talking and listening is how it can encourage creative thinking and learning
in the classroom (Cremin, 2009). Reflective teachers work to extend students’ abilities as
speakers and listeners and help them express themselves effectively to create and criti-
cally evaluate their own work. Through creative talk, Cremin argues, teachers can foster
students’ curiosity, capacity to make connections, take risks and innovate. What do we
mean by ‘creative’ talk? Some examples might be oral storytelling or drama techniques
including role play, hot-seating and freeze-frame.
Oral storytelling and retelling is a powerful way for students to take ownership of
their own narratives, enabling them to make choices about words and phrases. As Hardy
(1977) argued, narrative is a primary act of mind. Cremin (2009) writes persuasively about
the role oral narrative has in fostering the creative sculpting of language, imaginative
engagement in learning and the oral confidence and competence it develops. Personal oral
stories have their place in the curriculum. Rosen (1988) and Zipes (1995) have shown the

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significance of autobiography and of individual and collective memory in the formation of

identity. More recently, in a book-making project with children in post-war Bosnia, Darvin
(2009) discusses how, through storytelling, the social nature of this literacy event helped
the children begin to explore the vital concepts of preservation, friendship and peace and
to construct and see themselves in relation to others. In addition to personal oral narratives,
Grainger et al. (2005) have shown how experience of retelling well-known and traditional
tales can make a rich contribution to children’s writing.
As with storytelling, drama incorporates the use of talk and self-expression and has
been shown as a strong form of communication in its own right as well as a successful
precursor to invigorate successful writing, allowing students to experience and explore
situations with their teacher and peers and to organise their thoughts orally. According to
Woolland (2010), drama can raise the self-esteem of even the most disaffected of children.
Because it is rooted in social interaction, Winston (1998) argues that drama is a powerful
way to help children relate positively to each other, experience negotiation, gain confi-
dence and raise self-esteem.
In drama, a number of forms of talk are used – as well as gestures, facial expressions
and movements – to create meaning. Learners adapt speech for different purposes and
can reflect upon language choices to contribute to their growing command of the spoken
word. In many classrooms, teachers use role play to offer students crucial opportunities
to enact, imitate, imagine, confront, review and understand the social world they inhabit
as well as to use their knowledge and understanding in different areas of the curriculum
(Cremin et al., 2006).
There are many different drama conventions which can be exploited to promote
creative talk and learning in the classroom (Neelands and Goode, 2000). A particu-
larly effective strategy is hot-seating in which students or teachers take on the role of
a character to be questioned about their behaviour and motivation. Characters may be
hot-seated individually, in pairs or in small groups. The technique is very effective for
helping students to engage with characters, both fictional and real, and also for developing
students’ questioning techniques. Another useful strategy is freeze-frame where the action
in a play or scene is frozen, as in a photograph or video frame. This requires students to
share and negotiate ideas, discussing as a group how best to convey a moment in time.
Thoughts can then be interrogated through thought-tracking, where individuals in the
freeze-frame are tapped on the shoulder and asked to speak their thoughts or feelings
aloud. There are therefore multiple opportunities for students at all stages of schooling to
deepen their learning through creative talk.

3 Reading
In this next section, we turn our attention to reading as one of the main forms of commu-
nication through which students learn. Being able to read involves making meaning from
texts; it is not simply a matter of learning to decode letters and words. Making meaning
from texts enables people to construct and explore other worlds, whether real or imagined,

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to engage in debates and to encounter different forms of knowledge. From texts, readers
learn how writers communicate with readers, and readers with writers.
Teaching children to read and ensuring young people acquire a habit of lifelong reading
are amongst the highest aims to which any teacher aspires. How reading is taught is a
much discussed and debated topic. Here, we focus on just a few issues that are helpful
to think about. Reflective teachers, whether working with children in the early years or
at any stage thereafter, will constantly find reasons for reading (Cliff Hodges, 2010) and
want to develop their own understandings about why reading is so important (Harrison,
2004, Reading 12.4).
There are many reasons why we read. However, if children only learn to read but not
what reading is for, they will not make progress. Maryanne Wolf’s thought-provoking
book, Proust and the Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading Brain, reminds us why
this is:

Reading is one of the single most remarkable inventions in history; the ability to record
history is one of its consequences. Our ancestors’ invention could come about only
because of the human brain’s extraordinary ability to make new connections among
its existing structures, a process made possible by the brain’s ability to be shaped by
experience. The plasticity at the heart of the brain’s design forms the basis for much of
who we are, and who we might become. (Wolf, 2007, p. 3)

If human beings are not genetically disposed to read but must actively learn how to do so,
then there are extremely important implications for how reading is taught in the classroom:

To acquire this unnatural process, children need instructional environments that support
all the circuit parts that need bolting for the brain to read. Such a perspective departs
from current teaching methods that focus largely on only one or two major components
of reading. (Ibid., p. 19)

Wolf’s point makes clear the need for teachers to approach reading from a wide variety
of perspectives, ensuring that at the same time as learning to decode text, children
become increasingly aware of the many pleasures and purposes that reading might hold
for them.

3.1 Teaching reading

The teaching and development of reading skills and knowledge are deeply rooted in
approaches from which children and young people learn the social, cultural, aesthetic and
practical pleasures of reading. Although the development of reading skills and knowledge
involves teaching and learning how to decode written language, it includes much else
besides (Meek, 1988). For example, it includes inference or prediction both of which
require knowledge about the distinctiveness of different texts such as picturebooks and
recipes, or about different media, for example films and posters, as well as knowledge
about the world. When students leave school, they need reading to be something they can
use to learn and respond to an infinite variety of texts and media. Being able to read in

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versatile and sustained ways greatly enhances the scope of what people may be able to
learn. So what underlying principles can help all teachers to support their students’ reading
development?

3.2 Theories of reading

One suggestion comes from reader-response theory. Louise Rosenblatt, an American
academic working with university students over several decades of the twentieth century,
developed ideas about reading that remain extremely valuable to teachers today (Rosenblatt,
1978, 1994). She argues that reading forms a transaction between the reader and the text.
Each transaction results in a unique reading. The uniqueness of the reading derives from
the fact that readers bring with them their own prior
knowledge which they use in their encounter with the text
to make meaning. Her ideas chime with recent research Expert question
into young people’s funds of knowledge and the value of Personalisation: does the curriculum
using what is learnt at home as a foundation of what is resonate with the social and cultural
needs of diverse learners and provide
learnt in school in all areas of the curriculum (Gonzalez,
appropriate elements of choice?
Moll and Amanti, 2005).
In addition to each reading being different depending This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
on the individual reader, Rosenblatt also argues that what
expertise (see Chapter 16).
each reader gains from the reading depends on why they
are reading. Readers will adopt different stances towards
the text depending on whether they are reading for the feelings a text evokes or for the
information it may yield, or both. For example, reading a text about the First World War
soldiers in the trenches may primarily generate what Rosenblatt calls an aesthetic response
such as feelings of revulsion or fear, or it may generate an efferent response (from the Latin
word effere, meaning to carry away), a response more concerned with information that
remains after the reading (Rosenblatt, 1978, 1994) such as details of how trenches were
constructed or statistics about unsanitary conditions. Of course, a reader may also shuttle
back and forth between aesthetic and efferent responses, the one informing the other.
Because a text is never read in quite the same way by two readers, it can be very valuable
for students in a classroom to make their individual readings available for discussion,
learning to justify or modify their readings in the light of other people’s. As well as what
they learn from the reading, they are also learning about what it means to read per se, to
question facts, interpret ideas and take up a critical position whilst the teacher, too, gains
insight into how different students understand the same text.

3.3 Reading and engagement

National and international reports are clear about the need to do more than merely teach
young people to decode text if they are to engage with and enjoy reading (Kirsch et
al., 2002). What such reports argue strongly is the need for a culture of reading and the

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development of policies to promote literacy across the curriculum and reading for many
types of enjoyment. If choice is a key factor in promoting reader engagement (Clark and
Pythian-Sence, 2008), we need to find ways to develop freedom of choice both within
and beyond the curriculum. An ongoing and crucially important task for teachers is to
be as familiar as possible with the breadth of literature available for children and young
people and to know what the specific individuals we teach are reading, both at school and
at home. In-depth surveys such as Hall and Coles’s Children’s Reading Choices (1999)
are illuminating not just in terms of actual texts cited by young people but also what
kinds of texts they enjoy. Contrary to the popular impression of young people’s reading
preferences, especially the assumption that boys prefer non-fiction, this survey found that
between the ages of 10–14, ‘Overwhelmingly both boys’ and girls’ book reading at all
ages is narrative fiction’ (Hall and Coles, 1999, p. 85). If
that is the case, and if such texts also enable readers not
Expert question
just to learn facts but experience feelings, then classroom
Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
reading of literary and non-fiction narratives should be
classroom organisation and consultation
a vital part of every teacher’s subject knowledge for
enable learners to actively participate in
teaching. Across the whole age range and curriculum,
and enjoy this learning?
such reading offers young people different viewpoints
This question contributes to a conceptual
from which to reflect on the world they live in. As Peter
framework underpinning professional
Hollindale argues, ‘stories are very important. They take
expertise (see Chapter 16).
us across the bridge from the thinkable, where we are, to
the imaginable, where we need to be’ (2011, p. 110).
Hollindale draws on his own experiences as a child of reading about wildlife and the
environment as having a major impact on his adult thinking and ideological bearings.
He not only discusses narrative fiction but also non-fiction which often combines strong
narrative with powerful pictures. A recent example of this kind of narrative non-fiction is
Into the Unknown: How Great Explorers Found Their Way by Land, Sea and Air (Ross
and Biesty, 2011) which tells the stories of 14 different journeys by explorers from all
over the world. The stories comprise strong narratives, often drawing on the words used
by the explorers themselves to communicate with other people, taken from journals,
diaries and contemporary accounts. However, an equally important part of the text are the
illustrations, diagrams and fold-out cross-sections of the craft or equipment the pioneers
used. Embedded within the narratives and pictures are scientific, mathematical, historical
and geographical ideas which encourage readers to think about how they contributed to
these various explorers’ achievements. Here, then, is an example of how reading enables
communication in many different ways: visually, verbally and interactively.
The extent to which young people’s reading of texts such as these might shape their
thinking and learning in different disciplines, beyond the mere gleaning of information –
as scientists, mathematicians, historians and geographers – is under-explored. Margaret
Mallett suggests that this is because ‘for a long time informational kinds of reading and
writing were relatively neglected. It was assumed that once children had learnt to read
and write they could transfer these abilities to all aspects of literacy. Now we recognise
that different kinds, or genres, of reading and writing require different strategies’ (Mallett,
1999, p. 1). Many teachers are aware of different kinds of information texts and ways of

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reading them, due to critical studies by researchers such as Margaret Meek in her study,
Information and Book Learning (1996), and are keen to help students understand ways of
both reading and writing non-fiction.

3.4 Reading across the curriculum

Teachers who understand that there are many different ways of reading also know that
different ways of teaching about reading are therefore required. As Christine Counsell
cautions in her book History and Literacy in Y7: Building the Lesson Around the Text, ‘A
subject is not a collection of information. Subjects are different ways of thinking and ways
of knowing. Surely they are also ways of reading?’ (Counsell, 2004, p. iv). We are once
again reminded that all authentic texts – whether imaginative such as a picturebooks or
novels, or real-life texts such as diaries, letters, accounts, memoires – have an audience,
purpose, context and style which can (and must) be subject to scrutiny. Heinemann’s
History Eyewitness series reproduces just such texts, for example the reports of an early
nineteenth-century Swedish traveller visiting British coal mines to try and discover the
perceived successes of the British industrial revolution (Reynoldson, 1995), or a series
of articles written by a wealthy American in the mid-nineteenth century based on his
journey along the Oregon Trail and his time spent living
with Sioux Indians (Shuter, 1993). These texts, used as Expert question
part of both English and history lessons, could be read
Coherence: is there clarity in the purposes,
very differently. In English, the emphasis might be on the
content and organisation of the
style of writing itself as an example of a certain type of curriculum and does it provide holistic
non-fiction writing. It might also focus on the viewpoints learning experiences?
represented by the writers and consider how the same
This question contributes to a conceptual
events or places would have been differently represented framework underpinning professional
had another figure in the account been writing them. In expertise (see Chapter 16).
history, meanwhile, knowledge of the period in which
the text was produced will be crucial to how the text is
read and interpreted as historical evidence. History students therefore need to ‘cultivate
period-sensitivity’ (Counsell, 2004, p. 1) to engage with texts, as well as using those
very same texts to cultivate period-sensitivity. If the way texts are read is influenced by
disciplinary perspectives, there is much to be gained by teachers working with different
subject specialisms to explore distinctions and commonalities in the way knowledge is
communicated.

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3.5 Reading multimodal texts

In some texts, for example Ice Trap! Shackleton’s Incredible Expedition (Hooper and
Robertson, 2000), which mingle narrative (the true story of how Shackleton’s ship
Endurance became trapped in the Antarctic ice in 1915) with non-narrative (for example
information about pack ice and sledge dogs), visual images play a vital part in commu-
nicating both story and information. Ice Trap! is illustrated with large, vivid watercolour
paintings often taking up whole pages on their own, offering many different viewpoints
of the Antarctic ice and life onboard ship. However, there are also scale drawings of
maps and, at the end of the book, a timeline of the expedition with photographs taken by
the ship’s photographer, Frank Hurley. Inviting readers to compare the illustrations with
the photographs requires analysis and interpretation, demonstrating the value of reading
images as well as written text. At the same time, it is possible that the illustrations and
pictures may well evoke emotions in the reader as they try to appreciate the horror, fear,
courage or despair Shackleton and his companions may have felt when they realised they
were trapped in the ice. Focusing on all modes, not just the verbal, develops students’
explicit awareness of how ideas are communicated in multimodal texts so that they are
better placed to analyse and interpret what is represented.
Increasingly too, written texts are complemented by, or flow from, other media such
as film, cartoons, games, digital clips, blogs, tweets, etc. Kress and van Leeuwen’s book,
Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design (2006), discusses how ‘language,
whether in speech or writing, has always existed as just one mode in the ensemble of
modes involved in the production of texts’ (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 41; see also
Kress, 2010, Reading 8.6).

3.6 School values and reading

Teachers and their students become acculturated to schooled ways of doing things,
including reading, so it can be instructive to step back for a while and consider how taken-
for-granted some aspects of reading may quickly become. As teachers, it is valuable to
reflect on the explicit and implicit messages we convey to students about reading. The
messages they receive may depend on whether we discuss our own reading with them
and make recommendations for books or magazines they might explore to support their
learning. It may be that students are already familiar with novels, magazines or websites
related to the topic we are teaching them and have funds of knowledge teachers can
draw on in turn. Sometimes, we favour fiction over non-fiction, sending messages that
the non-fiction is somehow inferior. In the following piece of writing, an experienced
secondary science teacher, Zoe, reflects on her interest in different kinds of reading and
the implications for her students.

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Case study 12.1 Zoe’s reading and its influence on her teaching
My mother was a biology teacher and the paraphernalia of my childhood consisted of
petri dishes, red biros, a formaldehyde preserved sheep heart and a trove of textbooks. My
imagination was fired by the world of science and the marvels revealed within its diagrams
and orbital cross-sections. My comfort with the informational realm would be a tremendous
asset to me throughout my primary education where there was a clear bias by class teachers
towards topic work. Topics as varied as ‘The Vikings’, ‘India’ or ‘Farms’ were studied for
an entire half term with teachers seamlessly embedding literacy, numeracy, history, music
and all else comfortably within them. This may seem a little bizarre, archaic even in a
modern primary classroom where subject areas are more discrete but I thrived within an
environment which rewarded me for deep reading. To succeed I needed to engage with
information in a very personal way. I learnt how to locate the marrow of a topic, some
unique factoid which would elevate my writing and engage my teacher’s attention.
I started to understand the rules which governed non-fiction books. The inaugural
contents page which would set up my expectations as a reader and the terminal index
provided me with easy access to the secrets within. Glossaries in particular hold a revered
position in my memories. Upon reading a new word for the first time I would refer to
the glossary to elucidate the meaning and then in my head I would roll the word around
on my tongue manipulating it like a small child with a building block. Frustrated with
the lack of similar signposts in fiction works I listed new words on the pasted down
endpaper of fiction books.
My fictive diet further aided me in learning the nuances of emotive language. Words
are global and like mythological shape-shifters able to traverse between the realms of
fact and fiction. I knew what appealed to me and elicited an immediate response and I
stored these techniques as part of my own narrative blueprint which would later become
the hallmark of my own writing. It is something I advocate to all my pupils: the need
to find a distinctive voice. All scientists need to communicate – with the public, funding
bodies, their peers. I teach them how the mechanics of non-fiction texts perform an
identical role to the beginning, middle and end of fiction tales and help them in writing
powerful openings which demand attention.
My experience of working within secondary education has shown me that an impas-
sioned science teacher sharing her love of reading is an unexpected and inspiring hook
for pupils. The use of storytelling devices especially has had a very powerful effect on
my pupils. At the end of a recent Year 9 class on recycling, my final lesson objective was
to impart to the pupils their personal responsibility in caring for the planet. I decided to
read them a historical account of the civilisation of Easter Island which at its peak had a
population of 7000. There was complete silence as I relayed the eventual grim fate of
the islanders with some ‘oohs’ as the story descended into cannibalism as a direct result
of islanders destroying all their natural resources. I told them that like the islanders, the
human population on earth has no practical means of escape yet we continue to fatally
deplete the resources which are available to us. I questioned them: ‘What will your fate
be? You are the custodians of our planet. What’s your next move?’
Real science is just as fantastic and enthralling as fantasy writing or science fiction.
The ability to interweave fiction and non-fiction in the same seamless way as my primary
teachers did has helped me to raise aspirations in my own classroom and create that
‘buzz’ which surely we all want to achieve?

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Reflective activity 12.4

Aim: To reflect on what messages we, as teachers, communicate about reading to
learners.
Evidence and reflection: Make a list of the reading material you have recently included
in your lessons. What reading matter is there on the walls relating to what you are
teaching? Is any material in the classroom written by the students or is it formally
published? What reading material related to your teaching is on your desk?
Extension: To what extent do you think your students perceive you, like Zoe, as a
teacher who reads?

4 Writing
Writing lies on the other side of reading. It offers the ability to communicate outside real
time, with people who are not present and whom we may or may not know. It has the
potential to endure and thus not only affords the possibility of reflection, but also to extend
beyond the present parameters of our lives.

The relationship between reading and writing

The American scholar, Robert Scholes, argues that young people need to acquire textual
power by the end of their formal schooling, by which he means they need to become
confident readers and writers of texts who have the skills, knowledge and understanding
to read for pleasure as well as interpret and take up critical positions towards texts and
produce texts for others to do the same. To that end, he writes, we should ‘perceive
reading not simply as consumption but as a productive activity, the making of meaning,
in which one is guided by the text one reads, of course, but not simply manipulated by it
… The writer is always reading and the reader is always writing’ (Scholes, 1985, p. 8).
His point is borne out by research conducted by Barrs and Cork into reading and writing
at Key Stage 2 (Barrs and Cork, 2001, Reading 12.5). Barrs and Cork explored the effect
on children’s writing when high-quality literary texts were their starting point. Evidence
from their research showed that children’s writing was influenced by several pedagogical
approaches, as well as the rich quality of the texts. These approaches included writing
in role as characters to encourage empathy and alternative perspectives, reading aloud
to hear the sounds and rhythms of the prose, and exploring ideas through drama before
committing them to paper. Interesting outcomes may also arise from taking non-literary
texts as prompts for writing. Jarman and McClune (2005), for example, have explored
newspapers as a resource for extending reading and promoting engagement in the science
classroom.

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Reflective activity 12.5

Aim: To compare and contrast the writing and reading expectations in the lessons of
two different teachers.
Evidence and reflection: Join up with another teacher in your school and agree to
observe one of each other’s lessons with a particular focus on reading and writing.
Make a note of all the reading material made available to the students during
that lesson: writing that is part of the physical space in which the lesson takes
place; writing prepared by the teacher before the lesson (e.g. powerpoint slides
or worksheets); published material e.g. text books or class novel, noting with the
latter whether photocopied sections or whole texts are used); writing done by the
students, including the nature of the task, time allocated, what students are taught
about how to accomplish it. Afterwards, discuss the commonalities and distinctions
between reading and writing in your two lessons.
Extension: What might be the implications for students’ reading and writing from the
experiences the two of you offer them?

4.1 Teaching writing

Given the complexity of the writing process, all teachers need to make sure that students
have sufficient time and support for whatever task they are set. For teachers of students
in the early years and primary age, but also often in the secondary years too, this
includes supporting students in the transcriptional as well as the compositional elements
of writing (Smith, 1994). The transcriptional or secretarial element refers to features
of the writing process such as the physical effort of writing, spelling, punctuation and
legibility, whereas the compositional element includes the authorial considerations of
capturing ideas, selecting words, adapting texts for a particular audience and using
appropriate grammar and style. Throughout all phases of schooling, reflective teachers
deepen students’ understanding across various genres of writing. As teachers in different
subject areas, we also need to help students learn what are some of the specific features
of writing they will encounter across the curriculum, for example when writing about a
science experiment as distinct from a historical explanation. They need encouragement to
consider the audience for whom the writing is intended, to think about how its purpose
will affect choice of style and format, and to judge the
different ways in which the context of the writing affects
Expert question
any decisions they make about how their piece is to be
Personalisation: does the curriculum
written. Teachers may well offer scaffolding in the form
resonate with the social and cultural
of writing frames or paragraph structures. It is vital to
needs of diverse learners and provide
remember that scaffolding is only ever intended to be a appropriate elements of choice?
temporary form of support to be dismantled once it is no
This question contributes to a conceptual
longer needed (see also Chapter 11). As soon as students
framework underpinning professional
understand the purpose and diversity of paragraphing in expertise (see Chapter 16).
the bigger picture of sustained pieces of writing, they need

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to be encouraged to write more independently, confident in their ability to make relevant

stylistic choices to achieve particular effects.

4.2 Researching writing

One very influential research study in the field of writing is Bereiter and Scardamalia’s The
Psychology of Written Composition (1987; Reading 12.6). A key idea is that of two models
of composing: ‘knowledge-telling’ and ‘knowledge-transforming’. Broadly, the capacity
of writers’ knowledge-telling is highly dependent on how much they know and can
therefore write about. The main point, however, is developing knowledge through writing
about it. In knowledge-transforming, on the other hand, the main aim is development of
the text, the writer taking into consideration the audience, purpose, context and style in
order to create a text which will have maximum impact, not just because of the knowledge
the writer is offering, but because of the manner in which it is being represented textually.
Teachers who share Bereiter and Scardamalia’s ideas about these two models of compo-
sition also realise the potential benefit of seeing them as a two-stage process: firstly the
writer amasses knowledge then tackles the transformation, rather than trying to undertake
both mental operations simultaneously.
Research which looks at writing as a form of design across a range of curriculum
areas is a helpful way to conceptualise the task that faces students when they are learning
to write. Undertaking research into students’ reading and writing in modern foreign
languages and English, Maun and Myhill explore the implications of multimodality for
teaching writing (Maun and Myhill, 2005). They argue that visual aspects of texts not
only affect how they are read but also how writers make choices when writing. Thinking
about text-making as design, not simply as writing, can help students to conceptualise it
differently. It can also encompass a very wide variety of types of texts that young people
need to learn how to write, not just verbal texts such as conventional story narratives but
multimodal texts such as newspaper front pages or blogs (Bearne and Wolstencraft, 2007;
Cremin and Myhill, 2012). Here, too, we need to ensure students develop a wide enough
repertoire of genres, modes and technical proficiency to be able to make choices about
how and what to communicate through their writing.
Thinking about it as design is an approach that teachers
Expert questions and students often find helpful.
Authenticity: do learners recognise routine The best marking, feedback and assessment acts as a
processes of assessment and feedback as form of high-quality communication in its own right. In
being of personal value? particular, formative feedback on speaking and listening,
Feeding back: is there a routine flow of reading or writing must be dialogic if it is to take effect.
constructive, specific, diagnostic feedback When teachers offer formative comments, whether orally
from teacher to learners? or in writing, on young people’s work, they act as an
These questions contribute to a conceptual actual audience for the piece. To that end, it behoves
framework underpinning professional them to respond genuinely as well as offering formative
expertise (see Chapter 16). feedback. To be formative, however, the feedback needs
to be acted on by learners in ways which make it clear

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that learning has taken place, not merely that learners are acting as automatons. Thus, at
a very simple level, making changes to a draft along lines spelled out by the marker does
not make the feedback formative; transforming the marker’s feedback to the writer’s own
ends, does (see Chapter 13).

5 Knowledge about language for communication

5.1 Knowledge about grammar

Debates still rage about whether explicit knowledge about language, such as grammar,
makes a difference to the quality of communication. Little evidence has been found to
suggest that it does. However, it has been argued recently that research has not looked at
instances where students are being taught about writing and about grammar simultaneously
(Myhill et al., 2012). There remains no sure answer, but the discussion raises important
questions about how language is perceived. Brian Cox and his committee, in their report
for the National Curriculum for English in the United Kingdom (UK), stated that:

Language is a system of sounds, meanings and structures with which we make sense of
the world around us. It functions as a tool of thought; as a means of social organisation;
as a repository and means of transmission of knowledge; as the raw material of literature;
and as the creator and sustainer – or destroyer – of human relationships. It changes
inevitably over time and, as change is not uniform, from place to place. Because language
is a fundamental part of being human, it is an important aspect of a person’s sense of
self; because it is a fundamental feature of any community, it is an important aspect of a
person’s sense of social identity. (DES 1989b, para. 6.18)

If language is a fundamental part of being human, then it is important to teach young

people something about how it works and a metalanguage for discussing it. They often
find it intrinsically interesting (Crystal, 2002). If students
are to learn about language from their teachers, we need to
Expert question
have some understanding of how the everyday language
Balance: does the curriculum-as-experienced
we use to communicate works. One of the concepts we
offer everything which each learner has a
need to teach about is grammar and why it is important in
right to expect?
thinking about communication. Grammar comprises word
This question contributes to a conceptual
order (syntax), word structure (morphology) and lexis
framework underpinning professional
(the vocabulary from which we select). Audience, context
expertise (see Chapter 16).
and purpose will always affect our grammatical choices.

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5.2 Some differences between spoken and

written language
A crucial factor affecting our use of grammar is whether we are communicating in spoken
or written language. For example, in a newspaper report about a football match we might
have said that ‘Beckham scored the goal’. A radio commentator, reporting live on the same
match might have said ‘It’s a goal, and Beckham the scorer’. Seen written down, the word
order of the radio commentary looks odd, but in the context of reporting a live football
match when listeners cannot see for themselves what is happening, the crucial point to
communicate is that a goal has been scored; who scored it will be of secondary impor-
tance. In a written report, however, there is time for a journalist to adjust the words into
more conventional written order. What needs to be understood about these two examples
is that the radio commentator’s grammar is not wrong, merely different because of the
context, audience and purpose.
Understanding some of the differences between spoken and written language can be
a valuable way for teachers to think about helping students develop their own communi-
cation skills. In spoken language, speakers typically: make use of stress patterns, pitch,
speed and volume so listeners can hear what is meant; use gestures and body language to
supplement what they say; repeat themselves, make false starts, hesitate, trail off without
the listener necessarily losing the thread; interrupt each other or take turns; and link
infinite numbers of clauses together (a pattern sometimes known as ‘chaining’) rather
than speaking in sentences with clearly defined beginnings and endings. In Learning to
Write (1993), Gunther Kress analyses children’s speech and writing, drawing out some of
the implications for teachers. Kress suggests several areas for consideration, all of which
relate closely to the focus on audience, purpose, context and style within this chapter
overall. We discuss three of these areas briefly.
First, when we speak we do so for the most part in the physical presence of an
audience (phone conversations being one exception). Speakers therefore adjust their talk
depending on the immediate response they receive from the listener. When we write, we
usually address an audience that is absent. Writers, therefore, need to develop the habit
of explicitness in anticipation of how readers might respond. In much spoken language,
the word order is often characterised by chaining (e.g. I went to the market and I bought
some vegetables and I went for a coffee). Writing, however, tends to be more hierarchical,
with main and subordinate clauses being used to signal to the reader what is key and what
is of subsidiary importance (e.g. I went to the market in order to get some vegetables,
afterwards going for a coffee). Writers therefore need to experience as wide a variety of
sentence grammar in their reading as possible, with teachers drawing their attention to
what different purposes syntax variety can serve, as and when appropriate.
Second, speakers make use of a range of intonation to communicate meaning to
listeners. Writers, meanwhile, do not have that option very often. They need, therefore,
to be able to use word order to suit their purposes instead. For example, if someone is
standing beside a person they are teaching to toss a pancake, they will use intonation as
well as words to explain how to move the pan, stress the danger, enjoy the fun. In a written

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 Chapter 12 Communication 347

recipe, much closer attention will be paid to word order, vocabulary and sequencing of
instructions.
Third, in order to become as versatile a writer as possible, there is a need for an ever-
expanding vocabulary. At a market stall I might say to the stallholder, ‘One of those,
please’, indicating a punnet of strawberries. My speech would be minimal since pointing
would do the rest. A description of strawberries on a menu to persuade a diner to select
them for dessert might read ‘Delicious, sun-ripened locally picked juicy strawberries’,
designed to persuade the diner to choose them without seeing or smelling them in advance.
The more opportunities students are afforded to study the grammar and vocabulary
of their own and other people’s texts – whether spoken or written – and analyse how
they work to achieve particular purposes and address audiences within specific contexts,
drawing on particular styles, the greater the textual power that speakers as well as writers
will acquire.

5.3 English as an additional language

Language is one of the most significant manifestations of identity and culture, and is thus
of enormous significance for the self-respect of individuals and groups. Some 40 years ago
the Bullock Report (1975) stated that:

No child should be expected to cast off the language and culture of home as he [sic]
crosses the school threshold, nor to live and act as though school and home represent
two totally separate and different cultures which have to be kept firmly apart’. (DES
1975)

Bilingual and multilingual learners face two huge tasks in school: they need to learn to
communicate in English as well as any other languages they speak, and they need to
learn and communicate within the content of the curriculum. However, Sorace (2010)
argues, the ability to communicate with two or more languages brings metalinguistic,
cognitive and social advantages. It is essential, therefore, that teachers build on existing
language capabilities, recognising the opportunities these bring to enhance the learning
of all students.
Cummins (1996) adopted the metaphor of an iceberg to distinguish between basic
interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive
and academic language proficiency (CALP). Children
develop communicative skills first, in face-to-face highly Expert question
contextualised situations, but take longer to develop Connection: does the curriculum engage
the cognitive and academic language proficiency that with the cultural resources and funds-
contributes to educational success. Cummins acknowl- of-knowledge of families and the
edges that some interpersonal communication can impose community?
considerable cognitive demands on a speaker and that This question contributes to a conceptual
academic situations may also require social communi- framework underpinning professional
cation skills. Generally speaking, children learning an expertise (see Chapter 16).
additional language can become conversationally fluent in

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the new language in two to three years but may take five years or longer to catch up with
monolingual peers on the development of full language proficiency.
Multilingual children are experts in handling language because they become adept
at ‘code switching’ (switching between languages). Bilingual children are hearing two
languages – or two distinct systems – which they have to internalise and respond to. Kuhl
(2004) argues that at an early age neither language is likely to interfere with the other,
so young children can acquire two languages easily. This does not lead to confusion, on
the contrary, it has cognitive, metalinguistic, and communicative advantages. Indeed,
bilingual children outperform monolinguals in cognitive flexibility tasks (Bialystok, 2007)
because they work constantly with two linguistic systems. These children have consid-
erable language skills on which the teacher can build, and they are likely to have much to
offer others, particularly with regards to the subject of language study. Having said this,
even if the child may be skilled in language use, he or she may still need particular support
and guidance to develop greater proficiency in the use of English at school, especially in
terms of written English.
In Reese et al.’s (2000) large-scale study of emergent bilingual students in America, the
importance of supporting students’ languages was shown:

… non-English speaking student success in learning to read in English does not rest
exclusively on primary language input and development, nor is it solely the result of rapid
acquisition of English. Both apparently contribute to students’ subsequent English reading
achievement … early literacy experiences support subsequent literacy development,
regardless of language; time spent on literacy activity in the native language – whether
it takes place at home or at school – is not time lost with respect to English reading
acquisition. (Reese et al., 2000, p. 633)

This means that the use of mother tongue or community

Expert question languages should be positively encouraged in the
Inclusion: are all learners treated
classroom, both for children who are new to English
respectfully and fairly in both formal and and also as they become more fluent. Reflective teachers
informal interaction? understand that it is unhelpful to conceive of ‘multilingual
This question contributes to a conceptual
children’ as some kind of homogeneous group. Some
framework underpinning professional children will have been born in this country and their
expertise (see Chapter 16). parents may have insisted on a different first language
in order to retain the child’s sense of ethnic identity and
community.
Consequently, the teacher needs to apply great sensitivity to these children: on the
one hand, children learning English as an additional language should be encouraged
to use spoken English at every possible opportunity; on the other, the teacher needs to
employ teaching strategies which ensure that these same children do not begin to lose
confidence in their language use because they perceive themselves as underperforming
readers and writers. Because language use is closely linked with a person’s identity it
requires sensitivity and perception by all who work with children (Blackledge, 1994,
Reading 12.7).

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Conclusion
In this chapter, we have discussed some important aspects of communication in the
classroom. We have offered ideas about many of the ways in which teachers and learners
communicate with one another. In particular we have stressed what can be learnt by
teachers and students when they attend to the audience, purpose, context and style of
language use. Although there has been significant emphasis on oral communication,
through talk and listening, we have also shown some of the ways in which communication
occurs through reading and writing in different modes. We have identified differences
between spoken and written language in order to raise awareness of the interesting part
they play in the choices we make when we communicate. Many of the young people with
whom teachers work in classrooms are bilingual or multilingual, so understanding the
advantages and challenges of working with English as an additional language is crucial
to the role of any teacher. The Key readings below offer further reading in all these broad
areas for those interested in pursuing any of the ideas above further.

Key readings
The classic government report on the significance of language across the curriculum is:
Bullock, A. (1975) A Language for Life. Report of the Committee of Enquiry into
Reading and the Use of English. London: HMSO.

A National Oracy Project took this further by drawing on the experience of teachers and
pupils to emphasise the centrality of talk for learning, see:
Norman, K. (ed.) (1992) Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project.
London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Other influential studies of classroom learning and language in primary and secondary
classrooms are:
Edwards, D. and Mercer, N. (1987) Common Knowledge: The Development of
Understanding in Classrooms. London: Methuen.
Webster, A., Beverage, M. and Reid, M. (1996) Managing the Literacy Curriculum.
London: Routledge.

The cutting edge of understanding of effective teaching and learning is now focused
on ‘dialogic teaching’, about which Alexander and Mercer have made exceptional
contributions. For summaries and applications, see:
Alexander, R. (2008) Towards Dialogic Teaching: Rethinking Classroom Talk.
Cambridge: Dialogos. (see also Reading 12.3)
Mercer, N. and Littleton, K. (2007) Dialogue and the Development of Children’s
Thinking. London: Routledge. (Reading 11.6)

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Approaches to reading are often controversial but there is no dispute about the
educational priortity that all pupils should achieve competence. For useful surveys of
some of the many ongoing debates about the teaching of reading, see:
Dombey, H. et al. (2010) Teaching Reading: What the Evidence Says. Leicester:
UKLA.
Harrison, C. (2004) Understanding Reading Development. London: SAGE. (Reading
12.4)

For an insightful classic on teaching reading, see:

Meek, M. (1988) How Texts Teach What Readers Learn. Stroud: Thimble Press.

Writing is also essential for success in school and beyond. The books below offer fresh
perspectives on writing across the full primary and secondary range:
Bearne, E. and Wolstencroft, H. (2007) Visual Approaches to Teaching Writing:
Multimodal Literacy 5 – 11. London: Sage/UKLA.
Cremin, T. and Myhill, D. (2012) Writing Voice: Creating Communities of Writers.
London: Routledge.

Knowledge about the English language is valuable to any teacher. For a fascinating
overview, see:
Crystal, D. (2002) The English Language: A Guided Tour of the Language. London:
Penguin.

Excellent reviews of research, theory and practice on linguistic diversity are:

Conteh, J. (2003) Succeeding in Diversity: Culture, Language and Learning in
Primary Classrooms. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.
Bearne, E. and Marsh, J. (eds) (2007) Literacy and Social Inclusion: Closing the Gap.
Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books

To really drive home the significance of linguistic diversity, take a look at the Greater
London Authority website which provides information on the 40 per cent of pupils
whose first spoken language at home was other than English, such as Bengali, Urdu and
Somali:
http://data.london.gov.uk/visualisations/atlas/language-2011/atlas.html

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Assessment
How can assessment
enhance learning?

13
Introduction (p. 352)

1 Assessment, learning and teaching (p. 353)

1.1 Guiding principles (p. 353)

1.2 Key ideas (p. 355)

2 Classroom strategies (p. 358)

2.1 Sharing goals and identifying quality (p. 360)

2.2 Questioning and dialogue (p. 362)
2.3 Feedback and marking (p. 365)
2.4 Self- and peer-assessment (p. 367)
2.5 Adjusting teaching and learning (p. 368)

3 Affirming assessment for learning (p. 372)

Conclusion (p. 374)

352 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Introduction
Assessment has a profound influence on learning. It does not just measure or find out what
a student has learnt, it also affects what is learnt, how pupils view themselves as learners,
their attitude to school, and possibly their whole future. If these seem startling claims,
think about your own experience: perhaps you did well in one subject because it was clear
what was required of you and each step was manageable; alternatively you might have
disliked another subject and dropped it as soon as possible because everything seemed
so confusing and difficult. Maybe you were motivated by the encouragement from one
teacher, or humiliated by the comments from another. Possibly you know one of the many
people who consider themselves failures because they got lower exam grades than they
hoped for, or did not pass the ‘11-plus’ test for secondary school selection; you might be
one of the people who thinks they cannot do maths, or sing, or draw or whatever. More
positively you might have achieved something you never thought possible, and become
confident that given effort and the right support you are able to succeed in many fields. As
a teacher, you have undoubtedly helped others to learn and achieve, in formal and informal
settings, and across a range of subjects, topics and tasks. Assessment is at the heart of all
these scenarios.
Assessment is more than testing, although tests and examinations are clearly very
important (see Chapter 14). The word ‘assessment’ comes from the Latin ‘assidere’
meaning ‘to sit besides’, and this broadens the conception of assessment to include
collaborative activities, bringing to mind two people in dialogue, looking at something
together, one person seeking to understand another’s work and suggest improvements.
We can also metaphorically sit beside ourselves, reviewing our progress, and planning the
way forward.
Assessment that supports learning is referred to as ‘Assessment for Learning’ (AfL), a
term that is often used interchangeably with ‘formative assessment’. This chapter deliber-
ately refers to ‘Assessment for Learning’ with a particular understanding of the term (as
discussed in Section 3). In brief, AfL is a whole way of working involving learners and
teachers that integrates assessment, learning and teaching. Activities associated with AfL
not only provide information to be used for formative purposes, but rather and probably
even more importantly they are learning processes in themselves. Not only does AfL
support the learning of whatever is being studied at the time, it also promotes learning
how to learn. AfL is underpinned by a set of beliefs about learning, which when enacted
establish a learning culture in the classroom and help develop learners’ metacognitive
skills and sense of responsibility.

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TLRP principles

Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on assessment for learning:

Effective teaching and learning needs assessment to be congruent with

learning. Assessment should help to advance learning as well as determine
whether learning has taken place. It should be designed and carried out so that it
measures learning outcomes in a dependable way and also provides feedback for
future learning. (Principle 5)

Effective teaching and learning promotes the active engagement of the

learner. A chief goal of teaching and learning should be the promotion of learners’
independence and autonomy. This involves acquiring a repertoire of learning
strategies and practices, developing positive attitudes towards learning, and
confidence in oneself as a good learner. (Principle 6) See Chapter 4

There are three main sections to this chapter – ‘assessment, learning and teaching’,
‘classroom strategies’, and ‘affirming assessment for learning’. In the first section key
issues, definitions and principles that concern the inter-relationships among assessment,
learning and teaching are introduced and discussed. In the second different ways of
putting AfL into practice are considered in five groups. It is essential that both these
sections are read together since ‘doing’ AfL divorced from a culture of learning and
without understanding the underlying ideas and principles will not bring about the desired
results; indeed, doing so could be detrimental to learning. The final section affirms an
understanding of assessment for learning and explores how it differs from formative
assessment in a little more depth.
The following chapter, Chapter 14, takes as its focus the closely related aspect of
assessment in relation to achievement, and issues of evaluating learning outcomes.
Harlen et al. (1992, Reading 13.1) provides an overview of different types and purposes
of assessment, and relates to both this chapter and Chapter 14.

1 Assessment, learning and teaching

1.1 Guiding principles

Three key principles about Assessment for Learning were generated through TLRP’s
Learning How to Learn project (James et al., 2007, Reading 2.8; see the Research Briefing
on p. 156):
●● making learning explicit
●● promoting learning autonomy
●● focusing on learning (as opposed to performance).

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‘Making learning explicit’ involves opening up and making very clear all phases and
aspects of learning: what precisely is to be learnt, how it will be judged and what counts
as quality; exactly what pupils know and understand, and tellingly what misconceptions
they hold; which aspects and parts of their work are evidence of high-quality learning, and
how to improve elements that need strengthening. A classroom where learning is made
explicit features rich dialogue focused on learning, among pupils and between the teacher
and individuals. Exchanges go far beyond closed questions and very short answers, to
open questions eliciting extensive responses, with in-depth probing leading to detailed
explanation and considered reflection. When marking children’s work, learning cannot be
made explicit by the occasional tick or an overall mark or grade, but rather by identifying
particular strengths and pointing to specific points for improvement.
‘Autonomous learning’ refers to pupils taking responsibility for their learning and
exercising some measure of independence. It does not mean that they work on their own,
although there might be occasions when they decide that this is the most appropriate thing
to do. For teachers to promote learning autonomy they must grant some level of choice
to pupils, and also support them in developing the skills and confidence to make those
decisions. A key feature of autonomous learning is being able to evaluate your own work
and progress, and decide on your next steps without having to be reliant on a teacher
or someone else to tell you, so realistic self-assessment informed by knowledge of the
objective and notions of quality is crucial. Self-regulating learning is not age or stage
dependent, but is a learnt process: pupils become more autonomous learners with guidance
and through practice.
The third principle, ‘focusing on learning’ (as opposed to performance) draws
attention to the nature of the learning that is promoted and valued. It is learning with
understanding at its core, and learning for its intrinsic worth and long lasting value,
rather than a mechanistic and utilitarian approach to getting marks in a test or exami-
nation after which it is forgotten. This principle is closely linked to Carol Dweck’s
(2006, Reading 2.6) notion of a ‘growth’ mindset rather than a ‘performance’ mindset.
Focusing on learning includes focusing on the process of learning, as well as the
particular subject objective, so that through assessment for learning pupils become
better learners.
As well as providing a useful aide memoire to the essential features of AfL, these
three principles are very helpful in evaluating putative assessment for learning practices
and checking on their actual effect. This is important because as Mary James and her
team made clear, ‘if practices fail to serve the underlying
principles such as making learning explicit and promoting
Expert question learner autonomy, then they cease to be assessment for
Congruence: are forms of assessment fit for learning’ (James et al., 2007, p. 215, Reading 2.8, see also
purpose in terms of overall educational the Research Briefing on p. 156).
objectives? Another helpful reference point is the TLRP principles
This question contributes to a conceptual for effective teaching and learning discussed in Chapter
framework underpinning professional 4. Principle 5, ‘Effective pedagogy needs assessment
expertise (see Chapter 16). to be congruent with learning’ is obviously all about
assessment, and stresses that assessment should enhance

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 355

and advance learning as well as evaluating learning outcomes. This resonates with the
third Learning How to Learn principle above, drawing attention to the learning process
rather than performance per se.
The three principles derived from the Learning How to Learn project (making learning
explicit, promoting learning autonomy and focusing on learning) serve well as aids to
minute-by-minute decisions as well as more considered reflection on practice. Principled
decision-making and evaluation are essential if damaging unintended consequences
of misrepresentations of AfL are to be avoided, and the powerful benefits of authentic
assessment for learning are to be realised.

Reflective activity 13.1

Aim: To apply principled reflection to putative assessment for learning practices.
Evidence and reflection: Gather evidence and review a lesson in which practices
regarded as assessment for learning were evident. To what extent: (a) was learning
made explicit? (b) were learners encouraged to be autonomous? and (c) was there
a focus on genuine learning (as opposed to performance simply to gain marks)?
Extension: Reflect on whether there were any harmful unintended consequences of
the practices, and what could have been done differently to enhance the quality of
learning.

1.2 Key ideas

Lying beneath any principles and practices are sets of beliefs, values, theories and ideas
that shape our actions, whether or not we acknowledge or are even conscious of them. This
section draws attention to conceptions of children and of learning, notions of ability, and
the interrelated aspects of roles, relationships, agency and identity.
Mary-Jane Drummond (2008) highlighted the ‘close and necessary relationship’
between assessment and values, arguing that through the practice of assessment educators
make ‘value-driven choices about children, about learning and achievements’ (p. 3). She
reminded us that over the years children have been conceptualised in different ways, for
example as empty vessels or blank sheets (John Locke), or as passing through stages of
development (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Jean Piaget). Some conceptualisations are
essentially deficit models, where children are viewed as lacking, or yet to develop, the
characteristics of a competent learner on the way to adulthood. By contrast, the image of
pre-school children held by educators in Reggio Emilia, Italy, is of children as ‘rich, strong
and powerful’ (quoted in Drummond, 2008, p. 9).
In terms of learning and achievement, the construction of curricula, learning activities
and recording mechanisms based on pre-specified goals, sequenced steps and check-
lists reflect a view of children’s learning as standardised, linear and predictable, rather
than unique, complex and divergent. The ‘Learning Stories’ approach to assessment
and recording developed in New Zealand (Carr, 2001, 2008; Carr and Lee, 2012) uses
narrative to document children’s learning not only for recording purposes but more

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Research
Briefing
Promoting learning how to learn

TLRP’s Learning How to Learn project, led by Mary James, makes a key contribution to the Personalisation agenda (see page 289). As
2020 Vision puts it:

Too many children drift into underachievement and disengagement and fail to make progress in their learning. Schools should
consider how best to integrate ‘learning how to learn’ into the curriculum – focusing on the skills and attitudes pupils need to
become better learners. (DfES, 2006, p. 21)

Learning How to Learn takes place alongside learning in subject areas – it must be about something. It builds on the explicitness,
openness and reflexivity of Assessment for Learning, but goes further to engage with, and influence, the deeper principles and beliefs
about learning and teaching held by teachers. INSET, workshops, questionnaire feedback, critical friendship and web-based support were
offered to schools. Improvements in pupil learning were found to depend on teacher learning and reflective, classroom-focused, self-
improvement activity. For this to succeed required support across the school and could be further enhanced by professional networks.
Among the project’s 17 secondary and 21 primary schools was one of the top-performing schools in England which had led on ‘making
learning explicit’ and ‘promoting learning autonomy’.

Key findings: Implications:

Assessment for Learning: AfL helps teachers promote learning Advice on AfL techniques is useful to teachers in the short term.
how to learn (LHTL) in ways which are in line with their own But progressive professional development requires teachers to
values, and reduces excessive performance orientation. But it is re-evaluate their beliefs about learning, the way they structure
difficult to shift from reliance on specific techniques to practices tasks, and the nature of their classroom roles and relationships.
based on deep principles.

Classroom enquiry: Classroom-focused enquiry by teachers is School leaders need to create structures and cultures that focus
a key condition for promoting learner autonomy. Schools that on learning and support teachers in sharing and evaluating
embed LHTL make support for professional learning a priority. innovations in classroom practice.

New technology: Teachers are optimistic about the value of There is much still to be done to provide resources, services
electronic tools for professional development purposes and and online environments that support knowledge creation
networking, but they are not well-used. about teaching and learning, and which align with teachers’
professional development needs.

Professional networks: Educational networks are much talked Building network capacity is complex. It is best understood by
about but little understood. They are subjective phenomena analysing the roles and perspectives of those involved and the
rather than objective structures and the way they are perceived pathways by which they communicate.
varies according to a person’s position.

School conditions that foster successful learning how to learn are represented below:

Developing a sense of
where we are going
Inquiry
Making learning explicit

Supporting professional
development
Critical and
responsive learning Promoting learning
Auditing expertise and autonomy
supporting networking

Significant relationship for

Deciding and acting Building social capital
teachers and managers
together
Significant relationship for
managers only

Further information:
James, M. et al.(2006) Learning How to Learn – in Classrooms, Schools and Networks. TLRP Research Briefing 17. London: TLRP. Available at www.tlrp.org/pub
(accessed 18 November 2013).
James, M. et al.(2006) Learning How to Learn: Tools for Schools. TLRP Improving Practice Series. London: Routledge.
James M. (2007) Improving Learning How to Learn. TLRP Improving Learning series. London: Routledge.
An excellent website exists at: www.learningtolearn.ac.uk
This project was directed from the Institute of Education, University of London.

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 357

importantly as a learning process in itself, shared with

friends, teachers, parents and others. Mary James (1998, Expert question
2012) has explored the implications for assessment of Validity: in terms of learning, do the forms
three theories of learning (behavourist, constructivist, of assessment used really measure what
and sociocultural; see Chapter 2), noting that beliefs they are intended to measure?
about learning are often out of kilter with assessment This question contributes to a conceptual
practices. She advocated reviewing the methods we use framework underpinning professional
for assessment to see the extent to which they align with expertise (see Chapter 16).
beliefs and understandings about learning.
What teachers give attention to and what they say
indicates to pupils what is valued. If feedback and comments are predominantly about
presentation and quantity, rather than the learning intention and quality, these aspects will
be seen as the most important. Crucially, if the highest attainment in the class is valued
more than the greatest achievement by an individual, and if ‘correct answers’ appear to be
more important than ‘having a go’, then most of the class will feel they can never succeed
and will probably disengage, and the rich learning that comes through effort and risk-
taking will be rare. Teachers’ language reveals their perceptions of ‘ability’ and learning
potential, and helps shape pupils’ learning disposition and mindsets (Dweck, 2006, Reading
2.6). The idea of a ‘growth’ mindset as opposed to a ‘fixed’ mindset has been referred to
above and in Chapter 2, and the two can be characterised as follows.
Whichever mindset is held has far-reaching repercussions for the disposition of both
teachers and pupils. Teachers who ascribe to a fixed mindset try to ascertain pupils’ abilities
and then match their expectations to this supposed stable and constant entity. Pupils in
their turn are concerned how they appear to their peers and teachers, are anxious to look
clever not stupid, believe that effort and challenges reveal inadequacies, and because they
fear failure they often disengage completely since they would prefer to be thought lazy
than stupid. By contrast, a growth mindset fosters effort, engagement, a willingness to
tackle new and challenging tasks, and to view failure as part of a learning journey. When
growth mindsets characterise a classroom, expectations are high, everyone tries, efforts are
valued whatever the outcome, and, in the titles of two powerful books, learning is without
limits (Hart et al., 2004; Swann et al., 2012, Reading 1.4).
The roles and relationships of, and among, pupils and teachers that develop in class-
rooms are closely connected with the prevalent conceptions of children, learning and
ability. It makes a huge difference whether children are regarded as rich strong and

Figure 13.1 Fixed

Fixed Mindset Growth Mindset and growth
Intelligence is static Intelligence is expandable mindsets

‘I must look clever!’ ‘I want to learn more’

Avoids challenge Embraces challenge
Gives up easily Persists in the face of setbacks
Sees effort as pointless Sees effort as the way
Ignores useful criticism Learns from criticism

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358 Part 3 Teaching for learning

powerful with unlimited possibilities for growth in diverse

Expert questions and complex ways, or of fixed potential with deficiencies
Expectation: does our school support high yet-to-be remedied by inculcation with the knowledge
staff and student expectations and aspire necessary to succeed in tests. The inter-relationships
for excellence? between assessment practices on the one hand, and roles,
Development: does formative feedback relationships, autonomy, agency and identity formation on
and support enable learners to achieve the other have been explored by a number of researchers
personal learning goals? (Pollard and Filer, 1999, Reading 14.7; Carr, 2001, 2008;
These questions contribute to a conceptual Drummond, 2008, 2012; Stobart, 2008; Swaffield, 2011;
framework underpinning professional Willis, 2011). Gordon Stobart’s sketches of students
expertise (see Chapter 16). illustrates powerfully how assessment ‘creates’ learners
(2008, Reading 13.6). The essential argument is that the
way assessment is practised shapes how learners view
themselves (which has far-reaching consequences), has a strong influence on their devel-
opment as successful learners (or not), and determines the culture and interactions of the
classroom.

Reflective activity 13.2

Aim: To reflect on the influence of beliefs and related assessment practices on learner
identity and self-efficacy.
Evidence and reflection: Think about two contrasting individuals you know well (one of
whom may be yourself) and consider whether there is any evidence that how they
regard themselves has been shaped by their beliefs about learning and ability, and/
or assessment practices they have experienced.
Extension: Reflect on the influence you may have on the identity of children or adults
you know by what you say and how you respond to them.

2 Classroom strategies
There have been great advances in the understanding and use of assessment to support
learning in the last 15 years. Although there was a considerable amount of research,
professional development and practice before that, in 1998 Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam
published an academic article (Black and Wiliam, 1998a)
and a summary booklet (Black and Wiliam, 1998b) that
Expert question led to renewed interest and great activity in the field. Their
work was influential because it (a) showed that assessment
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise
sufficiently creative, skilled and wide-
practice can lead to substantial increases in pupil learning,
ranging to teach all elements of learning? and (b) identified specific classroom practices.
Since then there has been much development work
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
and many other studies that have further deepened our
expertise (see Chapter 16). knowledge and understanding. Most notable were the
King’s Medway Oxfordshire Formative Assessment

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 359

project (Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall and Wiliam, 2003), the Learning How to Learn
project (James, Black, Carmichael, Drummond, Fox, MacBeath, McCormick et al., 2007,
see the TLRP Research Briefing on p. 156), and work by Shirley Clarke (2005a, 2005b,
2008, 2011) but there have also been many other projects, research studies and devel-
opment programmes throughout the UK and around the world.
Whilst all this activity has added considerably to our knowledge about how assessment
can support learning and has expanded the repertoire of classroom activities, it has also
most importantly pointed out some difficulties. Assessment for Learning is not a tool kit to
pick and chose from, or a set of techniques that can be put in place almost mechanistically.
Indeed, it has been found that when teachers apply the ‘letter’ rather than the ‘spirit’ of AfL
(Marshall and Drummond, 2006) then it can do more harm than good. Rather, AfL rests on
a set of beliefs about learning – notably that the learner has to be actively engaged and that
learning is enhanced through working with others (a social constructivist perspective), and
that given effort, practice and the right support everyone can achieve (a growth mindset)
– and strategies will only be effective when conducted in congruence with these beliefs.
Research has also produced sets of principles to guide practice, as discussed in Section 1
of this chapter.
The major features of AfL practice identified by Black and Wiliam (1998a, 1998b)
have stood the test of time, and been affirmed by subsequent development and research
work.
In this chapter these strategies are considered in five categories, but it should be remem-
bered that they are interrelated. Since AfL is a coherent way of working, any grouping of
the practices is to some extent artificial and slightly arbitrary. Also, since AfL is an integral
part of learning and teaching there are many connections with other chapters in this book,
for example Chapter 4 on principles of effective teaching and learning, Chapter 6 on
relationships and classroom climate, Chapter 10 on planning, Chapter 11 on teaching and
Chapter 12 on communication.
The approach which was developed in Scotland, ‘assessment is for learning’ (AiFL),
is particularly interesting because of the way in which it integrates assessment principles
into holistic, systemic provision (Scottish Government, 2011b, see also Reading 14.2) and
is backed by a National Assessment Resource. Figure 13.2 gives a sense of AiFL.
Finally, a reminder that it is essential to understand the underpinning beliefs and
principles on which the practical strategies rest (see Section 1 above), and to use these as
a continual check on the implementation and effect of the practices.

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360 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Figure 13.2 What is an AifL School?

Scotland’s A place where everyone is learning together
‘Assessment is for
Learning’ Our pupils and staff
help to set their own
Our pupils and staff
learning goals
identify and reflect on Our pupils and staff
their own evidence practice self- and
of learning peer-assessment

Curriculum Learning and Teaching

ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING

ING
AS
Staff use a range of evidence Our pupils, staff and parents are

SES

RN
from day-to-day activities to AifL
clear about what it is to be learned

EA
SM
check on pupils’ progress ASSESSMENT and what success would be like

RL
EN
is for LEARNING

FO
OFT

NT
LEA

ME
Staff talk and work Our pupils and staff are given timely

SS
RN
together to share standards feedback about the quality of their

SE
ING
in and across schools work and how to make it better

AS
Staff use assessment information Our pupils and staff are fully involved in
to monitor their establishment’s deciding next steps in their learning
position and progress, and to and identifying who can help
Assessment
plan for improvement

Our classroom assessment includes high quality

interactions, based on thoughtful questions, careful
listening and reflective responses

2.1 Sharing goals and identifying quality

Mary Alice White wrote that adults might comprehend what the experience of school is
like for pupils if they imagine being:

… on a ship sailing across an unknown sea, to an unknown destination. An adult would

be desperate to know where he is going. But a child only knows he is going to school
...The chart is neither available nor understandable to him ... Very quickly, the daily life
on board ship becomes all important ... The daily chores, the demands, the inspections,
become the reality, not the voyage, nor the destination. (White, 1971, p. 340)

White is reminding us of the importance of helping children see the bigger picture and
knowing how what they are learning today fits in with what they have learnt previously
and will do in the future. Not only does this support constructivist learning (see Chapter
2), but it can also capture pupils’ interest and increase motivation to learn.
Sharing learning goals, success criteria, notions of quality and information on how
their work will be evaluated, all assist pupils to understand what they are trying to
achieve. These are all elements of short-term planning – see Chapter 10, section 4. These
practices also help learning itself. Experiments by Frederikson and White (1997) showed
that students’ learning improved when they were involved in discussions about what they
were learning, how their work would be assessed and what would count as good work.
Moreover, the lower attaining students made greater gains than the previously higher
attainers, indicating that some students’ previous lack of success may have been because
they did not understand what was required.

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 361

It is now common practice for the teacher to announce

the learning objective at the beginning of the lesson and Expert question
to write it up so that it is visible and acts as a continual Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
reminder of the aim of the lesson for everyone – pupils, classroom organisation and consultation
teachers and learning assistants. Referring to it throughout enable learners to actively participate in
the lesson and in a review at the end helps keep the focus and enjoy their learning?
on what the pupils are learning, rather than what they This question contributes to a conceptual
are doing. Shirley Clarke (2008), who through her work framework underpinning professional
with teachers over many years has really deepened under- expertise (see Chapter 16).
standing of the complexities and subtleties of sharing
learning objectives effectively, advocates separating out
objective, context, activity and success criteria. For example:

Learning objective: To produce a travel brochure

Context: For a place of pilgrimage
Activity (abbreviated): Introduction, research, planning on paper, discussion, drafting
brochure using ICT, self- and peer-assessment, producing final
version
Success criteria: The history of the place
Features of special interest
Reasons for visiting
Places to stay
Correct presentation
(Adapted from Clarke, 2008, p. 114)

Whilst it helps learners to know what they are aiming for, sometimes stating it too baldly
right at the beginning of a lesson can militate against a sense of excitement or surprise. A
teacher might want to capture children’s interest in any number of creative ways, leading
to a statement of the learning objective part way into the lesson. In other cases, when pupils
will be investigating or creating something it is inappropriate to give them the ‘answer’
before they begin. Here an understanding of different kinds of objectives is helpful. Elliott
Eisner (2002) distinguished what he called ‘curriculum’ objectives from ‘problem solving’
and ‘creative’ objectives, and these categories suggest phraseology other than a statement
of outcome – perhaps in the form of a question or a challenge.
Pupils can be helped to understand what they are aiming for by seeing examples of work
generated previously. Single pieces can be discussed to reveal expectations, characteristics
and indications of quality, but care must be taken to avoid giving the impression that there
is only one way, or that the model should be copied. Several examples could be looked at in
sequence, but it can be even more powerful to compare two examples of differing quality as
this helps reveal exactly what makes one piece more successful than the other and assists in
making characteristics of quality explicit (Clarke, 2008). Examples do not of course have
to be limited to written work: different kinds of products including models, artifacts, sound
recordings and videos of action, can all be used. Sharing examples of high-quality work
and analysing what makes them so can be very powerful, but multiple examples are needed
so that pupils realise there are many possible and unique manifestations of excellence.

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Once the learning goal has been made explicit, and notions of quality established, it is
success criteria that help students attain the objective. Success criteria point out things to
attend to, and may be closed instructions (‘write down your calculation’) or open-ended
prompts (‘use at least three ways of describing her character, such as likes and dislikes,
interests, personality, attitude to others etc.’). Although initially teachers will need to
model appropriate success criteria, they are most effective when pupils help generate
them. Ways of doing this include asking about key points to remember, comparing
examples of products, presenting something that is incomplete, or the teacher ‘doing it
wrongly’ and eliciting ways to improve a piece of work. Helping learners get into the
habit and develop the skills of using success criteria enables them to aim for the best and
continually improve.
Shared learning intentions, developing a sense of quality, and jointly creating success
criteria all enable children to take responsibility for the quality of their work, helping them
to become more autonomous learners and assisting them in developing self-regulation.
However, it is essential to note that these aspects of assessment for learning only come
about when pupils are engaged in the process, as described above; they do not result
from the mechanistic writing up of learning objectives. Also, it is crucial that the focus is
kept on the learning intention, and that teachers do not unwittingly give the impression
that other things (such as behaviour or presentation) are more important than the lesson’s
learning focus.

2.2 Questioning and dialogue

Questioning and dialogue are central to assessment for learning. It is through dialogue
that pupils develop a sense of what they are aiming for, how to get there, and a sense
of quality. Questioning and dialogue are integral to feedback and peer-assessment, and
are key ways in which teachers ascertain what children have learned, giving insights
into their comprehension and misunderstandings. There are many resonances with the
research and issues discussed in Chapter 12, and some of the same authors are drawn on
in this section.
Crucially for AfL, talk in the classroom not only assesses current understanding but
is also an integral part of assessment that supports learning and is itself a thinking and
learning process. For this to be the case certain conditions must prevail, and pupils and
teachers alike must learn how to engage in effective
dialogue. These conditions are discussed below, preceded
Expert question
by a review of the meaning of dialogue.
Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk scaffold
The word ‘dialogue’ comes from Greek antiquity and
understanding to build on existing
can be interpreted as: ‘an exchange of meaning through
knowledge and to strengthen dispositions
speech’. So the challenge is how to set up classroom talk,
to learn?
often stimulated by questioning, such that it can generate
This question contributes to a conceptual
and distribute meaning and understanding. As we saw
framework underpinning professional
in Chapter 12, Robin Alexander (2004) identified five
expertise (see Chapter 16).
features of ‘dialogic teaching’:

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 363

●● collective – pupils and teachers learning together rather than in isolation;

●● reciprocal – pupils and teachers listening to each other, sharing ideas;
●● supportive – pupils supported to voice ideas without feeling there is a single
correct response;
●● cumulative – pupils and teachers build on contributions to take thinking forward;
●● purposeful – teachers plan and facilitate dialogue with particular goals in mind.
For ‘meaning to develop through talk’ there must first be opportunities for dialogue, in
whole-class, small groups or pairs. Instead of what might be considered ‘traditional’
practice where the teacher asks a closed question, one of the pupils with their hands
up gives a short (often one-word) response, and the teacher declares it right or wrong,
many ways of engaging more pupils more of the time have been developed. To
encourage everyone to think about the issue some teachers have introduced ‘no hands
up’ (Black et al., 2003): every pupil is expected to be engaged and able to respond in
some way, even if it is expressing a difficulty or doubt, and knows they can be called
on to contribute at any time by the teacher or another pupil. Rather than the ‘ping-pong’
between teacher and volunteering pupils, whole-class discussions can become more like
netball or basketball, where an issue is passed around the group. The next contributor
can be selected at random (using named cards or lolly sticks) or nominated by teacher
or pupils. Main points about questioning that supports learning are set out by Black et
al. (2002).
Other techniques for increasing involvement in dialogue involve the use of small
groups. Teachers working with Shirley Clarke (2008; 2011) have explored the practical-
ities of ‘talk partners’ in great depth. Key points include keeping discussions very focused
and not too long (from 5 or 10 seconds up to 2 or 3 minutes, depending on the task); and
frequent changing of randomly selected partners. The quality of dialogue is enhanced by
the establishment of protocols and ground rules (Mercer and Littleton, 2007, Reading 11.6),
and the modelling of language use by teachers. Being able to engage in effective small
group dialogue is a very valuable skill in itself, and needs to be practised and supported:
making explicit the learning involved, explaining the value of being able to work with any
partner, establishing success criteria and using these to reflect on what went well and how
it could be improved, should all be applied to the process.
Along with opportunities to engage, ways of working that enable educative, stimu-
lating initiators of dialogue are required. Questioning is central, but the quality of ensuing
dialogue is highly dependent on the nature of the questions. Closed questions used to
check children’s recall or speed of calculation have their uses, but they do not stimulate
dialogue. Instead, open-ended questions, perhaps framed using Bloom’s taxonomy or De
Bono’s ‘thinking hats’ (see Clarke, 2005a), are more fruitful. ‘Why’, ‘how’ and ‘what’
questions are more likely to lead to discussion than ‘when’ or ‘where’ questions, but
much depends on the exact phrasing. The format of questions can also be varied with
good effect. For example, dialogue can be stimulated by providing a question together
with a range of answers, including answers that are definitely right, definitely wrong,
and ambiguous ones. Other approaches include asking whether and why pupils agree or

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disagree with a given statement; stating an answer and

Expert question asking what the question could have been; and asking
Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise which statement/shape/object, etc. is the odd one out and
sufficiently creative, skilled and wide- why.
ranging to teach all elements of learning? Hogden and Webb (2008, p. 83) provide a list of
This question contributes to a conceptual generic questions that dialogue about a problem or task:
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).

●● Tell me about the problem

●● What do you know about the problem? Can you describe the problem to someone
else?
●● Have you seen a problem like this before?
●● What is similar …? What is different …?
●● Do you have a hunch? … a conjecture?
●● What would happen if …? Is it always true that …?
●● How do you know that …? Can you justify …? Can you find a different method?
●● Can you explain … improve/add to that explanation?
●● What have you found out about …? What advice would you give to someone else
about …?
●● What was easy/difficult about this task?
Really good questions and prompts for dialogue often require thinking about in advance,
and teachers find it helpful to keep a record of powerful questions, to share them with
colleagues, and to plan together.
The final aspect of creating the conditions for dialogue concerns the ways teachers
respond to pupils’ contributions. Initially they need to allow enough thinking time to
produce responses beyond quick recall. Increasing ‘wait/think time’ even beyond one
second takes practice as typically teachers rephrase, ask another question, give a clue,
or redirect the question if there is not an immediate
response. Dialogue is encouraged by teachers being seen
Expert question to value all contributions, expected or not. ‘As one Year
9 girl said, “When Miss used to ask a question, she used
Authenticity: do learners recognise routine
to be interested in the right answer. Now she is interested
processes of assessment and feedback as
being of personal value? in what we think”’ (Hogden and Webb, 2008, p. 76).
This is especially necessary when employing ‘no hands
This question contributes to a conceptual
up’. Teachers should take the time to carefully consider
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16). pupils’ contributions, and in so doing model the use of
thinking time to enhance dialogue.

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2.3 Feedback and marking

A number of researchers have conducted meta-studies of the effects of feedback, including
Kluger and De Nisi (1996) and Hattie and Timperley (2007). The key message is that
‘feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this
impact can be either positive or negative’ (Hattie and Timperley, 2007, p. 81). Burrell and
Bubb’s (2000) study of the feedback received by two children in the course of a day helps
us understand why this should be so. Kluger and De Nisi reported an average effect size
of 0.4 (quite substantial in educational terms) but they found that in over 40 per cent of
cases the effect was negative. In other words, in two out of five instances feedback actually
lowered performance. So clearly the nature of the feedback is crucial.
It is worth emphasising that authentic feedback has personal implications, and may
or may not be welcomed. The quality of relationships and climate in the class is thus
significant (see Chapter 6). Spendlove (2009, Reading 13.3) sees the establishment of
an appropriate ‘emotional environment for feedback’ as being essential to an effective
process so that pupils are open to learning and receptive to the messages which the
feedback conveys (Immordino-Yang and Damasio, 2007, Reading 6.2).
Indicators of good practice can be elicited from the literature (Swaffield, 2008).

1. Feedback should be timely and clear. Feedback should be provided as promptly as

possible, when the work to which it relates is fresh in the child’s mind. The younger the
learner, the greater the imperative that feedback is as immediate as possible, suggesting
oral feedback whenever feasible. Oral feedback also has the advantage that the teacher
can judge whether the message is being understood, and a fuller dialogue is possible.
However, it is often not practical to feed back in this way especially when written work
becomes lengthier and the overall quantity increases, hence the age-old practice of
teachers marking or providing written feedback. Here again timeliness is important, as
well as ensuring that the pupils can read and understand the comments.

2. Use comments alone and avoid marks, grades or levels. The latter all encourage the
recipients to focus on performance (‘what did I get?’) rather than adopt a learning
orientation (‘what have I achieved and how can I improve my work still further?’).
(There is a place for the occasional reference to grades or levels, but these practices do
not support learning and so are discussed in the following chapter, not this one.) It is
important to note that it is only comments on their own that assist the focus on learning:
if they are accompanied by marks or grades pupils again just focus on those as signifiers
of performance, and the learning potential of carefully crafted comments is lost (Butler,
1988). Smiley faces, stickers and stars all tend to function as marks or grades, turning
children’s attention to whether or not they were awarded a symbol of recognition and
away from the specific qualities of their work. However, symbols or codes can be useful
if they are understood to have a particular meaning, such as ‘this point is a particularly
good example of demonstrating the success criteria’. Some teachers have also adopted
the use of a stamp to indicate that oral feedback has taken place, acting as a record and
avoiding the impression that the teacher has not considered the work.

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3. Comments on work and possible improvement should be specific. General comments

such as ‘good’, ‘well done’, or ‘you need to work harder’ are little more than verbalised
marks or grades and do not help the learner improve. Rather, the focus of feedback
should be on particular qualities of the work, including information about success in
relation to the learning objective and success criteria. Learning is likely to be enhanced
if the focus is on the task (as opposed to the learner), and on process and progress
(not the product). Comparison with others should be avoided, but instead comparisons
should be made with the pupil’s own previous work and with shared criteria. As well as
acknowledging success, comments should be about next steps and provide specific advice
on what and how to improve. This is most likely to support continued learning if couched
in terms of questions or prompts rather than direct instruction.

4. Pupils should respond to feedback. The learning potential of high-quality feedback

comments will only be realised if pupils take note and act on them. Children should
therefore be expected to read (or listen) to feedback, to think about it, and to take some
action that is challenging yet achievable. Improving the current piece of work in some
way, while it is in progress, is the most meaningful response to feedback. Comments
such as ‘next time remember to …’ are unlikely to be acted upon (even if they are
remembered!) since they ask the pupil to do something that they are currently unable or
disinclined to do at some indeterminate time in the future. Pupils require time to respond
to feedback, which may (and most powerfully) be within the general flow of a lesson,
and/or as a routine at the beginning of lessons.

5. Make feedback and marking practice explicit and manageable. To balance quality with
manageability, teachers have to be selective about which pieces and aspects of work they
mark in detail, ensuring that the focus and pupils rotate. Pupils need to know what to
expect in terms of feedback and marking, and policy and practice need to be explained to
parents.

Shirley Clarke strongly advocates the use of a visualiser

Expert question to instantly share pupils’ work, collectively reviewing
Feedback: is there a routine flow of and improving work in progress (Clarke, 2008, 2011).
constructive, specific, diagnostic feedback These practices model the process of constant review and
from teacher to learners? revision which learners can then adopt themselves.
This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 367

Reflective activity 13.3

Aim: To identify aspects of feedback and marking practice to improve.
Evidence and reflection: Chose one of the five points on pp. 365 and 366 (or work
through all five in turn); consider your current practice in relation to the guidance
given. What is working well, and what evidence supports your claim? What could
be improved, and how? Try to improve at least one aspect of your practice.
Extension: Talk with a colleague to get another perspective on feedback and marking
practices. Consider the contributions of the examples discussed to making learning
explicit, promoting learning autonomy, and focusing on learning (not performance).

2.4 Self- and peer-assessment

‘All young people need to become their own best self-assessors’, declared Earl and Katz
(2008, p. 90). The logic behind this is that everyone needs to be continually learning
and adapting, becoming more autonomous, self-regulating, self-monitoring learners.
The classroom strategies discussed in the sections above help pupils become more self-
regulating learners. In particular, understanding the objective, and having a clear sense
of success criteria and quality, enable learners to evaluate their own work. The feedback
and marking comments they have seen modelled by teachers help pupils give feedback
to themselves, essentially ‘sitting beside’ themselves reviewing their efforts (Muschamp,
1991, Reading 13.4). Self-assessment, as with so many other aspects of assessment for
learning, needs support and practice, so to begin with the teacher initiates the activity.
However, the aim is for pupils to take control so that they initiate repeated moments of
self-assessment, integrating the practice into the continual process of working on a task.
This is where the real power of self-assessment lies, not in ‘marking’ completed pieces
of work.
Similarly, peer-assessment is becoming to be seen as ‘co-operative improvement’
(Clarke, 2011), rather than the swopping of books to be marked in the more traditional
sense. Indeed, ‘marks’ of any kind may be more of a distraction than a help. If peers look
at and discuss work together, with improvements being made immediately there is little
need for any marks to be made, much less comments written. Too often, especially for less
competent writers, peer-assessment has become yet another literacy chore, limited by what
can be expressed in writing, with consequent impoverishment of feedback.
Putting the focus on improvement also reduces the emphasis on judgement, and thus
lessens some of the more sensitive aspects of peer-assessment including possible threats
to self-esteem and opportunities for bullying. Cooperating with a peer in order to make
work even better helps pupils appreciate others’ strengths and the value of another point
of view, and can enhance learning autonomy by assisting the realisation that it can be
very useful to seek another person’s perspective. Peer-assessment should be focused,
with the owner of the work indicating which particular aspect he or she is seeking help
to improve.

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Reflective activity 13.4

Aim: To support pupil development as autonomous self-regulating learners.
Evidence and reflection: Consider the opportunities that pupils already have in your
classes to improve their learning through self- and peer-assessment. What are the
strengths of current practice, and what might be possible negative consequences?
Extension: Re-read Section 2.4, and if possible explore other guidance on self- and
peer-assessment. Evaluate what you have read against the three principles for AFL
(Making learning explicit; Promoting learning autonomy; Focusing on learning
rather than performance). Decide what you can do in your practice to help pupils
develop as more autonomous self-regulating learners.

2.5 Adjusting teaching and learning

The most important factor influencing learning, according to Ausubel (1968), is what
the learner already knows; therefore the teacher should ‘ascertain this and teach accord-
ingly’. This seemingly simple yet powerful observation is a key element of assessment for
learning with its notion of using assessment to match the next steps to the learner’s current
position. Records of students’ previous attainment in the area can provide useful infor-
mation, but they should be checked against their current understanding as in the meantime
students may have forgotten some things and grasped others.
There are a number of ways in which teachers can check pupils’ understanding before
starting on a new topic. Concept maps can yield rich information, providing the pupils
already know how to draw them. Children could be set a task designed to reveal knowledge
and understanding and to highlight areas to be addressed, or given a quick quiz – orally, on
paper or using ICT. A teacher in the King’s Medway Oxfordshire Formative Assessment
Project found that a discussion around an open question such as ‘If plants need sunlight
to make food, how come the biggest plants don’t grow in deserts where it is sunny all the
time?’ (Black et al., 2003, p. 35) allowed all students to participate and enabled him to
ascertain their starting point for the upcoming topic of photosynthesis. Another approach
for gauging current understanding when pupils already have some knowledge is to ask
them to set the questions for a class test at the end. The test itself is not actually taken, but
the questions reveal the breadth and depth of current knowledge as well as misconcep-
tions. Some teachers give pupils a list of the items that constitute the forthcoming topic
and ask them to indicate their current understanding of each one, typically using ‘traffic
lights’ (colouring items red, orange, green) or smiley faces (happy, neutral or sad). This
technique can be very helpful in effectively directing what is always limited teaching time,
but there are two necessary conditions. First the items must be phrased in such a way that
pupils’ responses provide valid information (we don’t know what we don’t know about
something – I may think that I understand ‘photosynthesis’ for example, but I may have
many misconceptions of which I am unaware). Second, pupils must respond honestly,
and are more likely to do so if they appreciate the purpose of the task and know the

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consequences of their responses. If a learning culture is well established in the classroom

this is unlikely to be problematic, but may be more so if the emphasis has previously been
on ‘getting everything right’ and being seen to ‘be clever’.
Whichever techniques are used to ascertain children’s current knowledge and under-
standing, there must be sufficient time for the teacher to act on what he or she finds out.
There is no point using them in the first lesson of a series if the subsequent lessons have
already been planned and there is no time to make amendments.
Having established the starting point, thought also needs to be given to the goal. This
is often determined by the curriculum, exam syllabi, schemes of work and such like, and
of course such statements are very important. However, they must also be realistic given
the starting point, and it may be more appropriate to plan some intermediate objectives.
Although it is always wise to have some learning intentions in mind, learning is not linear
and predictable, so teachers need to be open-minded about unplanned worthwhile learning
that may only become apparent during the process.
Some teachers involve the pupils in deciding what they are going to learn, a practice
that increases their motivation and effort. However, the ‘what do you want to learn?’
question generally has to be guided to some extent since children are not aware of all the
possibilities, nor of the constraints. One solution is to allow the pupils to select the context
within which they explore concepts and skills determined by the teacher – for example the
skills of writing persuasively, calculating areas or exercising empathy could be learnt and
practised in many different contexts.
Once the starting point and the goal have been ascertained the actual learning journey
needs to be planned, and once it is under way continual attention must be given to checking
position, keeping track of progress and making necessary adjustments. Teachers should be
checking learning and adjusting teaching minute-by-minute, lesson-by-lesson. There are
many ways in which teachers can glean information about pupils’ learning, for example:
●● carefully phrased questioning that elicits important misunderstandings as well as
understandings;
●● listening attentively to what children say in response to questions and in
discussion;
●● observing students at work;
●● checking written work and other tangible evidence;
●● looking at responses on individual white boards;
●● using ‘ABCD’ cards for every pupil to give a response to a multiple choice
question;
●● setting specifically designed tasks.
There are also many different adjustments a teacher can make in response to what he or
she has found out about pupils’ learning. In general terms this might involve speeding
up or slowing down the learning journey, adding more steps or taking some out, refining
the support whether that be from materials or people, setting different tasks, or changing
working groups. The practical possibilities are endless, and range from rephrasing a question

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or providing a different illustration, to a complete rethink

Expert question about the learning goal and ways to achieve it. Many
Reflection: is our classroom practice adjustments are made almost instantaneously while others
based on incremental, evidence- may be put into operation the next lesson or the next week.
informed and collaborative improvement Continual monitoring and adjusting means the learning
strategies? can be kept on track: if position and progress are checked
This question contributes to a conceptual only occasionally, much greater deviations might be found
framework underpinning professional requiring a complete change of tack to get back on course.
expertise (see Chapter 16). Students too have an important role to play in
monitoring progress and adjusting learning. The teacher
has responsibility for the whole class, but no one knows
better than the individual pupil whether he or she needs some additional help or has
grasped something and needs to move on. Learners should have a number of strat-
egies they can employ as necessary, such as asking a partner, drawing a diagram, using
equipment, consulting reference material or expressing their understanding in a different
way. Continual review and improvement is the essence of self-regulation, an important
aspect of learning considered in Section 2.4 in relation to self-assessment. When a learning
culture is truly established in a classroom pupils feel comfortable telling their teacher
when a lesson is not going well and together deciding how to improve matters.
Teachers sometimes worry about deviating from set schemes of work. The important
thing to remember is that schemes of work and plans are there to help not hinder learning;
the aim is that pupils will have learnt, not that a pre-determined plan has been followed
step by step. Reviewing a sequence of lessons at the end, thinking about what went well
and what was less successful, will suggest changes that should be made to the plan for the
next time the teacher teaches the same topic.
In summary, learning and teaching will be much more effective if the accuracy of the
assumed starting point is checked, the appropriateness of the proposed finishing point
questioned, and position and progress monitored throughout. Appropriate adjustments can
then be made along the way, rather than when it is too late to rectify any problems.

Reflective activity 13.5

Aim: To reflect on the ways in which teachers aid learning through minute-by-minute
and lesson-by-lesson adjustments.
Evidence and reflection: Think about times when you, or teachers you have observed,
have adjusted teaching on the basis of students’ learning. What provided the
evidence of students’ learning, or misunderstandings? What was the nature of the
adjustments made?
Extension: What experience do you have of when adjustments should have been made
but were not? What was the result? How could the situation have been handled
differently?

Reading 13.2 from the Assessment Reform Group provides a succinct summary of
characteristics of Assessment for Learning, as does the Research Briefing on p. 371.

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 371

Research
Briefing
Assessment for learning

Many recent developments in formative assessment have been stimulated by the work of the Assessment Reform Group, an offshoot
of the British Educational Research Association, whose members have been closely engaged with TLRP. The Assessment Reform Group
commissioned Black and Wiliam (1998) to conduct a survey of research literature to answer the following questions:

• Is there evidence that improving formative assessment raises standards?

• Is there evidence that there is room for improvement?
• Is there evidence about how to improve formative assessment?

The answer to all three questions is ‘Yes’. Indeed, formative assessment can produce substantial learning gains for all learners, with
previously lower attainers improving even more than others. This means that the spread of attainment is reduced whilst attainment is
raised overall. The formative assessment processes which lead to these improved performances also equip pupils for taking responsibility
for their learning. This Research Briefing draws directly on Black and Wiliam’s work.

Key findings: Implications:

Feedback: Self‑esteem and motivation are vital in successful Feedback should focus upon actual work, rather than the pupil.
learning, Feedback to any pupil should therefore be about the Rewards, such as gold stars, or grades, tend to result in children
particular qualities of his or her work, with advice on what he trying to find ways to obtain the rewards themselves, rather
or she can do to improve, and should avoid comparisons with than thinking about their actual learning needs. Some may
other pupils. become reluctant to take try new challenges for fear of failure.

Self-assessment: For formative assessment to be productive, Self‑assessment is concerned with thinking about ones own
pupils should be trained in self‑assessment so that they can performance in relation to clearly stated objectives. It is not, as
understand the main purposes of their learning and thereby some have interpreted self‑assessment, checking work against
grasp what they need to do to achieve. an answer sheet. Self‑assessment is a skill, which like any other
skill needs training, coaching and practice.

Expressing understanding: Opportunities for pupils to express Classroom practices should really enable children to demonstrate
their understanding should be designed into any piece of their understanding, and enable teachers to develop authentic
teaching, for this will initiate the interaction whereby formative insights into children’s thinking.
assessment aids learning.

Purposive dialogue: The dialogue between pupils and a teacher Sometimes the tasks we set mean that it is possible for children
should be thoughtful, reflective, focused to evoke and explore to get the right answers for the wrong reasons, and without
understanding, and conducted so that all pupils have an carefully designed and conducted questioning and discussion
opportunity to think and to express their ideas. these misconceptions may remain undetected, and so become a
bar to later learning.

Congruence: Tests and homework exercises can be an invaluable Feedback on tests and homework should give each pupil
aid to learning, but the exercises must be clear and relevant to guidance on how to improve, and each must be given
learning aims. opportunity and help to work at the improvement.

Assessment for Learning may seem simple, and elements like clarifying goals, providing feedback, encouraging self-assessment, etc
can certainly be promoted. Expert practitioners of AfL argue however, that the approach needs to draw on holistic and principled
understanding of teaching and learning in classrooms. It is not just a set of techniques – but becomes an approach to classroom life!
When sustained in authentic ways, AfL has the potential to transform classroom experience for both teachers and pupils, as well as
underpinning very high standards of attainment.
Further information:
Black. P. and Wiliam, D. (1998b) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment. London: King’s College.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., and Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment for Learning: Putting It into Practice. Buckingham: Open University Press. ARG
James, M., Black, P., Carmichael, P., Drummond, M-J., Fox, A., MacBeath, J., Marshall, B., McCormick, R., Pedder, D., Procter, R., Swaffield, S., Swann, J.
and Wiliam, D. (2007) Improving Learning How to Learn: Classrooms, Schools and Networks. London: Routledge. assessment reform group

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3 Affirming assessment for learning

The phrase ‘Assessment for Learning’ (AfL) can be found as the title of chapters, papers
and books written by assessment experts first published over a quarter of a century ago
(Black, 1986; James, 1992; Sutton, 1995). In recent years the term has been used more and
more commonly, yet despite several attempts to define AfL it continues to be understood
and interpreted in different ways. It is therefore a good idea to be clear in your own mind
what you understand by Assessment for Learning, and to be alert to other interpretations.
A key text is an Assessment Reform Group (ARG) pamphlet, Beyond the Black Box (ARG,
1999, Reading 13.2).
Mary-Jane Drummond’s definition of assessment resonates with the ‘sitting beside’
notion of assessment referred to in the introduction to this chapter, and it highlights some
very important features of AfL. She defined assessment as a process of teachers looking
at pupils’ learning, striving to understand it, and using that knowledge in the interests of
pupils (Drummond, 2012). This is very close to the much quoted definition of assessment
for learning produced by the Assessment Reform Group:

Assessment for Learning is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by
learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they
need to go and how best to get there. (ARG, 2002, p. 2)

Both Drummond and the ARG referred to assessment as a process (rather than an event),
which involves the need for interpretation and the effort to understand on the part of
the teacher, as well as the use of that knowledge. The ARG definition importantly cast
learners (as well as teachers) as users of the information.
Drummond made clear that the use should be in the
Expert question interests of the pupils but did not go into specifics, whereas
Authenticity: Do learners recognise routine the ARG’s definition referred to present position, future
processes of assessment and feedback as goal and moving between the two. Unfortunately some
being of personal value? policymakers misinterpreted and distorted this second
This question contributes to a conceptual part of the ARG definition (Klenowski, 2009): they put
framework underpinning professional the emphasis on frequent testing to assess student levels
expertise (see Chapter 16). or grades and targeting the next level. This emphasis on
performance hinders rather than helps real and sustained
learning.
In order to address this damaging but influential misinterpretation of the definition of
AFL, an international conference held in 2009 produced a position paper which included
explanation and elaboration of what they called a ‘second generation definition of
Assessment for Learning’ (Klenowski, 2009, p. 264). This read:
Assessment for Learning is part of everyday practice by students, teachers and peers that
seeks, reflects upon and responds to information from dialogue, demonstration and
observation in ways that enhance ongoing learning. (Klenowski, 2009, p. 264)

This carefully thought through definition, based on evidence, encompasses many elements

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 373

each of which were explored in detail. It put students at the centre of the process, and
stressed an enquiry process within everyday classroom activity. The elaboration brings
out the depth and richness encapsulated in the definition so that it is worth quoting in full:

(1) ‘everyday practice’ – this refers to teaching and learning, pedagogy and instruction
(different terms are used in different regions of the world but the emphasis is on the
interactive, dialogic, contingent relationships of teaching and learning).

(2) ‘by students, teachers and peers’ – students are deliberately listed first because only
learners can learn. Assessment for Learning should be student centred. All AFL practices
carried out by teachers (such as giving feedback, clarifying criteria, rich questioning)
can eventually be ‘given away’ to students so that they take on these practices to help
themselves, and one another, become autonomous learners. This should be a prime
objective.

(3) ‘seeks, reflects upon and responds to’ – these words emphasise the nature of
AFL as an enquiry process involving the active search for evidence of capability and
understanding, making sense of such evidence, and exercising judgement for wise
decision-making about next steps for students and teachers.

(4) ‘information from dialogue, demonstration and observation’ – verbal (oral and
written) and non-verbal behaviours during both planned and unplanned events can be
sources of evidence. Observation of these during on-going teaching and learning activity
is an important basis for AFL. Special assessment tasks and tests can be used formatively
but are not essential; there is a risk of them becoming frequent mini-summative
assessments. Everyday learning tasks and activities, as well as routine observation and
dialogue are equally, if not more, appropriate for the formative purpose.

(5) ‘in ways that enhance ongoing learning’ – sources of evidence are formative if, and
only if, students and teachers use the information they provide to enhance learning.
Providing students with the help they need to know what to do next is vital; it is not
sufficient to tell them only that they need to do better. However, such help does not need
to provide a complete solution. Research suggests that what works best is an indication
of how to improve, so that students engage in mindful problem solving.

(Third Assessment for Learning Conference 2009) (Klenowski, 2009, pp. 264–5)

This elaboration points to features that Sue Swaffield picked up when she made the case
for distinguishing assessment for learning from formative assessment (Swaffield, 2011,
Reading 13.5). She argued that AfL:

… is characterised by information being used to inform learning and teaching, its focus
on learning conceived broadly, and actively engage progressively more autonomous
students. It is distinctive in its timescale, protagonists, beneficiaries, the role of students,
the relationship between student and teacher, and the centrality of learning to the
process – all of which can but may not necessarily be features of formative assessment.
(Swaffield, 2011, p. 433)

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A classroom where authentic assessment for learning is practised has a particular culture
and feeling, far removed from that generated by a relentless and narrow emphasis on
scores and teaching to the test.

Conclusion
In focusing on assessment supporting learning, this chapter has sought to acknowledge
the complexity of the relationship between assessment and learning. It recognises the
profound influence of assessment practices not only on the content of what is being
learned, but even more importantly on the process of learning and on the learner’s sense
of self. Whilst it is a complex area, three research generated guiding principles provided
sound direction and useful checks for reflective practitioners.
Teachers would be well advised to be asking themselves continually whether their
practices are:
Helping to make learning explicit – making clear the knowledge, understanding and
skills that are the focus of each lesson, and providing opportunities for pupils to demon-
strate and articulate their learning.
Promoting learner autonomy – providing every opportunity and building an expec-
tation for pupils to become increasingly more self-monitoring and resourceful in taking
responsibility for and extending their learning.
Focusing on learning rather than performance – in other words the type of learning
that enhances an understanding and valuing of learning not for the sake of a mark or
grade but for the development of valuable lifelong attitudes and skills, and for the joy and
intrinsic reward of achieving something worthwhile through effort and persistence.
Teachers who are able to answer in the affirmative will likely be practising authentic
assessment for learning that genuinely supports pupils in their learning, both for the
present and the future.

Key readings
Books that provide overviews of assessment tend to address issues covered in both this
and the following chapter, and are included here. They are then followed by texts that
are more focused on how assessment is integrated with teaching and learning.

Broadfoot’s book is a very clearly written overview covering many aspects of

assessment.
Broadfoot, P. (2007) An Introduction to Assessment. London: Continuum.
(Reading 14.1)

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 Chapter 13 Assessment 375

A comprehensive and authoritative review of assessment to support learning by members

of the Assessment Reform Group is:
Gardner, J. (ed.) (2011) Assessment and Learning. London: Paul Chapman.

In an eye-opening book, Drummond provides an important critical alternative to

mechanistic approaches to assessment.
Drummond, M. (2012) Assessing Children’s Learning. London: David Fulton.

An enquiring and reflective approach is encouraged in Swaffield’s book in which

leading figures in assessment explore the values, principles, research and practicalities of
assessment.
Swaffield, S. (ed.) (2008) Unlocking Assessment: Understanding for Reflection and
Application. Abingdon: Routledge. (see also Reading 13.5)

The wide ranging TLRP Learning How to Learn project considered assessment in the
classroom as well as issues at the whole school and network levels:
James, M., Black, P., Carmichael, P., Conner, C., Dudley, P., Fox, A., Frost, D.,
Honour, L., MacBeath, J., McCormick, R., Marshall, B., Pedder, D., Procter, R.,
Swaffield, S. and Wiliam, D. (2006) Learning How to Learn: Tools for Schools.
London: Routledge.
James, M., Black, P., Carmichael, P., Drummond, M. J., Fox, A., MacBeath, J.,
Marshall, B., McCormick, R., Pedder, D., Procter, R., Swaffield, S., Swann, J., and
Wiliam, D. (2007) Improving Learning How to Learn: Classrooms, Schools and
Networks. London: Routledge. (see also Reading 2.8)

Black and Wiliam’s influential review of research is summarised in:

Black. P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through
Classroom Assessment. London: King’s College.

Black and his colleagues at King’s College have also published a series of subject and
phase specific ‘inside the black box’ pamphlets.

‘Inside the black box’ was followed up by a pamphlet that described the key factors
needed to put assessment for learning into practice in:
Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for Learning: Beyond the Black Box.
Cambridge: University of Cambridge, School of Education. (Reading 13.2)

Practice that developed from the Black and Wiliam review is reported in:
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., and Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment for
Learning: Putting It into Practice. Buckingham: Open University Press.

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376 Part 3 Teaching for learning

Wiliam’s book providing practical ideas and research evidence is written with US
teachers in mind but is equally applicable in the UK.
Wiliam, D. (2011) Embedded Formative Assessment. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree
Press. (see also Reading 16.4)

For practical guidance and ideas on developing assessment for learning practices as an
integral part of learning and teaching, see:
Blanchard, J. (2009) Teaching, Learning and Assessment. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.
Clarke, S. (2005a) Formative Assessment in Action: Weaving the Elements Together.
London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Clarke, S. (2005b) Formative Assessment in the Secondary Classroom. London:
Hodder and Stoughton.
Spendlove, S. (2012) Putting Assessment for Learning into Practice. London:
Continuum. (Reading 13.3)

An innovative and internationally acclaimed approach particularly for younger children

links assessment practice with the formation of learning dispositions:
Carr, M. and Lee, W. (2012) Learning Stories: Constructing Learner Identities in
Early Education. London: SAGE.

The social processes influencing assessment in children’s lives are the focus of:
Filer, A. and Pollard, A. (2000) The Social World of Pupil Assessment: Processes and
Contexts of Primary Schooling. London: Continuum. (Reading 14.7)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
part four 4
Reflecting on
consequences
14 Outcomes How do we monitor student
learning achievements?

15 Inclusion How are we enabling learning

opportunities?

This part draws attention to what is achieved, and by whom,

in our classrooms. What are the consequences of what we do?

Chapter 14 reviews high stakes issues in the assessment of

learning outcomes, with particular attention on how schools
measure pupil achievement and manage accountability.
Whilst some problems are raised, positive uses of summative
assessment are also promoted.

‘Inclusion’ (Chapter 15) asks us to consider various

dimensions of difference and also the ways in which routine
processes differentiate between people. However, the
emphasis is on accepting difference as part of the human
condition and on how to build more inclusive classroom
communities.
Outcomes
How do we monitor
student learning
achievements?
14
Introduction (p. 380) 3 Using summative assessment
information (p. 396)

1 Key issues (p. 381) 3.1 Supporting pupil progress (p. 396)

1.1 Accountability and improvement 3.2 Transfer and transition (p. 397)
(p. 381) 3.3 School improvement and
accountability (p. 398)
1.2 Comparing achievements (p. 383)
1.3 Validity, reliability and dependability (p.
384) 4 Records and reporting (p. 402)
1.4 Effects and consequences (p. 388)
4.1 Keeping records (p. 402)
4.2 Reporting to parents and carers
2 Summative assessment of (p. 405)
learning (p. 392)

2.1 Statutory tests and examinations Conclusion (p. 406)

(p. 392)
2.2 National surveys of system
performance (p. 394)
2.3 Non-statutory tests and tasks (p. 395)
2.4 Teacher assessment (p. 395)
380 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Introduction
Children and young people should ‘fulfil their potential’ – this is often cited as a major goal
of school teaching. It follows that the measurement and evaluation of learning outcomes
is of great importance. The aim should be to assess learning in ways that do justice to
students’ full achievements, are fair and manageable, can be recorded and certified (if
appropriate), and do not have undesirable consequences. Pupil achievements are of great
interest to many people – beginning of course with the pupils themselves, but also their
parents or carers, teachers and school leaders, employers and admissions officers for the
next stages of education or training, as well as politicians and the general public. Indeed,
Newton (2007) identified no less than 22 different purposes of assessment, many of which
concern summative assessment results. The multiple purposes for assessing learning are
also associated with the technical complexities of evaluating diverse achievements – so
some complicated issues and dilemmas do arise (Broadfoot, 2007, Reading 14.1).

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on achievement outcomes:

Effective teaching and learning needs assessment to be congruent with

learning. Assessment should help to advance learning as well as determine
whether learning has taken place. It should be designed and carried out so that it
measures learning outcomes in a dependable way and also provides feedback for
future learning. (Principle 5)

Effective teaching and learning demands consistent policy frameworks

with support for teaching and learning as their primary focus. Policies at
national, local and institutional levels need to recognise the fundamental importance
of teaching and learning. They should be designed to create effective learning
See Chapter 4 environments in which all learners can thrive. (Principle 10)

This chapter discusses some of the main issues in the assessment of pupils’ learning;
considers major approaches such as examinations, tests, tasks and teacher assessment;
discusses key uses of summative assessment information; and touches on methods of
recording and reporting.
The four nations of the United Kingdom have different statutory arrangements for
assessing pupils’ learning outcomes, and there is a continuing history of change. There
are also differences among subjects and depending on the age and stage of the learner.
For specific information on the current summative assessment requirements in Scotland,
Wales, Northern Ireland and England respectively, please visit:

educationscotland.gov.uk
learning.wales.gov.uk
rewardinglearning.org.uk
education.gov.uk

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 381

For the Republic of Ireland, please see:

education.ie

This chapter reviews issues and principles to assist the reflective teacher whatever the
jurisdiction or context they work in.

1 Key issues

1.1 Accountability and improvement

In recent years and in most parts of the world, the summative assessment of learning has
become more and more important in education. The main reason for this has been the
concern of governments to introduce ways of ‘measuring’ educational outcomes – for
performance comparisons of both schools and the educational system as a whole. From
this perspective, measurement of outcomes informs accountability procedures and can be
seen as forces for improvement.
In comparing schools, governments tend to place particular emphasis on attainment
in what are considered to be ‘core’ subjects, and particularly on standards of literacy
and numeracy as measured by tests. Results from key examinations and assessments are
used as the basis for judgements about school quality, putting pressure on each school to
perform well. Results are likely to inform parents’ judgements when choosing schools for
their children. Within a context of diverse school types, schools judged to be successful
are often granted increased autonomy while those that are deemed to be less adequate
or even ‘failing’ are put under intense pressure to improve. In England, schools which
consistently underperform may be closed. The rationale for this is that each pupil has just
a single opportunity in school and that all schools should provide a good education for all
pupils all the time. In other countries, such as Finland, schools which underperform will
be supported to improve because of the entitlement of all communities to high-quality
education in their locality. The ways in which this dilemma is resolved reflects societal
values and core assumptions about educational provision.
In terms of comparison of national systems, governments are properly concerned with
global economic competition and the effectiveness of the national workforce over the
long term. Public education is, after all, funded by taxpayers who rightly expect good
use of their considerable investment. In the long run the economic success of the country,
including the pensions and welfare for its older citizens, is seen to depend on the education
of youngsters. Governments across the world therefore pay great attention to international
comparisons of school performance – particularly as portrayed through the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study (TIMSS) and Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)
(Sturman, 2012, Reading 14.6). The interpretation of such evidence can be controversial,
but it is often boldly used for political purposes to ‘blame’ competing parties. In contrast
one initiative (see Figure 14.1), presents a strong UK-wide performance – but also
highlights the importance of analysing how performance conlusions are reached.

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382 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Figure 14.1
International
The Learning Curve is a project to collate, summarise and analyse international data on
comparisons: The
Learning Curve the performance of school systems. It is funded by Pearson and uses the expertise of the
Economist Intelligence Unit – see thelearningcurve.pearson.com
Michael Barber, Pearson’s Chief Education Adviser, explains:

Over the last decade, international benchmarking of education systems has become
ever more prevalent. More importantly, it has become increasingly influential in
shaping education policy at local, regional and national levels. As studies by PISA
and TIMSS become more sophisticated and longitudinal time sequences develop,
there is ever more to learn about what successful education systems look like and
how success can be achieved.

In the early days of international benchmarking, education ministers and other

leaders tended to worry more about the media impact than the implications for
policy. Increasingly now, what we see is a continuous dialogue among education
ministers and top officials around the world about the evidence from international
benchmarking and the implications for education reform.

The November 2012 report from The Learning Curve reported that the UK’s education
systems were, in aggregate, sixth best in the world, and second best in Europe. This rank-
ing was not only about performance in school subjects. It owed much to strong science
scores and to high literacy, school completion and university graduation rates.
Finland had the top performing system, followed by South Korea, Hong Kong, Ja-
pan, Singapore and then the UK. An above-average group included the Netherlands,
New Zealand, Canada and Ireland with a middle-ranking group including the United
States, Germany and France. The lowest end in 2012 included Mexico, Brazil and Indo-
nesia.
The Learning Curve cautioned against simplistic conclusions but suggested ‘five les-
sons for policymakers’:
1 There are no magic bullets
2 Respect teachers
3 Culture can be changed
4 Parents are neither impediments to nor saviours of education
5 Educate for the future, not just the present

No matter how well intentioned, accountability mechanisms based on summative

assessment results can have unintended and negative consequences, which detract from
the aim of improvement. This phenomenon can be seen at all scales, from the single
classroom to the nation state. It is particularly likely when the ‘stakes’ are high.
Whilst tensions created by assessment attempting to serve multiple purposes will
always exist, difficulties can be identified and may be ameliorated by awareness and
understanding of key issues discussed below (see also Broadfoot, 2007, Reading 14.1;
Stobart, 2008, Reading, 13.6).

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 383

1.2 Comparing achievements

The interpretation of any assessment involves some form of comparison about perfor-
mance in relation to something.
Performance can be judged in relation to:
●● performances of others (norm referencing)
●● specified, agreed standards (criterion referencing)
●● an individual’s previous performance (ipsative referencing).
Whilst the terms ‘norm’, ‘criterion’ and ‘ipsative’ may not be commonly used, the practices
to which they refer are embedded in the assessment routines of almost all schools.
Norm referencing: With norm referencing, individual pupils are compared with others.
Performance may be expressed by ranking, and for much of the last century giving a class
position was common (‘she came third in the class in maths’). Performance can also be
expressed in relation to the rest of the group with statements such as ‘he’s about average’
and ‘she’s in the bottom third’. In 2013, it was suggested by the Secretary of State that the
performance of 11-year-olds in England should be reported in deciles.
Wanting to have a sense of how a pupil is doing in relation to others is understandable,
and is necessary when competition and selection are required. However, norm-referenced
assessment results give no information about the specifics of what a pupil knows,
understands and is able to do, nor do they identify particular difficulties or point to the
appropriate next steps in learning. Categorisation can also have significant demotivating
effects for weaker learners.
Criterion referencing: Criterion-referenced assessment makes judgements about a
pupil’s attainment in relation to pre-specified criteria – and this is irrespective of the
performance of other pupils. When criteria are made explicit, this form of assessment
provides specific information about a pupil’s learning. ‘Next steps’ are implied through
the criteria not yet grasped and those at the next level or stage. GCSEs have been norm-
referenced for many years and, when criteria are met by many students, it is logical to
extend the scale.
Criterion and norm-referenced approaches are interrelated in that the process of
establishing criteria takes into account what it is reasonable to expect for pupils at a
particular stage of their education. So, notions of norm-referencing do contribute to
criterion referencing. Norm and criterion referencing are easily associated with notions
of success and failure, whether this be judged in relation to others’ performance, or the
setting of particular standards, benchmarks or cut-off points in a criterion-referenced
system.
Ipsative referencing: The word ‘ipsative’ comes from Latin ‘ipse’ meaning ‘self’.
Although this is not a common term, teachers use ipsative-referenced assessment all the
time as judgements are made about a pupil’s performance in relation to his or her previous
achievements. This works best for detailed assessment when the teacher knows the pupils
well, can identify specific improvements, and guide next steps at an appropriate degree
of ‘stretch’.

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384 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Ipsative assessment is very supportive of learning, and

Expert question seeks to motivate all pupils, however they are judged
Congruence: are forms of assessment fit for through norm or criterion-referenced assessment. This
purpose in terms of overall educational is the most inclusive and enabling form of assessment,
objectives? since it values and challenges those at both extremes of
This question contributes to a conceptual the attainment range and everyone in between (see also
framework representing enduring issues Chapter 15). It provides direct feedback for a personal
and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16). learning orientation seeking ‘mastery’ (Dweck, 1986,
Reading 2.6).
In reflecting on the three bases for comparison, it may be helpful to think about the
Olympic Games where ipsative, criterion and norm referencing are all in evidence.
Ipsative referencing underpins preparation for the Games, as athletes strive to improve on
their ‘personal best’. Criterion referencing is then often used in relation to qualifying for
an event, when athletes do, or do not, satisfy the standard. In the finals, the awarding of
medals is norm-referenced as those who beat everyone else are acclaimed. Recognition
is also sometimes given to athletes who produce their best ever performance, but it is the
norm-referenced brilliance of gold medalists that get paramount attention, rather than
ipsative-referenced personal bests, no matter how remarkable these may be.

Reflective activity 14.1

Aim: To consider the bases of comparison used in learning and teaching.
Evidence and reflection: Think of a pupil in your class or whom you know well.
Consider when it would be useful and appropriate to use norm, criterion and
ipsative-referenced assessment. Now list all the different assessments that the pupil
has experienced, and identify the basis of comparison for each. How closely does
what happens match what you thought would be useful and appropriate?
Extension: Be aware of the bases of comparison you are using, and explore possibilities
for prioritising forms most supportive of learning.

1.3 Validity, reliability and dependability

How do you know that you can trust an assessment outcome? Some endemic issues underlie
this question, and we review these below (see also Mansell and James, Reading 14.5).
Validity: This concept is of immense importance. In its traditional, technical meaning,
it addresses the question: do assessments actually measure what they purport to measure?
This is known as ‘construct validity’. So, for example: ‘is a whole-class spelling test a
valid way of assessing pupils’ ability to write effectively? The answer is ‘probably not’,
because many other forms of knowledge, skill and understanding are involved in writing.
And even though such a test might be deemed to have higher construct validity as a
measure of spelling performance, there may also need to be recognition that some children
or young people do not perform consistently in stressful and somewhat artificial situations

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 385

but may do better, or worse, when applying their knowledge of spelling in a more authentic
writing activity.
Understanding of validity has thus evolved so that the answer to whether a test is valid
would not be ‘yes’ or ‘no’, but rather that whilst some kinds of conclusions may be valid,
others would not (Angoff, 1988).
The implication of this is that, whilst we are certainly interested in test results
themselves, it is actually the inferences that we draw from outcomes of assessment that
make them so crucial. Results of assessment are used to make decisions, for example
about: what to teach next; the adequacy of the progress that a pupil is making; appropriate
next stages in terms of educational experience; levels of attainment reached; and, of
course, the quality of schools and curricula. The quality of these decisions depends on the
nature of the assessments on which they are based. As Dylan Wiliam puts it, ‘validity is all
about the interpretations that we can legitimately draw from assessment results’ (Wiliam,
2011, p. 132). For example, Drummond (2003) provides a radical critique of narrow forms
of assessment. Illustrating her argument through work with young children, she insists that
assessment data are not some form of objective ‘evidence’, but require interpretation to
make sense of them in terms of a teacher’s understanding of the child.
Reliability: If a form of assessment is deemed to
be valid for a particular purpose, the next question
Expert question
becomes whether it can be used reliably and consistently.
Validity: in terms of learning, do the forms
Continuing our example, is a spelling test administered
of assessment used really measure what
by a teaching assistant on a Friday afternoon comparable
they are intended to measure?
with a spelling test on a Monday morning led by a class
This question contributes to a conceptual
teacher or English specialist? It is important to ensure that
framework representing enduring issues
irrelevant factors do not interfere in other ways too. A
and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16).
common problem arises when capabilities are interrelated
– such as when the reading demand of a particular test may
constrain some pupils’ ability to demonstrate their under-
standing in maths, science, history or some other domain. Assessment processes which
conflate different attributes cannot always be avoided, and careful teacher judgement is
often required in drawing conclusions.
Obtaining adequate reliability is particularly important when achievements are to be
certificated or comparisons are to be made with implications for equity. Indeed, it is clearly
of enormous significance for major national examination
systems where pupil performance is to be measured
across schools and when standards are to be maintained Expert question
from year to year. Dependability: are assessment processes
Dependability: This is an overarching concept understood and accepted as being robust
denoting the confidence which stakeholders derive from and reliable?
the assessment system. It reflects outcomes of the struggle This question contributes to a conceptual
to achieve validity and reliability, and the perceived framework representing enduring issues
legitimacy of those outcomes. As Mansell, James and the and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16).
Assessment Reform Group put it:

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386 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

‘Together, maximum validity and optimal reliability contribute to the dependability of

assessments – the confidence that can be placed in them.’ (2009, p. 12, Reading 14.5)

The central dilemma is that validity and reliability are interrelated – so strengthening one
aspect often weakens another.
●● The quest for construct validity tends to lead in the direction of assessment
procedures which are designed for routine classroom circumstances, covering a
wide curriculum and using a range of assessment techniques such as tasks, course
work and continuous assessment. Such approaches resonate with assessment for
learning, as discussed in Chapter 13. Modular programmes speak to this concern
too.
●● However, the drive for reliability tends to suggest simplification in both assessment
procedures and the range of curriculum to be assessed, so that there is more chance
of comparability being attained. The result of this is an emphasis on methods
which can be tightly controlled, such as timed pencil and paper or ICT-based
tests and examinations. When the emphasis is on certification of pupil attainment
and school accountability, politicians and the media stress this traditional view of
reliability and focus on tests and examinations.
Reliability can be increased by using questions to which there is only one correct answer
(as in multiple choice questions), since such questions are likely to be marked accurately
and consistently. However, multiple choice questions can only assess certain kinds of
learning outcomes so cannot be used to assess everything that is considered important.
Extended writing, speaking and listening for example require very different assessment
arrangements and are more difficult to assess reliably than factual knowledge. Indeed,
when National Curriculum assessment was first introduced in England, wide curriculum
coverage was endorsed with authentic classroom tasks being used to assess 7-year-olds.
However, such assessments were found to be both unmanageable and to have considerable
problems of reliability (Shorrocks, 1991; Whetton, 1991). Consider, for example, Lee’s
interpretation of a mathematics task in Figure 14.2. Required to ‘show his working’, he
did – but not as had been intended.
Figure 14.2 Lee
‘shows his
working’

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 387

The validity and reliability of instruments, tasks, tests, processes, etc. is crucial to
overall judgements of the dependability of assessment outcomes. Where construct validity
is low, assessments are likely to be regarded as partial, limited and crude because of
the elements of learning which they ignore or cannot measure. Where reliability is low,
assessments may be regarded as inconsistent and unfair because of the variation in the
procedures by which the assessment results were produced.

Reflective activity 14.2

Aim: To highlight dilemmas between construct validity and reliability.
Evidence and reflection: Focus on a specific objective for pupil attainment; for instance,
one associated with children’s mathematical understanding and computational
competence with number. Consider how the competence and understanding of
pupils across the country could be assessed with regard to the selected objective.
Focus this, perhaps by imagining some individual children whom you know in
different schools, or by discussion with teachers or student teachers working in
different schools. Do you think your assessment method could reflect what is
really involved in understanding and competence (construct validity), and yet be
administered in standard and consistent ways by teachers wherever or whoever they
are (reliability)?
Extension: Consider any test materials with which you are familiar. How do you feel
that the test’s designers have tried to resolve the validity/reliability dilemma? What
compromises have they made? Do you think it is possible to devise assessment with
high validity and high reliability for all subjects?

 ecisions about forms of assessment should be related to

D
the primacy of purpose. Thus, for example, in Chapter 13 Expert question
we focused on the use of assessment to support learning Dependability: are assessment processes
itself – a very different goal than the measurement understood and accepted as being robust
of attainment with which this chapter is concerned. and reliable?
Reconciliation of the dilemmas posed by validity and This question contributes to a conceptual
reliability is much more likely if there is absolute clarity framework representing enduring issues
about such purposes – and this is the foundation on which and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16).
confidence in an assessment system can grow. A robust
and dependable assessment system will be one in which
there is clarity about purposes.
However much care is taken with the technical aspects of assessment, it is worth bearing
in mind that outcomes always reflect a series of social processes. For example, Pollard
and Filer (2000, Reading 14.7) analysed pupils’ assessment experiences throughout their
primary schooling, and suggested that strict ‘objectivity’ is a myth. Pupil performance
is crucially affected by the context of its production and social and cultural factors have
considerable influence over its interpretation, meaning and consequence. A classic study
of a similar sort is Becker’s Making the Grade (1968), which will still have resonance for
readers experiencing higher education.

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388 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

1.4 Effects and consequences

Because assessment outcomes are so significant in our societies, people often adjust
their behaviour in attempts to secure ‘good results’ or to influence the interpretation of
outcomes. As we discuss below, this may ‘wash back’ to directly affect factors such as the
curriculum which is taught, teaching and learning processes, classroom relationships and
pupil experience.
Curriculum and pedagogical distortion: When summative assessment results are used
as measures of performance, the stakes become high for pupils, teachers, school leaders
and politicians. In these circumstances there is a well-documented tendency for teachers
and pupils to ‘work to the test’ (Stobart, 2008, Reading 13.6). The result is likely to be a
narrowing of the curriculum and, whilst standards in the tested areas of the curriculum
may rise, a reduction in overall standards across the broader curriculum may occur. For
example, evaluators of the national literacy and numeracy strategies in England expressed
deep concerns about the narrowing of the curriculum which they attributed to targets
and high-stakes testing (Earl et al., 2003). Whatever is given prominence in high profile
assessment understandably comes to dominate teaching, while areas of the curriculum that
do not feature in widely reported or significant tests can be sidelined. Thus whole subjects
(notably but not only the arts) are devalued, while even within the high-status subjects of
mathematics and English key aspects such as investigations and oral capabilities receive
very little attention.

Reflective activity 14.3

Aim: To investigate the danger that high-stakes assessment distorts curriculum
provision.
Evidence and reflection: Talk to several teachers about the assessments their pupils
undertake, in particular those that are reported publicly. Ask them about any
concerns they may have. Enquire if it has been necessary to change curriculum
provision to ensure that the children can perform respectably in important tests. Ask
if public reporting of assessment results broadens, narrows or makes no difference
to the curriculum which they provide.
Extension: You could reflect on a potentially very significant dilemma here. A National
Curriculum often sets broad curriculum aims, whilst national assessment procedures
test only a narrow range. Does one undermine the other?

High-stakes assessment can have a distorting effect not only on what is taught, but also
how it is taught. This is an enduring and widespread issue: in relation to the United
States where a great deal of testing has been used for many years, Rottenberg and Smith
(1990) commented that ‘As the stakes become higher, in that more hangs on the results,
teaching becomes more “testlike”. Teaching to the test in whatever context typically not
only focuses on a narrow part of the curriculum but also involves much test preparation
concentrating on examination technique, question spotting, mark gaining and practice

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 389

questions. An extensive inquiry into testing and assessment by the House of Commons
Children, Schools and Families Committee concluded that the system of national testing
in England was having a detrimental effect on the rounded education of pupils:

A variety of classroom practices aimed at improving test results has distorted the
education of some children, which may leave them unprepared for higher education and
employment. We find that ‘teaching to the test’ and narrowing of the taught curriculum
are widespread phenomena in schools, resulting in a disproportionate focus on the
‘core’ subjects of English, mathematics and science and, in particular, on those aspects
of these subjects which are likely to be tested in an examination. Tests, however, can
only test a limited range of the skills and activities which are properly part of a rounded
education, so that a focus on improving test results compromises teachers’ creativity
in the classroom and children’s access to a balanced curriculum. (House of Commons,
2008, p. 3)

It is important to remember that the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of teaching and learning are central
daily concerns of teachers – reflective practitioners with values and beliefs who have
to make decisions about practice within layered contexts of guidance, expectations and
policy. When a professional’s values and practices are misaligned for whatever reason,
he or she can feel unease and stress. The Learning How to Learn project in England
(James et al., 2007, Reading 2.8) investigated teachers’ beliefs and practices through
questionnaires and interviews and found ‘many teachers felt constrained by a policy
context that encouraged rushed curriculum coverage, teaching to the test and a tick-box
culture’ (p. 215–16). Teachers’ stress is increased by the importance and consequences of
assessment results for many stakeholders, which in turn may have distorting effects on
their teaching.
Pupil experience of assessment: The early phases of the introduction of national
assessment procedures in England and Wales brought enormous protests from primary
teachers, many of whom provided illustrations of distressed children (Torrance, 1991).
However, more representative samples of teacher opinion did not show the same level
of concern (Pollard et al., 1994). Worries from parents were very strong in Scotland, but
were relatively small in England and Wales (Hughes, Wikeley and Nash, 1994). Evidence
from children themselves on their experience of national testing mostly showed that many
of them enjoyed it (Pollard et al., 1994). Indeed, in many classrooms the early assessment
procedures seemed to have broadened the curriculum, such was its power, and to have
been well received by children.
The longer-term picture appears to have changed as testing procedures have been
narrowed and tightened by government agencies. Evidence of classroom practice suggests
that teaching programmes are being attuned more closely to assessment requirements. The
accountability stakes are high for schools in England, and primaries tend to focus on core
subjects whilst secondaries are concerned for subjects within the EBacc. The unintended
consequence of such decisions is to limit the scope for some pupils to demonstrate other
capabilities.
Similarly, there are dangers of stigma emerging from the overt form of some assessment
procedures and categoric nature of the results – ‘I’ll be a nothing’, as one child put it (Reay

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and Wiliam, 1999). Assessment can thus profoundly affect pupils’ self-image and identity.
Stobart (2008, Reading 13.6) cites not only Hannah, a 6-year-old who featured in Reay
and Wiliam’s research, but also Ruth, an 18-year-old who far from being ‘a nothing’ was
extremely successful in examinations. However, Ruth had developed an extremely instru-
mental approach to learning for tests which did little to establish the habits of lifelong
learning.

Reflective activity 14.4

Aim: To obtain direct evidence of pupils’ feelings about routine assessment.
Evidence and reflection: We suggest that you work with a group of pupils from your
class and discuss with them examples of some assessments which you have made.
Perhaps you could use some written work that has been produced and look at any
comments and corrections which you made. How do the pupils feel about your
responses?
You could also self-consciously monitor your verbal feedback during a teaching session.
Listen to your comments, observe the children’s faces. How do they seem to respond?
Are they delighted, wary, confused, anxious, angry, resigned?
Extension: What ways of protecting young people’s dignity can you develop, whilst still
providing appropriate assessment feedback to them? Could you negotiate with the
pupils to establish criteria by which their work will be evaluated? (See Chapter 13)

The ways in which assessment results influence the

Expert questions expectations which teachers have of pupils, pupils have
Expectation: does our school support high of each other, and pupils have of themselves are still not
staff and student expectations and aspire yet fully researched. However, the PACE project (Pollard
for excellence? et al., 2000) suggested that pupil motivation, engagement
Inclusion: are all learners treated and zest for learning were being adversely affected by an
respectfully and fairly in both formal and overloaded curriculum and the extent of its assessment
informal interaction? (see Figure 14.3, from the PACE project data archive).
These questions contribute to a conceptual Despite the rise in measured standards, a significant
framework representing enduring issues number of children showed signs of developing negative
and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16). dispositions towards learning. Harlen and Deakin Crick
(2002) also found evidence of the negative impact of
testing on pupils’ motivation. Repeated testing, including
practice tests, seems to undermine the self-image of lower attaining pupils, which widens
the attainment gap between pupils. As we will see in Chapter 15, it is likely that the
socially differentiating effect of formal assessment will be reinforced by pupils’ cultural
responses, and the situation may polarise further (see Reading 15.2).
There is little doubt that national assessment procedures have long-term effects on
pupils. In part, these may be seen as positive, in that the quality of teaching and learning
may be enhanced. Reflective teachers though, will want, prudently, to watch for effects
which could both damage the self-image and self-confidence of pupils and have other
divisive effects.

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Figure 14.3 A
child’s feelings
about SATs (PACE
data archive)

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2 Summative assessment of learning

The assessment of learning for summative purposes can be carried out in a number of
ways, and in this section we consider four main approaches.

2.1 Statutory tests and examinations

The education systems of nations and states around the world incorporate statutory tests
and examinations to a greater or lesser extent.
Typically, these are scheduled to take place at the end of Key Stages of learning, or at
the conclusion of formal education itself. For example, for many years in English primary
education, formal testing in the three core subjects of English, maths and science has
been carried out at the end of Key Stage 2, age 11 – with data being used to monitor the
performance of schools. Similar tests take place in Wales and Northern Ireland. However,
Scotland uses a national survey to monitor system performance (see Section 2.2 below)
and teachers in non-exam years are thus more able to focus on formative assessment of
learning.
Outcomes of secondary education may have enormous implications for individual
learners, certifying achievements through official qualifications such as GCSEs, A
Levels and Diplomas (in England, Northern Ireland and Wales) and Nationals, Highers
and Advanced Highers (in Scotland). In aggregate, such outcomes are also used to track
the performance of schools and of education systems as a whole. Examination results
are part of contemporary school accountability structures as well as a personal outcome
for individual pupils. For both reasons, summative assessment is extremely ‘high-
stakes’, and the policies and practices of most schools are highly attuned to maximise
results.
Because of their significance, public confidence in examinations is extremely
important and, once established, continuity is prized. However, changes in educational
policies and practices may result in qualifications becoming inappropriate over time,
and pressure then builds for change. At the time of writing, the governments in Wales
and Northern Ireland have confirmed continued faith in their established use of GCSE
and A Levels. However, Scotland has announced adjustments to its scheme to improve
alignment of its qualifications with its Curriculum for Exellence (see Chapter 9 and
Reading 14.2), whilst England has decided to change radically the nature of its GCSEs
to make them ‘tougher’. End of course examinations and a new scale, 1–9, will mark
this innovation. At the same time England has packaged its qualifications to emphasise
particular subjects through an EBacc. A new school progress measure is based on pupils’
average score across a suite of eight qualifications (EBacc, other academic, arts or
vocational).
Developing high-quality tests and examinations is a complex and specialised activity.
Test development involves not only the trialling and writing of test items but also the
production of mark schemes and moderation arrangements, the training and monitoring

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 393

of markers, the procedures for pupils requiring special arrangements, and much more.
Examination boards, awarding bodies and test development agencies typically have great
expertise, many years of experience, and are supported by very active research divisions,
as well as being regulated themselves.
However, testing is not an exact science, and Black and Wiliam claim the ‘very
limited reliability of external tests, which command a degree of confidence which they
do not deserve’ (1998a, p. 158). Undoubtedly some pupils are misclassified, although
which individuals and how many in total will always be open to question. Wiliam (2001)
estimated that at least 30 per cent of pupils could be given the wrong grade.
The reliability of tests and examinations is also often called into question because of
patterns of improvement over time. With the laudable commitment to raise standards,
students working hard, and teachers improving their practice and becoming more experi-
enced with the curriculum and the test requirements, it is not surprising that the percentage
of students gaining higher grades on criterion-referenced tests might increase year on year.
Figure 14.14, for instance, uses official Government data to show that GCSE scores in
English and maths rose steadily for many years (DCSF, 2009).
However, while ever-rising standards should ostensibly be a cause for celebration,
the risk of ‘grade inflation’ creates unease: are these students really much better than
those of previous years? Is it really that standards are going up, or in another sense are
standards actually dropping? To counter such fears, exam boards set grade boundaries
using examiners’ judgements of the quality of work from year to year. They also work to
achieve ‘comparable outcomes’ across subjects and they use statistical modelling to try to
account for other contextual factors.
Despite such efforts, the trend of exam performance is a frequent focus for political
debate. The changes to GCSE in England, to be taught from 2015 in English and maths,
are one outcome of this.

55 Figure 14.4 The

53.0 rise in GCSE
53 attainment (DCSF,
51 2009)

49
47.6
47 46.3
45.6
44.7
45
43 Over 76,500 more
pupils achieved 5+
41 A*–C GCSE
including English
39 and maths than
35.9 did in 1997.
37
35
1997 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Line indicates a break in the time series between the 1997 estimate and the actual figures for 2005 onwards.

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394 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

2.2 National surveys of system performance

In the discussion in Section 2.1 above, it will have been apparent how the outcomes of
individual pupils are often aggregated and used as measures of the performance of schools
or of national systems as a whole. This is common in ‘neo-liberal’ systems (see Chapter
5, Green and Janmaat, Reading 5.2) where system-wide improvement is expected to come
from competition between schools. However, as we have seen, it conflates assessment
aims so that judgements about the learning of individuals become entangled in measures
of school, local authority, sector or system effectiveness. As Harlen et al. (1992, Reading
13.1) argued, such conflation of aims can have unintended consequences.
An alternative approach is to rely on specific sources of information for each need. For
instance, this was the practice in England in the 1970s and 1980s.
●● Schools were responsible for the assessment of pupil performance. In primary
education, a wide range of commercially available tests was commonly used –
with a consequential lack of comparability across schools. In secondary education,
exam boards maintained GCSE and A Level qualifications.
●● Local authority advisers and inspectors in each local government area supported
school improvement, and inspections by HMI were significant accountability
events.
●● To achieve national monitoring on curricular and other issues, HMI also
carried out specific studies and published reports which drew on their extensive
professional experience.
However, given the variation in provision and practice in different local authorities,
monitoring of national performance prior to examinations at the end of schooling was a
problem. This was solved from 1975–89 through the establishment of the Assessment of
Performance Unit (APU) to monitor pupil achievement. Rather than tests being necessary
in all schools, a sampling frame enabled selection of 1.5 per cent of all pupils at ages 11,
13 and 15 whose test results provided reliable evidence of national performance in selected
subjects (including English and maths).
In Scotland a similar national monitoring programme has existed since 1983. It used
a nationally representative sample of pupils within primary and secondary schools who
undertake assessment activities in a rolling programme to enable a focus on particular
subjects, with a three-yearly cycle of surveys in English, maths and science. The system
has been refined over the years and the present Scottish Survey of Literacy and Numeracy
now monitors performance at Primary 4, Primary 7 and Secondary 2. Results are not
reported or recorded at pupil, school or local authority level. Rather, they are used to make
judgements about national performance and to produce teaching and learning resources to
support teachers in improving the quality of their provision.
National surveys of pupil performance can thus serve this particular purpose in cost-
effective and efficient ways, and without unintended distorting effects on school practices.

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2.3 Non-statutory tests and tasks

There are many tests that teachers and schools can and do use on an optional basis.
Some of these were developed to assist with the monitoring of progress between points
of statutory assessment, and are marked by the teachers of the pupils being tested. This
activity itself gives teachers an insight into the statutory assessment process, helps them
become more familiar with standards, and provides them with detailed information about
each child’s performance.
A variety of other externally produced tests are used routinely by schools, although in
some cases the reasons for doing so may be questioned. Despite arguments about there
being ‘too much testing’ in schools, teachers appear to do significantly more testing
than is formally required. A number of reasons for using additional tests are given, and
some, such as the diagnosis of specific reading difficulties, may be laudable. In the main,
however, it seems that the high-stakes nature of statutory assessment has a knock-on
effect. In particular, it is felt to be necessary to performance more regularly and at other
ages.
However, even more serious than the overuse of tests, is the false confidence which
may be put in their results, as noted earlier in this chapter. Broadfoot (2007) argues further
that educational assessment and the measurement of human achievement ‘can never be
objective since they are inevitably limited by the social nature of the assessment situation
and the values and culture which overlay the interpretation of the quality of a given perfor-
mance’ (p. 28) (Reading 14.1). The issue of reliability is probably greater with non-statutory
tests because of the lack of checks and safeguards associated with statutory tests. Filer
and Pollard (2000, Reading 14.7) showed how ‘objective’ assessment practices depend on
the contexts and social practices in which performance, judgement and interpretation of
judgement are produced, and so are vulnerable to bias and distortion.

2.4 Teacher assessment

Another approach to summative assessment is periodic teacher assessment. Based on their
wide knowledge of a pupil’s performance in different contexts and over time, teachers
make a judgement about the level of attainment against a given standard such as a ‘level’
as established in a national framework of standards. ‘Best fit’ judgements, balancing
strengths and weaknesses, can be made for different aspects of a subject or a subject as a
whole. Where performance ‘levels’ have been established, judgements can be related to
these scales. However, such a classification may provide very little information about what
the pupil actually understands and is able to do. In England, the national system of levels
was abandoned from 2014 in favour of a more substantive focus by schools on specific
learning achievements in relation to programmes of study.
Tests and tasks can be used to inform teacher assessment, but the greatest value of
teacher assessment is that a wide range of evidence is taken into account, thus increasing
validity.

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396 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

If teacher assessment is to be used for summative and comparative purposes, then the
development of teachers’ understanding of standards is crucial for its reliability. Further,
once teachers have made provisional judgements, moderation is required to ensure fairness
to pupils and that the data produced are useful. Teachers should discuss their assess-
ments of pupils’ work with other colleagues in the same school and in other schools, and
systems of moderation often involving the local authority help ensure the comparability
of assessment across a wider area.

3 Using summative assessment information

An enormous amount of time, energy and money is expended on assessment, yet pupils’
learning is only improved if assessment information is actually used, rather than simply
collected. As is suggested in this chapter, assessment information is used in a wide variety
of ways, by different people, and for different purposes.

3.1 Supporting pupil progress

As we have repeatedly seen in this book, it is crucial to build on pupils’ current knowledge
and understanding (see also Butt, 2011, Reading 14.3). Thus, at the start of any unit of work
teachers need to use assessment information to achieve a cognitive match (see Chapter 10,
Section 4 on lesson planning). When meeting a new group of students, teachers are reliant
on the assessment information provided by previous teachers, often at an earlier stage of
schooling. As time passes, the dependability of records diminishes as pupils will have
progressed in their learning, or perhaps forgotten certain things. Recorded information
then has to be supplemented by more up-to-date evidence.
When teaching any lesson, teachers will use assessment information formatively to
adapt their teaching depending on the children’s responses. At the end of each lesson they
will be noting, probably on the plans themselves or in a daybook, things that need to be
taken into account in the next lesson. These may apply to all or just some of the pupils, and
could be about the need to reinforce a particular concept, or omit a planned activity since
the learning objective it was designed to support is already well grasped.
Towards the end of a unit the teacher may devise a particular assessment activity
focusing on the key learning objectives for that unit, and will use the last period of time
to extend the work or review those objectives, as the need is demonstrated. After a unit
of work has been completed, notes will again be made to inform both the future teaching
of that unit to other groups, and the future teaching of related units to the same group of
pupils.
Whilst notes are useful on a day-to-day basis, numerical assessment data, perhaps in the
form of levels or grades, are often used for tracking progress over time. Periodically the
attainment of both individuals and groups can be compared with both their previous and
target attainment, and judgements made about whether they are on an appropriate learning

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 397

trajectory, falling behind or exceeding expectations. Different scenarios should lead to

different actions to support learning – for example, reviewing expectations, providing
additional support or extending the challenge. Similarly, when expectations for a unit
of work have been set in terms of what ‘all’, ‘most’ and ‘some’ of the students should
attain, recording names against each category enables pupil tracking but without recourse
to levels or grades. It is important to remember that despite their apparent attractiveness,
numbers are a very blunt instrument when trying to represent learning.

3.2 Transfer and transition

Assessment information has a particular and important role in effective transition (moving
from one class to another within the same school) and transfer (when pupils move from
one school to another). In order that the next teacher and/or school can extend each pupil’s
present attainment, building on strengths and addressing weaknesses, it is vital that key
information from the present teacher’s knowledge are passed on in a manageable way
and at times when the information can be used effectively. In England there is a Common
Transfer Form that must be used when a student moves to another school in England,
Wales, Scotland or Northern Ireland. In Scotland a process of profiling is used to support
transfer and transition at key points.
Successful transfer and transition goes far beyond the mere passing on of assessment
information (Sutton, 2000). In particular principled, professional conversation between
past and future teachers at times of transition and transfer is extremely valuable in bringing
documentary information to life. However, while this may be possible when a class moves
from one teacher to another, it becomes much more difficult when pupils are transferring
from many primary schools to a secondary school with different teachers for each subject.
Transfer of assessment information and meetings between teachers are the two key strat-
egies in what Galton, Gray and Rudduck (1999) termed the ‘managerial/bureaucratic
bridge’. They also identified four other ‘bridges’ used to span the gap – perhaps even
more significant but harder to build than the first. These are the social/personal bridge; the
curriculum bridge; the pedagogical bridge; and the learning-to-learn bridge. So, important
though assessment information is in smoothing pupils’ transitions and transfers, it is only
one aspect of this crucial process.
When young people complete their schooling, hopefully
they move into the world of work or undertake further
study. Apprenticeships are a traditional vocational route Expert question
into the skilled employment, whilst further or university Consequence: do assessment outcomes
education beckon for some. For many young people lead towards recognised qualifications
however, contemporary economic circumstances are and a confident sense of personal
much more challenging and opportunities may be limited. identity?
In any event, it is to be hoped that education will This question contributes to a conceptual
provide them with qualifications of which they can be framework representing enduring issues
proud and with the self-confidence and resilience to and teacher expertise (see Chapter 16).
support them whilst they begin their adult life.

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3.3 School improvement and accountability

Assessment has a major role to play not only in the support of individual pupils’ learning
and progress, but also in improvement efforts at every level from a small group, class or
whole school, to an authority or country.
For example, a prominent use of assessment evidence in recent years has been in
relation to ‘targets’, particularly in England. National targets have been set and then
cascaded down through local authorities to schools. England’s Department for Education
put it as follows:

Schools are required to set statutory targets annually, working with Governors, their
School Improvement Partners and using relevant data, which are then reported to the
local authority and DfE who may publish this information. Schools often set additional
targets as part of effective pupil tracking to keep pupils on trajectory and maintain
progress. Key questions are:
●● What does the data and information on pupil targets, attainment, gap-narrowing and
progress show?
●● How well are different groups doing? Are tartets sufficiently ambitious for under-
performing groups?
●● Are proposed targets stretching and realistic? Do they build on improvements and
prior attainment?
●● What strategies and interventions are in place to help achieve the targets?
(Guidance to Local Authorities and Schools, DfE, 2012)

In such ways, performance target and outcome data are hugely influential on school
policies and practices as well as being central to accountability mechanisms. This is a
worldwide trend, though ‘England arguably has more data and more sophisticated data than
any other jurisdiction in the world’ (Earl and Fullan, 2003, p. 385). National examinations,
tests and related assessments of every pupil on many occasions during their school career
have generated huge amounts of data, at the same time as developments in information
technology have enabled large scale data storage, sophisticated analysis, and detailed
reporting. Alongside this, the high profile now given to accountability in education has
spawned huge industries using assessment data for school improvement and accountability.
Teachers and headteachers use assessment data for school improvement, sometimes
have opportunities to mediate and explain information to pupils, parents and carers, often
discuss data with colleagues, and are themselves held accountable by them. Data can be
extremely helpful in making informed decisions (Ofsted, 2008, Reading 14.4), but can
also be misleading and misinterpreted. A basic understanding of data, their strengths,
weaknesses and related issues, is therefore essential for all teachers.
Data derived from assessment is sometimes referred to as ‘performance data’, a term
that encompasses:
●● Raw and aggregated attainment data
●● Value-added data
●● Contextual value-added data.

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Attainment data can be generated by teacher assessment, tasks, tests and examinations,
and typically attention is given to certain key indicators; for example the attaining of a
particular level, or higher grades in a combination of subjects, or the ‘point score’ from a
number of subjects. When raw data from individual pupils are aggregated other indicators
are possible; for example the percentage of pupils attaining five or more good grades
at age 16. Value added data take account of the fact that pupils have differing starting
points, and so two students with the same raw score at the end of a school stage could
have made very different progress – or even none at all. Value-added data is applicable for
both individuals and large groups of pupils, and is particularly relevant when comparing
schools whose pupils on intake were already attaining very differently. Contextual value-
added takes the notion further, by not only considering pupils’ prior attainment but also
taking account of other factors such as gender, ethnicity, special educational needs, and a
proxy for social deprivation such as eligibility for free school meals. Many people regard
contextual value-added as being a much better measure of school performance than raw
scores (Schagen and Hutchinson, 2003), although they do require understanding and care
to interpret them appropriately. For this reason the Coalition Government removed the
contextual measures from school performance data tables in England saying they were
too difficult to understand.
With the amount, complexity and importance of data it is essential for schools to use
software packages to handle it all. There are many available and the most commonly used
in England are:
●● RAISEonline (Reporting and Analysis for Improvement through school
Self-Evaluation), https://raiseonline.org
●● Fischer Family Trust, http://fischerfamilytrust.org
●● The Data Enabler toolkit, http://ssatuk.co.uk/ssat/programmes-support/data/
data-enabler-toolkit/
●● A whole suite of packages (including Yellis and ALIS) for different ages and
countries from the Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring at the University of
Durham, http://cemcentre.org/.
Whatever the data and the software package, analysis alone will not improve the quality
of education or children’s learning: it is part of a process that must include action. A
five-stage cycle of school improvement encompasses reviewing, planning and acting, and
remains a useful framework.
Performance data may be aggregated, analysed and used to produce ‘league tables’ of
schools. Where such tables exist, they often attract considerable media attention and are
promoted as enabling parents to make judgements about ‘good schools’ and thus to inform
choice of school. This, in turn, puts market pressure on schools to improve. However, the
reliability of such analyses cannot be taken for granted, as Leckie and Goldstein have
demonstrated (2009, see the Research Briefing on p. 401).
We have seen that the use of pupil assessment data to indicate school performance,
whilst superficially attractive, also has many unintended consequences and may not be
sufficiently dependable for the purposes to which it is put. As the introduction to this

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400 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Figure 14.5 A How well should

five-stage cycle we be doing?
for school
improvement How well are
we doing?

What more should we

aim to achieve this year?

Taking action and

reviewing the progress

What must we do
to make it happen?

chapter made clear, assessment can be used for such purposes, but to do so weakens
its contribution to other educational goals (see also Harlen et al., 1992, Reading 13.1).
Using assessment data for accountability purposes can create problems if for example
the media, the public and politicians do not understand the limitations of data and draw
unwarranted inferences. These issues are discussed in Reading 14.5 by Mansell and James
(2009).
In a powerful argument, MacGilchrist (2003) argued that to seek school improvement
simply through performance pressure was an approach which was ‘past its sell-by date’,
and she urged more attention to the fundamental processes of teaching and learning
themselves. This might be seen as a variation of the folklore that ‘you can’t fatten a pig by
weighing it’. The Scottish curriculum and assessment system exemplifies a more holistic
approach (see Scottish Government, 2011b, Reading 14.2).

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Research
Briefing
School league tables: Are they any good for choosing schools?

Key findings
Each year the Government and the media publish league tables of schools’ academic performances and encourage parents to use them
when choosing a secondary school for their children. Our work shows that these tables are highly misleading when it comes to school
choice.

• T he most high profile measure – the percentage of children getting five A* to C grades at GCSE – says more about the differences in
schools’ intakes than it does about the differences in their quality.
• Value-added measures are superior in that they adjust for these initial differences, but deriving from approximately 200 students per
school, are so noisy that it is hard to statistically separate many schools’ performances from one another.
• Just as with stocks and shares, schools’ value-added past performances are not reliable indicators of their future performances and
crucially it is these future performances which are relevant when choosing a secondary school.

More should be done by the Government and the media to communicate these important limitations to parents.

The research
Our work focused on a fundamental problem in using school league tables for school choice: school league tables report the past
performance of secondary schools, based on children who have just taken their GCSE exams, whereas what parents want to know is
how schools will perform in the future when their own children take the exams. Consider parents who chose a secondary school for
their child in autumn 2012. Their child will enter school in autumn 2013 and will take their GCSE exams in 2018. Thus, the information
parents need when choosing is how schools are predicted to perform in 2018. However, the most recent information available is the
school league table for how schools performed in 2011. Thus, there is a seven year gap between the available information and what
parents want to know; the most recent league table is always effectively seven years out of date.

Research design
We focussed on the Government’s ‘contextual value-added’ (CVA) league tables as the Government promoted these as being the
most meaningful way to compare schools. Clearly, the more schools’ CVA performances change over a seven year period, the less
reliable school league tables will be as a guide to schools’ future performances. We examined the official school league table data and
showed that many schools which were performing in the top quarter of schools in 2002 were below average seven years later. We then
proceeded to illustrate just how unreliable the current school league tables are by predicting schools’ current performance using data
from seven years previously. These predictions are so imprecise that almost no schools can be distinguished reliably from one another.
This means that, for choosing a school, the league tables are essentially meaningless and, by not communicating this fundamental
problem to parents, they are highly misleading.
References for practitioners, journalists and policymakers
Leckie, G. and Goldstein, H. (2009). School league tables: Are they any good for choosing schools? Research in Public Policy, Bulletin of the Centre
for Market and Public Organisation, 8, 6–9.
Goldstein, H. and Leckie, G. (2008). School league tables: what can they really tell us? Significance, 5, 67–9.

This work was carried out at the University of Bristol

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4 Records and reporting

4.1 Keeping records

All teachers need to take decisions about what aspects of pupil activity and learning
achievements should be recorded, and how they should be recorded.

What should be recorded?

This question relates to the multiple purposes of assessment and recording. As a minimum,
records must meet legal requirements which normally require schools to keep ‘curricular’
records on every pupil. These formally record academic achievements, skills, abilities and
progress, and are a subset of the fuller educational records that must be maintained for
each individual. This requirement could probably be met by simply keeping a copy of all
annual reports to parents, but this is unlikely to be sufficient to support children’s learning,
nor satisfy the expectations of school inspectors and others.
Beyond the legal minimum, within any school there could be a number of different
records each with particular purposes and uses. These may include:
●● to help the teacher plan the next steps in teaching and learning;
●● to show what a child knows, understands and can do, and the progress that he or
she has made;
●● to help children see the progress they are making;
●● to provide information for setting targets;
●● to inform discussions with parents, and end-of-year reports;
●● to provide accurate information about a child’s attainment, progress and learning
needs that can be passed on to the next teacher or school;
●● to assist with end-of-year and statutory teacher assessments;
●● to inform revisions to medium-term plans and schemes of work;
●● to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching;
●● to identify issues for the school improvement plan.
(Swaffield, 2000)

How should records be kept?

This question concerns manageability and the use of records. It is useful to think of the
range of forms that records can take, as in Figure 14.6, on p. 404.
Along with whatever recording systems the school decides upon, individual classroom
teachers, and trainee teachers, will keep records to assist in their day-to-day teaching
and to contribute to the whole-school system. In most countries there are moves towards
increasing access to records. For instance, in England teachers can keep personal records

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 403

solely for their own use, but any record which may be seen by or transferred to other
teachers or other professionals must be made available to parents on request. This can
help teachers develop the habit of recording in a positive form – e.g. ‘Sally is beginning
to participate in group story sessions,’ rather than: ‘Sally often interrupts story sessions.’
The issue reflects general ethical concerns about the central accumulation and recording
of information about individuals – whether it is medical information, financial, criminal
or anything else. Indeed, most of us would probably want to know what was being kept
on us and many people take the view that this is a legitimate right. Continuous awareness
of the possible audiences for teacher-created records is thus necessary, and schools should
consider the implications of the requirements of the Data Protection Act, 1998, and the
Freedom of Information Act, 2000.

Reflective activity 14.5

Aim: To identify information about the children which it is important to know and
record.
Evidence and reflection: Make notes, under the following headings, of:
1 What information do you think is important for you to know about children in your
class?
2 Why is it important?
3 How would you use it?
4 How would you record it?
5 How would you check on the objectivity and fairness of your records?
6 Who has a right of access to your records?
Extension: Asking such basic questions could provide a check on the keeping
of records. Any information which is not demonstrably useful to teaching,
manageable, consistent with school policy and ethically sound should be reviewed.

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Figure 14.6
Forms of records
Annotated plans Turn short-term plans into working documents, recording what has
actually been taught, and ‘next steps’ to be fed into the planning
for the next lesson or following week.
Children’s work These show attainment and progress over time, particularly in
and books specific subjects. They are even more useful as records if the
in different learning objective is noted at the top of a piece of work, or
subjects incorporated into the teacher’s comments.
Teacher’s mark Mark books or record files can be customised in a whole variety of
book / record ways to suit the teacher, different subjects, and various groupings
file of children. Recording specific learning objectives increases their
usefulness.
Children’s Children may occasionally record some aspects of their
self-assessment self-assessment, but self-assessment is above all a thinking
activity, and an emphasis on recording too often detracts from
this.
Unit records When work has been taught in units, the attainment of children can
be recorded in three groups, matching the learning objectives that
you would expect all, most, or some of the children to achieve.
Information IT is being used increasingly and is a very powerful tool. Large
technology amounts of assessment data can be stored, analysed, displayed,
transferred and reported. As with all assessment and recording, it
is essential that IT systems used are manageable and useful, that
numbers are treated with the caution they deserve, and that data
relates to and informs learning and teaching.
Individual Whilst these may be highly valued by children, teachers and
portfolios parents, the time involved needs to be found and justified. As a
whole-school practice, they have been criticised, but they remain
important in understanding individuals. Targeted use may be most
appropriate.
School Annotated examples of work and observations which demonstrate
portfolios standards agreed by teachers. These complement other forms of
records, and are useful for sharing with others (children, parents,
inspectors) and for reference by teachers.
Work samples Regularly collected samples of work, often representing three broad
bands of attainment, serving as a record of the type and level of
work produced, and useful for monitoring.
Individual Individual Action Plans (IEPs) are records of targets and progress for
Education Plans individual children.
Teachers’ day Teachers’ own personal notes. A notebook may be particularly
books and important for Early Years teachers because much of the evidence
personal notes of children’s achievements may be ephemeral – behaviour or
comments, rather than recorded ‘work’. The habit of jotting
down these observations may be difficult to acquire, especially
for student teachers who may be preoccupied with management
issues. Time has to be planned for observation of children.

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 405

4.2 Reporting to parents and carers

Parents and other carers are hugely significant in children’s lives as, of course, is informal
learning in non-school settings. For these reasons, if the teachers are able to inform, learn
from and work with such significant others, the improvement in learning outcomes for
pupils is likely to be considerable (Desforges, 2003; Goodall and Vorhaus, 2010).
However, the ways in which teachers report the progress of children and young people
to parents are influenced by two seemingly contradictory sets of expectations.
The first makes the assumption that parents are partners with teachers in supporting
the learning of each child (e.g. Hornby, 2011). Parents may thus be routinely invited into
school, particularly in the early years. Parent–teacher discussions are likely to include
consideration of the processes and progress of the pupil – perhaps illustrated by reference
to their work.
The second expectation is based on an image of parents as consumers of education,
having contracted with the school for the provision of educational services to their child
(e.g. Chubb and Moe, 1990; Woods et al., 1998). They thus require a report of outcomes,
through which the school can be held accountable for pupil progress.
Needless to say, most schools make provision which reflects elements of both these
approaches. This is not surprising, for, whilst the partnership model is professionally
acknowledged as contributing very constructively to pupil learning, the consumer model is
increasingly underwritten by legal requirements. For example, for each pupil in England,
annual reports to parents are required to include information about:
●● achievements
●● progress
●● attendance.
Additional information is required for pupils who have undergone national assessments,
and comparative information about same age pupils at the school and nationally must
be available on request. Such requirements feed the ‘consumer’ model of education.
The partnership aspect is most clearly demonstrated by the inclusion within reports of
targets for the future, and of advice about specific ways in which parents can help. In
England from 2014, maintained schools are required to publish for parents a year-by-year
curriculum plan. In principle, this will enable parents to tune support for their children and
could be very beneficial educationally.
However, it is by no means certain how this tension between partnership and consum-
erist models of home–school relationships will develop over time.
One of the most explicit ways of manifesting the partnership model is through the
processes which a school adopts in reporting pupil achievements to parents. Annual
written reports to parents may be legally required, but most schools offer much more
in terms of formal and informal opportunities during the year. Consultation evenings,
interim reports, home–school liaison notebooks, phone calls, emails, individual face-to-
face discussions and so on can all strengthen the relationship between home and school,
while also addressing parental expectations about access and information. Some of the

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best practice involves the pupils as active participants, for example through attending open
days/evenings and contributing to written reports.

Reflective activity 14.6

Aim: To develop an informative and constructive procedure for reporting to parents.
Evidence and reflection: This activity must be tailored to circumstances. Discuss with
appropriate colleagues the aims and scope of a reporting exercise. If you are a
student teacher, you might want to limit it to reflect a project which you have
completed, or build it into an end-of-term open day.
Consider the following questions:
How can you best provide information to parents?
How can you involve the children?
How can you elicit information and support from parents?
Extension: Evaluate your reporting procedure. Did you find consumerist or partnership
expectations from parents? How did the children benefit? What will you do when
your next opportunity arises?

Conclusion
The assessment of pupils’ learning is crucial, complex and, increasingly, controversial.
First and foremost it is of immense importance to the pupils themselves: their life-
chances can be significantly affected, both through their results and by the shaping of
their self-image and motivation. However, the process of assessing students’ learning is
complex and requires expert judgement.
Assessment outcomes also often have implications for teachers and headteachers, as
their work is increasingly judged on the basis of pupil results in formal assessments.
Indeed, in England, schools can even be closed if their performance is deemed to be
unsatisfactory by inspectors – with consequences that can spread beyond the school to the
surrounding community.
Teachers need a secure understanding of assessment issues so that they can make the
best decisions for their pupils’ learning, and engage in informed dialogue with colleagues,
pupils, parents, policymakers and the public.

Key readings
Books that provide overviews of assessment are listed in the key readings for Chapter
13, but are also relevant to this chapter. Readings given below are more focused on the
summative purposes of assessment, but may also relate to the issues discussed in the
previous chapter.

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 Chapter 14 Outcomes 407

For an excellent overview of a wide range of issues, policies and practices in assessment,
see:
Broadfoot, P. (2007) An Introduction to Assessment. London: Continuum. (Reading 14.1)

A TLRP commentary provides a succinct overview of key issues:

Mansell, W. and James, M. with the Assessment Reform Group (2009) Assessment in
Schools: Fit for Purpose? A Commentary by the Teaching and Learning Research
Programme. London: TLRP. (Reading 14.5)

James’ comprehensive book covers many timeless assessment issues:

James, M. (1998) Using Assessment for School Improvement. Oxford: Heinemann.

Two pamphlets by the Assessment Reform Group are particularly pertinent:

Assessment Reform Group (2002) Testing, Motivation and Learning. Cambridge:
University of Cambridge Faculty of Education.
Assessment Reform Group (2006) The Role of Teachers in Assessment of Learning.
London: Institute of Education.

Drawing on the analysis of more than a dozen research projects, a book that promotes
the development of teacher assessment is:
Gardner, J., Harlen, W., Hayward, L. and Stobart, G. with Montgomery, M. (2010)
Developing Teacher Assessment. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Stobart provides an insightful analysis of the effects of a variety of tests and assessment
practices:
Stobart, G. (2008) Testing Times: The Uses and Abuses of Assessment. Abingdon:
Routledge. (Reading 13.6)

For a comprehensive discussion of the examination and testing regime in England and
its consequences see:
Mansell, W. (2007) Education by Numbers: The Tyranny of Testing. London: Politico
Publishing.

For a principled guide to classroom assessment, including target setting, see:

Butt, G. (2011) Making Assessment Matter. London: Continuum. (Reading 14.3)

Two useful booklets for helping to understand and use assessment and assessment data
are:
Swaffield, S. and Dudley, P. (2010) Assessment Literacy for Wise Decisions (3rd edn).
London: Association of Teachers and Lecturers. (see also Reading 13.5)
Ofsted (2008) Using Data, Improving Schools. London: Ofsted. (Reading 14.4)

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408 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

For developed example of a national assessment system with strong alignment to

curriculum objectives, see:
Scottish Government (2011b) Principles of Assessment in Curriculum for Excellence.
Building the Curriculum 5. A Framework for Assessment. Edinburgh: Scottish
Government. (Reading 14.2)

A developed, sociological analysis of assessment practices is offered in:

Filer, A. (ed.) Assessment: Social Practice and Social Product. London: Routledge.
(see also Reading 14.7)

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Inclusion
How are we
enabling learning
opportunities?
15
Introduction (p. 410) 4 ‘Needs’ as a dimension of
difference (p. 425)
1 Dimensions of difference (p. 411) 4.1 Concepts and definitions (p. 425)

1.1 Social class (p. 412) 4.2 Responding to ‘needs’ in the

classroom (p. 427)
1.2 Ethnicity (p. 413)
1.3 Gender (p. 413)
1.4 Sexuality (p. 414) 5 Developing inclusive
1.5 Age (p. 415) classroom communities (p. 430)
1.6 Physical appearance (p. 415)
5.1 Inclusive teaching and learning
1.7 Disability (p. 416) (p. 430)
1.8 Learning (p. 416) 5.2 The inclusive pedagogical approach
(p. 431)
2 School processes (p. 417) 5.3 Putting inclusive pedagogy into
practice (p. 433)
2.1 Differentiation in routine practices
(p. 417)
2.2 Polarisation through peer culture
Conclusion (p. 436)
(p. 418)

3 Difference as part of the

human condition (p. 420)

3.1 Learner diversity (p. 420)

3.2 Inclusive education (p. 421)
410 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Introduction
This chapter is primarily concerned with everyday classroom practice: that is, with actions
which a reflective teacher can take to promote the inclusion of the children and young
people they teach. But inequality is also, in some ways, an outcome of education – as
we will also see. It is to the credit of the teaching profession that there is considerable
awareness of inequalities and of how they can be tackled. The chapter explores the nature
of difference and the pedagogical decisions that enable teachers to develop their classes as
inclusive learning communities.
The concept of ‘inclusive education’ is open to many interpretations but our concern
here is with the development of classroom practices, and their consequences for learners’
lives both in and out of school. Our particular focus is on the ways in which teachers can
enable everyone to feel accepted and valued for who they are, make progress in their
learning, and have opportunities to participate in a full range of classroom activities. We
make two key assumptions:
●● diversity amongst a class of learners is to be expected and welcomed;
●● all learners have the right to achieve.
These assumptions are embedded in enduring, global concerns of social justice and
equity. In 1948, Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stated that
education ‘shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial
or religious groups’. Nearly 50 years later the Salamanca Statement (United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 1994), argued that schools
with an ‘inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory
attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving
education for all’. The countries of the UK are signatories of this Statement and indeed
it is embedded in national legislation on inclusion. Meanwhile, recent research indicates
that, globally, more than 75 million children are excluded from any form of education
at all mainly because of poverty, gender inequity, disability and child labour (UNESCO,
2012). These challenges raise fundamental questions about what it means to be included
in a society and about the broader purposes of education. Indeed, Florian (2007) discusses
how inclusive education can be understood ‘both as a human right and a means of
achieving human rights’ (p. 8) (see also the discussion in Chapter 17, Section 2 and
Reading 17.6).

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 411

TLRP principles
Three principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on social differences, oppor-
tunities and inclusion:

Effective teaching and learning equips learners for life in its broadest sense.
Learning should aim to help people to develop the intellectual, personal and social
resources that will enable them to participate as active citizens, contribute to
economic development and flourish as individuals in a diverse and changing society.
This implies adopting a broad view of learning outcomes and ensuring that equity
and social justice are taken seriously. (Principle 1)

Effective teaching and learning fosters both individual and social processes
and outcomes. Learning is a social activity. Learners should be encouraged and
helped to work with others, to share ideas and to build knowledge together.
Consulting learners about their learning and giving them a voice is both an
expectation and a right. (Principle 7)

Effective teaching and learning recognises the significance of informal

learning. Informal learning, such as learning out of school, should be recognised
as at least as significant as formal learning and should therefore be valued and used
appropriately in formal processes. (Principle 8) See Chapter 4

The chapter is divided into five sections. It begins with a discussion of some significant
dimensions of difference that inform the ways that we think about identities. In the second
section, the ways in which difference may be amplified in schools is examined. The third
section explores two related educational concepts: learner diversity and inclusion itself.
The fourth section then focuses on particular groups of learners who are identified as
needing special or additional support. Finally, we draw on recent research to examine how
teachers can enact inclusive pedagogies through the daily routines of their classrooms.
This chapter ranges across many issues and the resources on reflectiveteaching.co.uk will
help in investigating them more deeply. There is also overlap between this chapter and
others in the book, such as Chapter 6 on relationships.

1 Dimensions of difference
In this section we examine diversity as part of the human condition. To do so we consider
eight dimensions often used to recognise social differences: social class, ethnicity, gender,
sexuality, age, physical appearance and disability. As noted in the introduction, this list is
only suggestive of the limitless dimensions of difference that may impact on our educa-
tional experiences. Moreover, the ways in which we understand the differences between
ourselves and others are interconnected. Contemporary research often examines how
social advantages and disadvantages associated with each category may be compounded

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by the disadvantages associated with another (e.g. Sewell, 1997; Plummer, 2000; Youdell,
2006; Artiles, et al., 2006; Alexander, 2010). Of course, consequential differences in self-
confidence and in success in learning accumulate in school settings, as we discuss at the
end of the section.
The Equality Act 2010 in England and Wales illustrates the extension off the equality
duties of teachers and schools so that key dimensions of difference (named as ‘charac-
teristics’) are protected (see Richardson, 2009, Reading 15.1, for underlying principles of
the legislation and their implications for schools). Similar legislation applies in Northern
Ireland, Scotland and the Republic of Ireland.

1.1 Social class

Some commentators argue that social class provides the structures through which gender,
race, ability, age and sexuality are played out. Indeed, inequalities of wealth, income and
material opportunities remain highly significant in determining life-chances (Feinstein
et al., 2008, Reading 1.6) and there has been no ‘withering away of class’ in the lived
experience of UK citizens. For example, for the last 20 years, there has been a consistent
trend for the gap between the highest and lowest incomes to widen each year. One conse-
quence was the fact that in 2011 there were 4 million children living in families on or
below the ‘poverty line’ (Office for National Statistics, 2012). However, at the same time,
many families were very well off and approximately 8 per cent of school-age children
attended private schools. A UNICEF report (2012) compares children’s material wellbeing
in the UK with other ‘economically advanced’ nations and warns that child poverty is
worsening.
Not all definitions of class are based on income, wealth or economic capital, and some
focus more on status and level of education. The concepts of ‘cultural capital’ (Bourdieu
and Passeron, 1977) and ‘social capital’ (Coleman, 1988) were developed to describe the
knowledge, attitudes and experiences which socialisation within a ‘higher-class’ family
may offer, and which complements material wealth. One of their major insights on educa-
tional inequality is that students with social and cultural capital are likely to fare better
in education than their otherwise comparable peers with less valuable social and cultural
assets. For example, parents may deploy their economic, cultural, social and emotional
capital by choosing to live in a particular area to access a favoured school and through the
nature of the experiences and support which they provide for their children. Such strat-
egies are manifestations of the process of ‘social reproduction’, in which one generation
seeks to pass on the advantages of its social position to another (see, for instance, Connell
et al., 1982).
We thus face the challenge of, on the one hand, understanding the economic, social and
cultural advantages and disadvantages of particular children; and, on the other hand, of
affirming and building on the diverse backgrounds and cultural resources within families
and communities.

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1.2 Ethnicity
The term ‘ethnicity’ describes combinations of ancestry, heritage, religion, culture,
nationality, language and region. As such, we all have ethnic identities. Globalisation and
changing patterns of migration have challenged the idea that ethnicities are fixed. Cultures
and social structures, compounded by differences of historical development, can make a
considerable difference to people’s experience, leading to much variation amongst ethnic
groups. Definitions of what constitutes an ethnic group, or ethnic minority are commonly
based on a combination of categories including ‘race’, skin colour, national origins and
language (e.g. White British), and information about our ethnicity is routinely collected to
understand many current social and economic trends.
The population of the UK is, increasingly, ethnically diverse. Alibhai-Brown (2000)
argued that Britain should adopt an approach which accepts the diverse contributions of
different cultures and groups, past and present – including those White communities, rich
or poor, which also feel excluded from significant aspects of modern society and which
may harbour racism (see also Gay, 2010). The recent growth of ‘faith schools’ in the UK
has been associated with some ethnic communities wanting to preserve their own cultural
traditions and beliefs. While some view this development as divisive and ultimately
discriminatory, it can also be seen as recognition of ethnic diversity and fulfilment of
religious rights.
Racism is the term that describes processes in society which adversly affect people
according to their identification as members of one ethnic group or another. Racism has a
long history in the UK going back to the imperial past and beyond, and it has taken root in
the discourse and structure of society. Racial prejudice is also reflected within the cultures
of children and young people (Connolly, 1998; Troyna and Hatcher, 1992). Gillborn’s
(2006) recent analysis of research in the UK using Critical Race Theory offers, in his
words, ‘a damning critique of the racist nature of the education system’. Such prejudices
may be further amplified by the social, cultural, legal and political structures that have
developed over time.

1.3 Gender
There is an accepted scientific basis for recognising two sexes: there are differences within
the reproductive process and there is also evidence of genetic and neurobiological differ-
ences affecting innate behaviours and brain functioning (Greenfield, 1997). The term
‘gender’, on the other hand, describes the social definition of sex roles rather than the
biological distinction itself. Indeed, masculinity and femininity should not be considered
to be inherent, biological properties, but as socially constructed products of society. They
arise from, and condition, social processes (Money, 1995).
‘Sexism’ is the operation of forces in society by which members of one sex obtain
advantages over the other, because of and through their gender. Patterns of discrimination
prompt us to ask questions such as how school life contributes to restrictive or enabling

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socialisation. For example, in the last 20 years researchers have asked why it is that
girls tend to perform better than boys when in school (e.g. Davies, 1993; Francis, 1998;
Gipps and Murphy, 1994; Reay, 2001; Younger et al. 2005; Warrington et al., 2006).
The assumption of such research is that, because such patterns in performance are not
inevitable, the underlying processes that give rise to them should be challenged (Murphy,
2001). This is a complex task because it is important not to inadvertently disadvantage one
group in the act of trying to improve the achievements of another.
Sometimes factors beyond schools are also in play, as Arnot, David and Weiner
(1999) argued in explaining the performance of girls. Their analysis focused on the
political changes of post-war Britain, particularly the welfare state and education reforms
under Margaret Thatcher. They argued that: ‘successive generations of girls have been
challenged by economic and social change and by feminism’ (p. 150). The significant
aspect of this argument, for our purpose, is recognition of the complexity of social and
cultural influences on educational outcomes (Arnot, 2002).

1.4 Sexuality
In some communities there is still considerable social stigma associated with open expres-
sions of sexuality and many teachers may be hesitant about addressing such issues. Yet
the recognition and acceptance of such differences may be extremely important to the
provision of equal opportunities for some children, young people, teachers or parents.
Discrimination against homosexuality has been common in the past, obliging many
to work under the continual stress of pretence and secrecy. The notorious ‘Section 28’,
which became part of the Local Government Act (1986), prohibited the ‘promotion’ of
homosexuality in England and Wales, including ‘the teaching in any maintained school
of the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship’, and exerted a
strong influence on the content of teaching about sexuality. The Act was repealed in 2003
although there remains controversy and a substantial lack of confidence about how to teach
these issues to children and young people within school curricula. Playground myths and
legends still exert huge influences on sexual identities.
Motivated to write from personal experience of the need to challenge injustice and
inequalities, lesbian and gay activists and educators have made significant contributions to
research in this field. Issues of aloneness; secrecy; (in)visibility; heterosexual presumption;
and homophobia in schools are common themes (Epstein, 1994; DePalma and Atkinson,
2009). Some useful questions for teachers to reflect on might include: what provision
should be made for children who come from families where one or more members are
lesbian or gay? Do the ethos and curriculum of the school offer appropriate support to all
children and young people’s developing awareness of their own sexuality? (How) should
primary school pupils be introduced to sexuality as part of peoples’ identity?

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1.5 Age
The Universal Declaration of Children’s Rights establishes the principle that children and
young people should not be discriminated against because of their age. Research in the
philosophy, history, psychology and sociology of childhood has repeatedly demonstrated
how children’s perspectives, activities and rights are structured, ignored or constrained by
adults (Archard and MacLeod, 2002; James and James, 2004; Miller, 1997). Alternative
conceptions of children as being either ‘innocent’ or ‘corrupt’ (Aries, 1962; Cunningham,
2006) can be found in popular culture and public policy, with the associated adult
responses of both protection and moralising. Indeed, there is a discernible tension around
whether the purpose of education is the protection or correction of children during
childhood (Linklater, 2010).
In the past, teachers have been accused of constraining children because of a misplaced
adherence to Piaget’s conception of ‘stages of development’ (Walkerdine, 1984). Indeed,
there remains a risk that linear assumptions of progress or achievement through schools’
curricula could have a similarly limiting effect (Hart et al., 2004, see Reading 1.4) (see also
Chapter 2, Section 2.3).
More commonly within the profession today, a view of children and young people as
active agents, interacting, or co-creating their own childhoods is accepted (Dahlberg Moss
and Pence, 1999; Mayall, 2002; John, 2003). Indeed, longitudinal studies of educational
experiences year-on-year have shown how children and young people negotiate their
circumstances and act strategically to create and pursue their interests (see Pollard and
Filer, 1999, for an analysis of ‘pupil career’).
One aspect of school experience that has received particular attention in the UK and
US is how the accident of birth date combined with the start of the school year produces
age effects on academic attainment that can be traced throughout primary and secondary
school (e.g. Crawford, Dearden and Maghir, 2007). In particular, children who are young
in their year can be disadvantaged when immaturity is misinterpreted as a lack of ability,
producing an exclusionary effect within the classroom.

1.6 Physical appearance

Physical appearance and perceptions of physical attractiveness have been found to have
an important influence on our identities, behaviour and experiences, both in terms of what
we expect for ourselves, and how others respond to us.
In the 1960s and 1970s social and psychological research focused on understanding
teachers’ expectations of pupils. Findings showed that children’s attractiveness was signif-
icantly associated with how intelligent a teacher expected a child to be, how interested in
education their parents were expected to be, how far the child was likely to progress in
school and how popular they would be with their peers (Clifford and Walster, 1973; also
Seligman, Tucker and Lambert, 1972).
Subsequent research has continued to affirm a correlation between physical appearance,
educational outcomes, self-esteem, or motivating factors, and children and young people’s

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standing within their peer group (for example, O’Dea and Abraham, 2000). For this
reason, as well as impacting on teachers’ expectations, physical appearance is also closely
linked to developing a sense of identity.
Those teaching in secondary schools are likely to be particularly aware of the signifi-
cance of physical appearance throughout the phase of puberty. This takes many forms but,
for example, Frances (2004) studied the social and psychological challenges encountered
by children and young people who have facial disfigurements, which may be congenital
(such as birthmarks or cleft lip) or acquired (burns or scars). She noted that those with
visible differences felt a particular need to be affirmed and included.

1.7 Disability
Understanding disability as a question of rights and opportunities has developed in recent
years, as a result of people with disabilities articulating a strong voice and rejecting
society’s traditional views of the disabled as inadequate, damaged, less than whole, or,
less than fully human. The success of London’s 2012 Paralympic Games reflected this
contemporary awareness.
Sociological studies have shifted the analysis of the nature and causes of disability from
individualistic frames of reference to an examination of social policies and practice. Barton
(2012) describes how this analysis ‘provided a framework and language through which
disabled people themselves can describe their experiences. Discrimination, exclusion
and inequality can be named and challenged. Also, it offers a means through which the
question of disability can be explored and understood in terms of wider socio-economic
conditions and relations’ (p. 115).
Recognising the voice of disabled people has been central to engaging with issues
of human rights, respect and active citizenship, as exemplified by Peters in the extract
below:

People with disabilities have been called many things. I have labelled the worst name
calling the ‘in-words’: invalid; incompetent; inspirational … I have a dream that someday
people won’t use a label when referring to me, but that they will call me by the name
my parents gave me when I was born: Susan Jeanne Peters. I dream that I will be neither
invalid nor inspirational. I want to be just an ordinary person who happens to use a
wheelchair. I look forward to the day when it’s ordinary to be different; the day when we
recognise that our differences are what we all have in common.
(Peters, 2012, p. 65)

1.8 Learning
For some children, learning is said to ‘come easily’, whilst for others the acquisition of the
knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes in the school curriculum or beyond is much more
difficult. Psychologists, neuroscientists and geneticists study differences in the learning

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 417

capabilities of individuals, and such abilities are likely to

have very significant effects throughout a pupil’s school Expert question
career. Personalisation: does the curriculum
Adults also experience variations in their learning resonate with the social and cultural
ability – we tend to find it easier to learn things which are needs of diverse learners and provide
of intrinsic, personal interest. One can readily see then, appropriate elements of choice?
how the factors we have reviewed above, such as social This question contributes to a conceptual
class, ethnicity or gender, can create conditions which may framework underpinning professional
enable or constrain the particular types of learning which expertise (see Chapter 16).
are necessary in schools. Social, economic and cultural
circumstances often have educational consequences.
Understanding of differences and variations in the self-confidence and learning
effectiveness of pupils is essential knowledge for any teacher in planning classroom
provision. It enables targeted preparation to match pupil needs. Indeed, teachers tend
to be very aware of ‘brighter’ and ‘slower’ pupils and many gradations in-between.
Whilst such thinking may have a practical purpose in tuning provision, it is potentially
dangerous if it leads to a reduction in expectations for some (Hart, et al., 2004, see also
Reading 1.4).

Summary
In the discussion above we introduced eight dimensions which are associated with differ-
ences between people and with the opportunities that may or may not be made available.
These dimensions interact in creating our individual identities. They affect our experiences
inside and outside school, and influence the concepts, knowledge and frameworks we use
to make sense of the world. As teachers, we have a responsibility to consider how our daily
practices may be affected by, and contribute to, such matters.

2 School processes

2.1 Differentiation in routine practices

An integral part of routine schooling is the arrangement of pupils into groups to enable
effective teaching and learning to take place and the provision of feedback about learning
processes and outcomes (Ireson and Hallam, 2001, Reading 15.4). Indeed, Saljo and
Hjorne (2009) describe categorisation in the school context as ‘something people do
to manage their daily chores’ (p. 156). This is nearly always done by taking account
of both similarities and differences between learners, so either reducing or extending
learner diversity. For example, a thousand students in a co-educational secondary school

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could not easily be taught all together. A common starting point for organising them
into reasonably sized classes would be the age of the students (e.g. all the 11-year-olds
together – thereby reducing diversity), with a mixture of genders (e.g. equal numbers
of boys and girls – extending diversity). Such decisions are rarely questioned by staff
or students, but are part of the taken-for-granted organisational structures of schools.
Furthermore, when a group of learners is brought together because they share particular
characteristics they are, of course, in many other ways different from each other: hence,
Sarason (1996) warns his reader to be wary of the ‘myth’ of ‘homogeneity in the
classroom’.
Whilst categorisation is an inevitable part of the organisational and evaluative require-
ments of school life, its consequences can be both positive and negative. For example,
does including a learner in this group, means they are excluded from that group? How
does the provision of feedback with a whole-class audience affect the feelings of any
individuals who may be named? Are some categories of learners more, or less, valued than
others in a school? If so, which and why?
Teachers are generally very aware of these dilemmas – but adverse consequences,
whilst unintended, can still be real. In particular, forms of grouping, setting, banding,
assessment and evaluation constitute overt forms of social differentiation about which
pupils will inevitably develop personal perspectives and strategies.

2.2 Polarisation through peer culture

When children and young people share a similar position in relation to school success
or failure and regularly come together as a group, they begin to develop subcultures. For
example, children who are regularly placed in different ‘sets’ or groups for particular
activities are likely to develop a sense of themselves as a group. This is a common social
process. Indeed, whenever people of any age regularly experience being ‘differentiated’ by
organisations or in other circumstances, they tend to share their experiences and provide
each other with mutual support. Such groups develop both friendships and their own
perspectives – ways of thinking about both themselves and other people. As they bond
together, the cultures of each group tend to be affirmed more strongly, particularly if there
is rivalry or competition between groups.
In school contexts, this process is termed ‘polarisation’, for ironically, it involves a
reinforcement of the initial differentiation as the children or young people respond to
it themselves. In a sense, it is a form of cultural coping strategy, developed in response
to experience and circumstances. But it is a strategy that can easily create educational
exclusion, even if this is an unintended consequence. There have been many studies of
such processes within secondary schools showing how children interpret their experiences
of differentiation (e.g. Hargreaves, 1967; Lacey, 1970; Ball, 1981a; Gillborn and Youdell,
2000). There are tendencies for students to identify with or against school, and those
who feel that they are ‘educational failures’ may reject school values in order to protect
their own pride and self-esteem. Similar processes have been found in primary school
contexts. Indeed, Pollard and Filer (1999) traced the ‘school careers’ of individual pupils

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and recorded the social influence of peer, family and teacher relationships as they form
increasingly differentiated and unique identities.
This analysis is summarised in Figure 15.1, and a more complete discussion is available
in Pollard, 1987a (Reading 15.2).

Figure 15.1
Differentiation-
SCHOOL PROCESSES SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES polarisation
process and its
Differentiation Individual’s life-chances consequences

Polarisation Individual’s sense of identity

Polarisation has also been identified in relation to gendered cultures within primary
school peer groups, and shows the overlapping of dimensions of difference. For example,
Reay’s study (2001) of girls’ friendship groups – ‘Spice Girls’, ‘Nice Girls’, ‘Girlies’
and ‘Tomboys’ – showed a common range of responses to school circumstances, but
highlighted the way this was overlain by cultures of femininity. As she put it, ‘despite
widely differentiated practices, all of the girls at various times acted in ways which
bolstered boys’ power at the expense of their own’ (p. 153). Renold (2001) showed how
dominant ideas about masculinity shape boys’ dispositions to schooling, schoolwork and
academic achievement. She found that, even in primary school, high-achieving boys felt
the need to use ‘disguise’ to maintain an apparently masculine disdain for schoolwork,
and also clearly wanted to differentiate themselves from girls. In such ways, pervasive
cultural differences within our societies are reinforced by social processes within schools,
classrooms and playgrounds.
Our challenge as teachers is to monitor the differentiating effect of our routine practices
in relation to the polarising processes that may then occur within pupil cultures. Forms
of setting, grouping, division, feedback and assessment are particularly relevant here. The
key processes lie in a chain, as classroom differentiation
is reinforced by polarisation, and then begins to affect the Expert questions
Self-image and self-esteem of pupils. Subsequent effects
Differentiation: are curriculum tasks and
may be manifest in terms of participation, attainment,
activities structured appropriately to
exclusion and life-chances. match the intellectual needs of learners?
Lest readers feel overawed by the responsibilities
Inclusion: are all learners treated
outlined above, we should remember the two principles
respectfully and fairly in both formal and
outlined in the introduction of this chapter. First, we informal interaction?
asserted that difference is part of the human condition –
These questions contribute to a conceptual
so diversity amongst a group of learners is to be expected
framework underpinning professional
and welcomed. Second, we noted that all learners have expertise (see Chapter 16).
the right to achieve. This brings a responsibility, wherever

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possible, to mitigate adverse or limiting effects – hence the promotion of ‘learning without
limits’ (Hart et al. 2000; Swann et al. 2010, Reading 1.4).
In the sections that follow, we consider the practical implications of this challenge
which, fortunately, many teachers seem increasingly skilled at tackling.

3 Difference as part of the human condition

Over the last few decades broad social and cultural shifts have taken place in the countries
of the UK that have led to many schools becoming increasingly diverse in their student
intake. Alongside these changes, UK governments have introduced policies to encourage
more inclusive forms of educational provision. However, research suggests that even
though many teachers are highly supportive of the principles of inclusive education there
is recognition of the challenge of meeting all needs, and especially those identified as
having special or additional support needs and disabilities (e.g. Avramidis et al., 2000;
Blecker and Boakes, 2010; Ross-Hill, 2009). Indeed, government commitment to inclusive
education is of limited value unless teachers feel confident that it can be ‘translated into
working practices that enable successful learning outcomes to be achieved’ (Rose et al.,
2010, p. 370).
This section takes as its starting point the principle that difference is part of the human
condition and focuses on feelings about learner diversity. It then progresses to explore the
meaning of educational inclusion.

3.1 Learner diversity

On the one hand, difference is simply a characteristic of being a person: a positive feature
of the human condition to be recognised and celebrated. Certainly, from a teacher’s point of
view one of the most rewarding aspects of the work is getting to know individual learners.
On the other hand, human difference can also produce discomfort, even fear, especially
when it is unfamiliar or considered abnormal. Thomas and Loxley (2007) explore these
tensions in schools, arguing that: ‘Whether difference is seen positively, as diversity, or
negatively as deviance or deficit depends on the mindset of the person or group of people
who observe that difference’ (p. 93) (Reading 15.3). Perhaps, the key questions are, as Minow
(1990) has asked: What counts as difference and what difference does difference make?
About half way through their course, a group of trainee teachers were asked to reflect
on how they felt about ‘teaching a diversity of learners’ in relationship to a class they knew
well. They were then asked to think of a metaphor which expressed their feelings and to give
a reason for their choice. The results were varied and interesting. Four of their metaphors
are shown in Figure 15.2, selected because they present a range of different ideas.

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Figure 15.2
Metaphors for
Thinking metaphorically, teaching a diversity of teaching diverse
learners is … learners
1 … exploring a dark cave, without a torch, I am with a child who is trying to show
me the way out. I am too panicked to listen. Then I calm down and listen. The child
tells me the way out. We leave the cave together. Because … it is scary teaching
such a wide range of children, but when you ask the child for help, they are willing
to provide answers.
2 … keeping a garden. Because … every plant needs to be nurtured with food, water
and warmth, but every plant needs slightly different care. Every plant grows at its
own rate and responds differently to the environment it is in and therefore needs
caring for.
3 … a sea of complexity! Because … all so different. It feels like you need years of
experience and expertise in order to understand and provide for the needs.
4 … discovering buried treasure. Because … often the children you are teaching are
categorised by their diversity and are sometimes simply reduced to this label. I think
no matter how informed you are, it is always exciting and surprising to discover the
potential, then achievement, of children with diverse needs.

Reflective activity 15.1

Aim: To reflect on understandings of learner diversity.
Evidence and reflection: Think about the four metaphors for teaching diverse learners
in terms of similarities and variations. (a) Are there any that particularly resonate
with your own experiences, or that interested, or even surprised you? (b) What
are the key ideas they raise about the role of a teacher and the role of learners? (c)
Think about a class you know well and reflect on your feelings about teaching the
diversity of learners in it. What would your metaphor be and why?
Extension: Reflect on what your metaphor expresses about (a) ‘sameness’, (b)
‘difference’ and (c) ‘belonging’ in the classroom?

3.2 Inclusive education

The meaning of inclusive education is complex, contested, and used in particular ways
by different people. Ainscow (2005) identifies three key elements as being ‘the presence,
participation and achievement of all students’ (p. 9).
Meanwhile, Mitchell (2005) analyses ‘sixteen propositions’ about inclusive education,
offering a wide range of perspectives, understandings and definitions, across different
national and international contexts. More locally, inclusion is embedded in government
documents in all the countries of the UK, although even then there are both important
similarities and variations associated with this term.

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For example, the following definition is from the National Assembly for Wales
(Circular: 47/2006) on Inclusion and Pupil Support:

Inclusive education is an ongoing process concerned with ensuring equality of

educational opportunity by accounting for and addressing the diversity present in schools.
It requires the commitment of schools and LEAs to develop policies and practices that
ensure equality of educational opportunity and access; safeguard vulnerable pupils; and
focus on raising the achievement of all learners and increasing their participation in their
schools and local communities. (p. 1)

Similar, but not identical, concerns can be found in the proposals put forward by the
Northern Irish government in their consultation document Every School a Good School –
The Way Forward for Special Educational Needs and Inclusion (Department of Education
Northern Ireland (DENI), 2009):

Inclusion is not simply about where a child is taught; it is about the quality of a child’s
experience of school life, including both the formal and informal curriculum, in and
beyond the classroom. These proposals are aimed at ensuring that every child is a
valued and valuable member of the school community with equal access to the same
opportunities and high quality education. (p. vi)
[And, later in the same document.] Inclusive practices require us to think about the
diverse needs of all children. For example, those with SEN, those whose first language
is not English, those in alternative education provision (AEP), children from the Traveller
community, looked after children (LAC), and those who need help with literacy and
numeracy. (p. 7)

Meanwhile, Booth and Smith (2002) examined a number of English government documents
to see how the term inclusion was used. Below is a summary of just some of the areas
they identified:
●● special needs education;
●● access to, and participation in, mainstream schools for students identified as having
special educational needs and/or disabilities;
●● social inclusion/exclusion relating to e.g. truancy, behaviour or looked-after
children;
●● issues of racial and other forms of discrimination;
●● community stresses brought about by poverty, lack of housing, etc.;
●● inclusion as an underlying general principle for education;
●● supporting the participation of all learners in schools.
These extracts from government documents and the summary above highlight some key
themes relating to inclusion but also the complex nature of the concept. This can make
implementing and developing policies on inclusion in schools problematic, especially
for classroom teachers who are expected to put them into practice. In particular,
there is a tension between provision for children and young people considered to be

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particularly vulnerable to exclusion (those identified as

having special needs, likely to experience discrimination, Expert question
living in poverty, looked after children, etc.) and provision Inclusion: are all learners treated
for all pupils (which must therefore take full account of respectfully and fairly in both formal and
diversity). informal interaction?
Of course, in the daily routines of classroom life This question contributes to a conceptual
teachers are expected to engage in both kinds of practices, framework underpinning professional
but this distinction between ‘some’ and ‘all’ learners is an expertise (see Chapter 16).
important theme that is considered in detail in Sections 4
and 5 of this chapter.

Reflective activity 15.2

Aim: To reflect on our understanding of inclusive education and on our provision for
some or all of the learners in the class.
Evidence and reflection: Think about a class that you are currently teaching and make
notes in response to the following questions.
●● What kinds of classroom opportunities and experiences matter to the learners?
(What do they want to be included in, or excluded from?)
●● How is inclusion assessed and recorded for the class? (For what purposes? Who are
its audience?)
●● What is the relationship between the inclusion and exclusion of learners?
●● What is the relationship between the inclusion of learners and different kinds of
special or additional support needs?
●● Is the inclusion of some learners in this class more (or less) highly valued than
others? (If so, who? Why? By whom?)
●● How far is the inclusion of learners in the class influenced by factors that are:
–– within individual learners?
–– related to their peers?
–– relate to you as their teacher and to other professionals?
–– related to the school as an institution?
–– within families and local communities?
Extension: Reflecting on your responses what might you do next? Do you need to find
out more, perhaps by talking to learners, support staff or other teachers?

Whilst it is clear that there is no straightforward definition of inclusive education, it is

important that a reflective teacher considers carefully what inclusion means to them and
assesses its implications for classroom practice.
However it is understood, inclusion raises complex questions about how children and
young people learn together. In particular, inclusion is concerned with finding ways to
respond to learner diversity that do not disadvantage other individuals or groups in the
class. It is underpinned by the belief that all children and young people should be respected
and treated fairly. At the heart of inclusion, therefore, are classroom relationships, between

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Research
Briefing
Developing inclusion

Inclusion is one of the major challenges facing education systems around the world. As part of the Personalisation agenda, 2020 Vision,
the English government’s analysis of teaching and learning in the future, emphasises ‘achievement for all’ and ‘ensuring a strong focus
on progress for all pupils’:
Embedding the concept of progression in personalising learning means instilling in all children and young people the belief that they can
succeed, through identifying achievable – but challenging – steps towards clear, shared goals. (DfES, 2006, p. 37)

However, this depends on teachers themselves having high expectations of all their pupils. TLRP’s project on inclusive practices in schools
enabled practitioners and researchers to work together to explore ways of achieving inclusion by focusing on learner experiences,
pleasure in learning and the development of self-esteem. They adjusted the time spent on formal curricular objectives, particularly
concerned with writing, and increased experiential learning, oral work and thinking skills. Pupil perspectives were particularly effective in
challenging teacher thinking. An underlying theme concerned the inappropriateness of some National Curriculum requirements for some
children and the innovative capacity of teachers to adapt and create constructive alternative provision.

Key findings: Implications:

Ways of thinking: Many significant barriers to the participation Overcoming barriers requires more than a different way of
and learning of pupils stem from teachers’ misplaced working – individuals and groups often need to question their
assumptions about what their pupils can do and how best to accepted ways of thinking, and this takes time.
teach them.

Engagement of staff: Interruptions to established Establishing a focus for school enquiry on a specific issue of
understandings and practices can be fostered when groups of genuine concern to many staff is often more productive than
staff engage with evidence about pupils’ experience of school, imposing whole-school change.
and about their own practice.

Underlying factors: For many pupils, it is not possible to achieve Addressing both underachievement and inclusion requires that
improved outcomes simply by teaching the curriculum harder the national focus on highly measurable outcomes of school be
and longer. Instead, teachers have to strengthen the factors that broadened to include these underlying factors.
underpin learning, such as pupils’ pleasure in learning and their
self-esteem.

The findings of the project were based on understanding gained from teachers and researchers working together in twenty-five schools
within three local authorities. They participated in research activities, conferences, exchange visits and workshops over a period of three
years. This design allowed relationships to be built which led to data about the social and personal aspects of change in schools, and the
interaction of these aspects with technical and managerial development.
Wherever possible, practitioners carried out evaluations of the processes within and outcomes from their own initiatives, supported
by university researchers. User engagement and validation thus contributed significantly to the trustworthiness of findings. Researchers
invited schools to engage throughout with their accounts of development, and towards the end of the network, time was spent working
together on an overview of outcomes.
Further information:
Ainscow, M., Booth, T., Dyson, A., Farrell, P., Frankham, J., Howes, A., Gallannaugh, R., Millward, A. and Smith, R. (2004) The Development of Inclusive Practices
in Schools. TLRP Research Briefing No 6. Cambridge: TLRP. Available at www.tlrp.org/pub (accessed 18 November 2013).
Ainscow, M., Booth, T. and Dyson, A. (2006) Improving Schools: Developing Inclusion. TLRP Improving Learning series. London: Routledge.
This project was directed from the University of Manchester.

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 425

teachers and learners as well as between learners and

learners (Black-Hawkins, Florian and Rouse, 2007, see Expert question
also Chapter 6). Relationships: are teacher–pupil
The research briefing on p. 424 suggests some of the relationships nurtured as the foundation
challenges in developing inclusion, including the value of of good behaviour, mutual wellbeing and
personalising the curriculum and maintaining excellent high standards?
classroom relationships. This question contributes to a conceptual
framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).

4 ‘Needs’ as a dimension of difference

We began this chapter by examining dimensions of difference that shape the lives of
all people, both in and beyond school. In contrast, this section focuses on those who
are deemed to have special or additional ‘needs’. This raises a number of important but
difficult questions. Who has such needs and, by implication, who does not? Can such
distinctions always be easily made? If doing so is problematic, how useful is it for a
teacher to be told that a child or young person in their class has (or does not have) special
or additional needs? And, what are the consequences of such decisions?

4.1 Concepts and definitions

Lack of conceptual clarity about needs is commonplace. For example, a large-scale study
of mainstream schools in England (Ofsted, 2010) found that the proportion of learners
identified as having special educational needs varied from fewer than 5 per cent in some
schools to over 70 per cent in others. These differences could not be fully attributed to
other variables, such as the socio-economic status of a school’s catchment area. These
findings led the authors of the report to argue that ‘children and young people with
similar needs were not being treated equitably and appropriately’. They concluded that
it was essential to ‘start to think critically about the way terms [like SEN] are used’.
Most controversially they noted that about half the schools they visited were using low
attainment and relatively slow progress as the main indicators of a special educational
need. This led them to make the following criticism of teaching in such schools (emphasis
added):

Inspectors saw schools that identified pupils as having special educational needs when,
in fact, their needs were no different from those of most other pupils. They were
underachieving but this was sometimes simply because the school’s mainstream teaching
provision was not good enough, and expectations of the pupils were too low. (p. 9)

The complex nature of defining the concept of ‘needs’ is further highlighted when
comparing relevant legislation across the four countries of the UK. Whilst there are
shared understandings there are also some important differences. This is reflected in the

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426 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

choice of language used. So, in English policy and practice – as noted above – the most
common term is ‘special educational needs’ (SEN) but ‘special educational needs and
disability’ (SEND) is also in use. Meanwhile, although the governments of Northern
Ireland and Wales also use special educational needs, more recently they have both
introduced new terms to operate alongside it: ‘additional educational needs’ (AEN)
for Northern Ireland, and ‘additional learning needs’ (ALN) for Wales. In contrast, in
Scottish policy and practice, the term special educational needs is no longer used, having
been replaced in 2004 by ‘additional support needs’ (ASN) as part of the Education
(Additional Support for Learning) Act (see Scottish Government, 2010). These recent
shifts in language, in the latter three countries, are intended to indicate a concern with
a far broader spectrum of learners’ needs than the more traditional focus on physical,
sensory and cognitive disabilities, and/or behavioural needs. Such developments are to
be welcomed as recognition of the complex and often difficult lives of some children and
young people.
For example, in Scotland (Scottish Executive, 2010) additional support needs are
defined as a ‘broad and inclusive term’ that applies to children or young people ‘who, for
whatever reason, require additional support, long or short term, in order to help them make
the most of their school education and to be included fully in their learning’. Meanwhile,
the Welsh government (2006) explains the relationship between additional learning needs
and special educational needs as follows:
The term ‘Additional Learning Needs’ includes those learners who require additional
support either due to their circumstances or because they have a longer-term disorder or
condition. In many cases, for example through sickness or where a family is experiencing
temporary difficulties, children and young people may have additional learning needs
for a short period only. … The term ‘Special Educational Needs’ continues to be used to
identify those learners who have severe, complex and / or specific learning difficulties. …
SEN is therefore a sub-category of ALN. (p. 2)

A slightly different understanding in outlined by the government in Northern Ireland

(2009). Here additional educational needs are conceptualised as ‘four overlapping themes’
of which the first is ‘SEN’. They are as follows:
1 Children with SEN: e.g. ‘children with sensory, physical or medical conditions or
syndromes’;
2 Learning environment needs: e.g. ‘children who have English as an additional
language’;
3 Family circumstances needs: e.g. ‘looked after children’;
4 Social and emotional needs: e.g. ‘those who are suffering from bullying’. (p. 8)
Alongside these generic terms, all four governments offer comprehensive lists of learners
who might potentially be identified as having special or additional needs. For example,
to return to Scotland, the following reasons why ‘children or young people may require
additional support’ are provided (Scottish Executive, 2010, p. 13):
●● have motor or sensory impairments ●● are being bullied

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 427

●● are particularly able or talented ●● are living with parents who are
●● have experienced a bereavement abusing substances
●● are interrupted learners ●● have parents with mental health
problems
●● have a learning disability
●● are not attending school regularly
●● are looked after by a local authority
●● have emotional or social difficulties
●● have a learning difficulty, such as
dyslexia ●● are on the child protection register
●● have English as an additional ●● are young carers.
language
Whilst such lists reflect a broader understanding of the concept of learners’ needs, the sheer
range can seem overwhelming for practising teachers. Nevertheless, it is important that the
many underlying factors that can form barriers to classroom learning are acknowledged.
Furthermore, it is also crucial that teachers recognise that individual children and young
people often have complex lives that do not fit neatly into one category but may well shift
between and overlap with others.
It is not in the remit of this chapter to give a detailed analysis of legislation around
children and young people’s special or additional needs. It would be difficult to do so
because, in all four countries of the UK, this is an area of government policy that is
presently in a state of flux. For example, at the time of writing a major review is taking
place in England concerning the SEN Code of Practice including arrangements for
assessment of and funding for children and young people identified with special educa-
tional needs and disabilities. However, there are two key themes across the UK that are
worth noting because they are currently shaping legislation on children and young people
identified as having special or additional needs. These are first, a strengthening of the
role of parents/carers in deciding the educational provision for their children and second,
a continuing concern to ensure consistency across education, health and social services.
Both these developments are to be welcomed because they acknowledge the holistic nature
of the lives of learners and their families.

4.2 Responding to ‘needs’ in the classroom

There are many categories or conditions of special or additional needs and disabilities,
about which specific information will be helpful. Fortunately, there are a huge range of
commercially published books that focus on such issues (see reflectiveteaching.co.uk) and
also many websites that include advice specifically for classroom teachers. Some are run
by national governments: for example, the Department for Education (DFE) (England)
offers online training materials intended to ‘improve teachers’ knowledge, skills and
understanding of severe learning difficulties (SLD), profound and multiple learning diffi-
culties (PMLD), and complex learning difficulties and disabilities (CLDD)’. Finally, many
charities and organisations provide guidance, advice and materials for teachers via their
websites. The following links represent just a very small sample of those that are available:

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428 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

●● Autism – autism.org.uk
●● Down’s syndrome – downs-syndrome.org.uk
●● Dyslexia – bdadyslexia.org.uk
●● Emotional wellbeing – youngmindsinschool.org.uk
●● Deafness – actiononhearingloss.org.uk/
●● Social, Emotional, Behavioural difficulties – sebda.org
●● Speech, language and communication needs – speechteach.co.uk
●● Visual impairment – rnib.org.uk.
Many adults in and beyond the school also have a particular role in helping to support the
learning of children and young people identified as having special or additional needs, and
they can be an invaluable source of professional information and advice for classroom
teachers. For example, colleagues in school might include the person with overall
responsibility for learning support (sometimes called the SENCo), teaching assistants,
curriculum leaders and pastoral leaders, and colleagues outside school might include
educational psychologists, educational welfare officers, social workers, advisory teachers
and, of course, parents and carers (see Chapter 8).

Reflective activity 15.3

Aim: To explore school policy and provision for learners identified as having special or
additional needs, and to reflect on their implications for classroom practice.
Evidence and reflection: (a) Identify those who work in, or visit, your school having
particular responsibilities for supporting learners identified as having special or
additional needs. (b) Make brief notes about their support role and consider how
they might support your classroom practice.
Extension: Talk to one of these colleagues about their role and school policy and
provision. If there is an individual learner, or group of learners, about whom you
are particularly concerned, it might be especially helpful to discuss ideas about
classroom practices with them in mind. For example, what changes could you make
to your teaching to support their inclusion in classroom activities? What further
information can you gather via specialist websites and books?

The Ofsted report (2010) referred to earlier offers a reflective teacher another approach to
developing their classroom practices so as to respond to the needs of all learners. The study
proposed 11 features likely to support the learning of children and young people identified
as having special educational needs (Figure 15.3). The authors argue that, ‘Although these
features are true for good teaching generally, they are particularly true for the teaching
of disabled children and young people and those with special educational needs’ (p. 47).

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Figure 15.3
Supporting
When children and young people learned best: children with
1 they looked to the teacher for their main learning and to the support staff for special educational
support; needs (Ofsted,
2 assessment was secure, continuous and acted upon; 2010)
3 teachers planned opportunities for pupils to collaborate, work things out for
themselves and apply what they had learnt to different situations;
4 teachers’ subject knowledge was good, as was their understanding of pupils’
needs and how to help them;
5 lesson structures were clear and familiar but allowed for adaptation and flexibility;
6 all aspects of a lesson were well thought out and any adaptations needed were
made without fuss to ensure that everyone in class had access;
7 teachers presented information in different ways to ensure all children and young
people understood;
8 teachers adjusted the pace of the lesson to reflect how children and young people
were learning;
9 the staff understood clearly the difference between ensuring that children and
young people were learning and keeping them occupied;
10 respect for individuals was reflected in high expectations for their achievement;
11 the effectiveness of specific types of support was understood and the right
support was put in place at the right time.

Reflective activity 15.4

Aim: To reflect on how far, and in what ways, our classroom practices support all
learners including those identified as having special or additional needs.
Evidence and reflection: Think about a lesson, or series of lessons, that you have taught
recently. (a) Were there any individuals or groups of learners in the class whose
progress was of concern? (b) Read each statement from the Ofsted report about
when ‘children and young people learn best’ to help you reflect on the lesson(s).
(c) Looking at these statements, what do you think went well? (d) What could you
have developed further to support everyone’s learning and especially those whose
progress was of concern?
Extension: Reflect on how you might develop your practice for future lessons with this
class, to ensure that all learners make progress.

This section has considered briefly some of the complexities in defining the concept of
special or additional ‘needs’ as well as the variability in the practices of their identification.
But what might be the consequences for a learner of being labelled as having a ‘need’?
Might this discourage them from making progress in their learning? Or, will it support
their progress because it ensures that more appropriate provision is made? And, how
is a teacher to manage this in the context of their classroom, and in ways that do not
marginalise or stigmatise any learner because of their identified needs? Norwich (2008)
describes this as the ‘dilemma of difference’. He argues:

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The basic dilemma is whether to recognise and respond or not to recognise or respond
to difference, as either way there are some negative implications or risks associated with
stigma, devaluating, rejection or denial of relevant and quality opportunities. (p. 1)

Teacher judgement and expertise is clearly called for here. In the final section of this
chapter we consider how Norwich’s dilemma might be addressed, by examining further
the practice of teachers who endeavour to respond to learner diversity, not by making
special or additional provision for some, but by extending what is ordinarily available
to all.

5 Developing inclusive classroom communities

This section considers what we can do as part of our everyday routines and practices to
develop our classrooms as more inclusive learning communities. Doing so brings together
the main themes from across the chapter as a whole. In particular, it concerns how teachers
can enable all learners in their classes to:
●● make progress in their learning;
●● feel accepted and valued for who they are;
●● have opportunities to participate in a full range of classroom activities.
We also engage again with the dilemma, discussed in the previous section, that arises when
some learners are identified as requiring ‘special’ or ‘additional’ provision compared with
that made for most other learners. This distinction between all, some and most learners
is important. It raises a key question: How can a teacher respect as well as respond to
individual differences between learners, and do so in ways that include all learners in
the routine, daily life of the classroom? This challenge is at the heart of developing more
inclusive classroom communities (see also Chapter 6, section 4.3).

5.1 Inclusive teaching and learning

A starting point for this is to revisit the eleven characteristics of ‘best’ lessons as set out in
the previous section. As noted there, whilst Ofsted (2010) considered these to be essential
to supporting the learning of children and young people identified as special educational
needs and disability, they acknowledged that they were also highly relevant to ‘good
teaching generally’. In particular, the significance of good classroom relationships in
providing opportunities is well established (see Chapter 6 and Thorne, 1993, Reading 15.5).
Similarly, Kershner (2009) (Reading 15.6) has argued convincingly that ‘teaching
approaches which seem intrinsic to inclusive learning are already represented in many
classrooms’. She places a particular emphasis on the following:
●● pupil dialogue

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 431

●● collaboration
●● choice
●● exploration
●● learning to learn
●● the assumption that all pupils are capable of learning.
Of course, Kershner’s approaches to inclusive classroom
teaching and learning have each been considered Expert questions
elsewhere in this book (see, in particular, Chapters 2, Engagement: do our teaching strategies,
6, 11 and 12). They are also clearly underpinned by classroom organisation and consultation
the TLRP principles of effective teaching and learning. enable learners to actively participate in
Most notable, in terms of developing inclusive classroom and enjoy their learning?
communities, is Principle 7. This concerns the importance Empowerment: is our pedagogic repertoire
of fostering ‘both individual and social processes and successful in enhancing wellbeing,
outcomes’ because ‘learning is a social activity. It demands learning disposition, capabilities and
interaction with other minds’. Kershner reiterates this agency?
focus on the collective experience of inclusive practices These questions contribute to a conceptual
for all learners (and therefore not only some): framework underpinning professional
expertise (see Chapter 16).
Inclusive practice does not just support marginal and
potentially disaffected pupils, but these and all the other
pupils are collectively the embodiment of inclusive educational activity. … This diversity
contributes to a dynamic and creative process of teaching and learning that maintains
the schools as a healthy educational context while promoting all pupils’ learning in often
unpredictable ways. (p. 63)

5.2 The inclusive pedagogical approach

The remainder of this chapter considers key elements of
inclusive pedagogy. It draws on a recent research study
which worked with teachers committed to the principles of Expert question
inclusion. Its aim was to understand how these principles
Inclusion: are all learners treated
informed and shaped the teachers’ day-to-day classroom
respectfully and fairly in both formal and
routines and practices (Black-Hawkins and Florian, 2012; informal interaction?
Florian and Black-Hawkins, 2011).
This question contributes to a conceptual
Through extended classroom observations and teacher
framework underpinning professional
interviews the research explored what teachers ‘know, expertise (see Chapter 16).
do and believe’ about their inclusive practices (Rouse,
2008). Three major themes emerged which encapsulate
the inclusive pedagogical approach.

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432 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Figure 15.4
Major themes of
1 Shifting the focus away from one that is concerned only with individual learners,
inclusive pedagogy
identified as having ‘special’ or ‘additional’ needs, to the learning of all children and
young people in the class.
●● creating learning opportunities that are sufficiently made available for everyone,
so that all learners participate in classroom life;
●● extending what is ordinarily available for all learners (creating a rich learning
community) rather than using teaching and learning strategies that are suitable
for most learners alongside something ‘special’ or ‘additional’ for some who
experience difficulties;
●● focusing on what is to be taught (and how) rather than who is to learn it.

2 Rejecting deterministic beliefs about ability as being fixed and the associated idea
that the presence of some will hold back the progress of others.
●● believing that all children will make progress, learn and achieve;
●● focusing teaching and learning on what children can do rather than what they
can not do;
●● using a variety of grouping strategies to support everyone’s learning rather than
relying on ability grouping to separate (‘able’ from ‘less able’ students);
●● using formative assessment to support learning.

3 Seeing difficulties in learning as professional challenges for teachers, rather than

deficits in learners, that encourage the development of new ways of working.
●● seeking and trying out new ways of working to support the learning of all
children;
●● working with and through other adults that respect the dignity of learners as full
members of the community of the classroom;
●● being committed to continuing professional development as a way of
developing more inclusive practices.
(Adapted from Florian and Black-Hawkins, 2011)

Significantly, inclusive pedagogy focuses on the needs of all learners working together in
the community of the classroom. This requires a subtle but crucial shift in teachers’ thinking:
●● away from traditional approaches to inclusion based on making provision for most
learners, and then something ‘special’ or ‘additional’ for some who experience
difficulties;
●● towards enriching and extending the learning opportunities that are ordinarily
available for everyone, so that all learners are able to participate in classroom life.
As might be expected, the study highlighted considerable connections and overlaps
between the three themes in terms of the actual classroom experiences of teachers and
learners. The study also showed how putting inclusive pedagogy into practice can be
challenging for teachers, not least because of constraints within education systems and
across schools that counter teachers’ efforts to be inclusive. Certainly, the teachers in the
study were sometimes observed engaging in practices that seemed less inclusive than on
other occasions.

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 433

5.3 Putting inclusive pedagogy into practice

The key overall finding from the study of the teachers’ inclusive practices was that inclusive
pedagogy is defined not in the teacher’s choice of classroom strategies or approaches but
in their practical use, including how and why they are chosen. An example of this is
provided in the following case study of the inclusive pedagogical approach, which draws
on classroom observations and interviews with one teacher, Kate. She had organised the
lesson around peer group collaborative learning: a commonly used strategy which is
neither essentially inclusive nor exclusive. She arranged the learners into small groups to
work on individual tasks and whole-group activities. Kate’s choice of ‘peer group collabo-
rative learning’ is not important per se, but the way she uses it to support the learning of
all the children in her class is notable. This is just one of many strategies that she drew on
to enable all the children in her class to participate and achieve, including those identified
as having special or additional needs. Her intention was to provide everyone with oppor-
tunities to make choices, experience success, take risks, recognise their own and others’
strengths, learn from mistakes, and value the support of peers.

Case study 15.1 Kate and the inclusive pedagogical approach

Kate’s class comprises children aged eleven and twelve years old. She and Moira (who
teaches a parallel class) often combine their classes and team teach, modelling the kinds
of collaborative learning they hope to encourage in the children. An extended session
was observed: presented (somewhat tongue in cheek) as the ‘Ancient Olympics’. The
children were arranged into groups of six (mixed girls and boys, from both classes,
working with peers outside their usual circle of friends). Each group was given a range of
tasks (e.g. problem solving, design, art, music, public speaking, hand-eye coordination):
some to be completed individually, others by the whole group.
In the first group activity the children decided who would undertake which individual
tasks. Each had to negotiate and agree to one task. Kate described how these activities,
were intended to encourage the children to recognise their contribution to the group’s
work, as well as that of their peers. Because the tasks were so varied, all the children
were able to participate and achieve.
Kate: It’s all about teamwork and getting them to work collaboratively and decide,
‘Well, I’m really good at this so I think I should do this; oh I’m not so good at that, maybe
you could do that instead’. … Finding out what your strengths and weaknesses are and
how to work as a team. … Depending on the group they were in, they might have been
able to find their voice in that group and stand up and do something that they maybe
wouldn’t have done before.
Kate did not allocate tasks to particular learners according to notions of ability, nor
did she provide certain activities for most of the children, whilst offering something
‘additional’ for some identified as having learning difficulties. She expected children
to make judgements about which tasks to engage in, and why. She recognised that
there were differences between individual learners, but considered such differences
to be part of the ordinary experiences of classroom teaching and learning for all
children.

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434 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

There were children in both Kate’s and Moira’s classes identified as requiring additional
support for learning (specific learning difficulties, English as an additional language,
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, poor social skills). However, during the observa-
tions it was not possible to determine who they were: e.g. teaching assistants were not
allocated to their groups. Rather, all staff were observed giving support to individual
children or groups in response to requests for assistance, rather than because certain
children were identified as having special needs.
One boy, called Thomas, had missed many years of schooling because of his identified
social, emotional and behaviour difficulties, including bouts of extreme anger which had
been frightening for him and for others. However, nothing in the observations indicated
that separate provision was made for him and he participated in all the peer group
activities. Kate’s view was that Thomas, like all children, needed to participate fully in
classroom life, learning with and from his peers: ‘He learns, he watches what the other
children do and how they are in the class. … they can teach him better than I can’. Kate
did not ignore Thomas’s difficulties, but she attended to them in ways that avoided the
stigmatising effects of marking him as different. ‘He doesn’t want to be seen to be as
different. And that’s a good thing, because he wants to be like everyone else’.
Kate: Thomas’s missed out on so many years of school, we still are finding out where
his gaps are and where we need to fill in his knowledge. … He knows time really well,
but when we come to symmetry, he just doesn’t have a clue … because he hasn’t done
it. … A lot of things are done privately and quietly. … He had an awful lot to learn …
how to make friends, how to work with people his own age, how to share, how to take
turns.
Kate presented Thomas as a person with a complex past, present and future,
and not simply as a child with an identified learning difficulty. Whilst her support for
Thomas concerned his behaviour, she did not separate this from other aspects of his
learning: identifying and helping him to fill the ‘gaps’ in his skills and knowledge of the
curriculum. Kate argued forcefully that such provision must be made in ways that did not
isolate him from his peers (‘giving him strategies that don’t involve him having to remove
himself from the classroom’) and respected his dignity as a full member of the class. Her
attention to his individual differences was always subsumed within the general provision
made for all the children, because, as Kate argued, this was pedagogically the best way
to support his learning.

(Adapted from Black-Hawkins and Florian, 2012)

The figure opposite draws on the analysis of Kate’s articulation of her inclusive practice,
using the example of the strategy of peer group collaboration. The first two columns show
the traditional approach to inclusion, whereby a teacher makes provision for most learners,
plus something ‘special’ or ‘additional’ for some learners who are experiencing difficulties.
As demonstrated in the table, the consequence of these ‘special’ and/or ‘additional’
practices is both to include but also to exclude some learners from the classroom
community. In contrast, the final column illustrates the inclusive pedagogical approach,
whereby a teacher enriches and extends the learning opportunities that are ordinarily made
available for all learners in the class. In this approach, learner diversity is recognised,

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 435

but without the stigmatising effects of marking some as different or pre-determining the
learning that is possible.

Figure 15.5
Traditional approach to inclusion: Inclusive pedagogy: Analysing Kate’s
Most and Some All inclusive pedagogy
Manifest in terms of Manifest in terms of Individual tasks are allocated
inclusion: exclusion: collaboratively by students
Individual tasks are Students see that through group discussion
differentiated according individuals are of their collective skills and
to learners’ identified set different tasks knowledge.
ability levels. according to teacher’s Group tasks are undertaken
The teacher seeks assessment of their collaboratively, including the
advice from learning ability. organisation of the tasks.
support staff about They notice that ‘clever’ The teacher fosters a classroom
the appropriateness students are chosen to community which encourages
of tasks/materials for lead group activities. all students to work
students identified with Some students are collaboratively, and to value
special educational perceived as needing everyone as a resource for
needs. help from their learning.
The teacher selects ‘more classmates, whilst Students are encouraged to take
able’ students in each others are perceived risks with their learning, within
group to lead group as being able to a supportive group and class
tasks. provide that help, environment.
Students work on thus reinforcing (and Learning support staff are a
individual tasks deemed sometimes limiting) resource for any individual
appropriate to their expectations about student or group requesting
assessed ability levels. different learners. help.
Classmates support Opportunities for peer The teacher uses group
students with collaboration for the collaboration to encourage
‘additional needs’ for student identified with the development of positive
both individual and SEBD are restricted peer relationships amongst all
group activities. by the presence of an learners, (including a student
A learning support adult in the group. identified with SEBD).
assistant works The teacher models collaborative
alongside one student, learning through her classroom
identified with relationships with colleagues
social emotional and
behavioural difficulties
(SEBD), to facilitate his
collaboration in the
group.
(Adapted from Black-Hawkins and Florian, 2012)

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436 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

Reflective activity 15.5

Aim: To reflect on inclusive pedagogy and its classroom application.
Evidence and reflection: Read Kate’s case study about using peer group collaboration
as an inclusive pedagogical approach. You might like to revisit the three key themes
discussed above to help you think about Kate’s provision.
Extension: In respect of your own classroom:
●● Reflect on an individual learner, or group of learners, who are at risk of being
marginalised from the classroom community because of particular special needs, or
any other reason. What do you know about them as learners?
●● Think about strategies that you have used to support their inclusion. Would you
describe these as an ‘additional needs approach to inclusion’ (most and some) or an
‘inclusive pedagogical approach’ (all)?
●● Reflect on any changes and developments which might be possible.

Conclusion
This chapter has explored how teachers can support the inclusion of all children and
young people. Every class is diverse in its membership, and inclusion is concerned with
understandings of, and attitudes towards, all children and young people in relationship
to their age, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, social class, physical appearance, disability and
performance at school. Discrimination can be subtle and complex, sometimes unintended,
and rarely straightforward. However, the marginalisation or stigmatisation of anyone, for
whatever reason, forms a barrier to inclusion. The challenge we face acknowledges differ-
ences between learners, but seeks to ensure equity for all. It recognises that diversity is to
be expected and welcomed in a class, and that every learner has the right to achieve. At the
same time, it is crucial to acknowledge that processes of social differentiation and polari-
sation are impossible to avoid in school settings. For a reflective teacher, the challenge is
how to manage these processes so that their most divisive consequences on the lives of
children and young people are mitigated.
Finally, the promotion of inclusion and social justice must also be actively pursued
beyond the classroom. Education may not be able to change society (Bernstein, 1970),
but teachers should, if possible, try to ameliorate its most divisive effects. These are
difficult goals, but working towards them nevertheless remains a continuing educational
responsibility. Despite a comprehensive awareness of the risks of exclusion and positive
commitments regarding constructive classroom policies and social justice, it is clear that
teachers cannot act in isolation from the school in which they work and the society in
which they live. As Sarason (1996) asks: What are schools for? And, how shall we live
together?

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 437

Key readings
There is an enormous literature on topics such as diversity, opportunities, inclusion
and special educational needs, and the list below is indicative only. Consulting
reflectiveteaching.co.uk will expand the suggestions.

We begin with books providing overarching perspectives on equality and difference. See,
for example:
Richardson, R. (2009) Holding Together: Equalities, Difference and Cohesion. Stoke-
on-Trent: Trentham. (Reading 15.1)
Solar, J., Walsh, C. S., Craft, A., Rix, J. and Simmons, K. (2012) Transforming
Practice: Critical Issues in Equity, Diversity and Education. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.

The analysis of how differentiation by teachers and schools is reinforced by polarisation

within pupil culture can be traced through many sociological studies, including:
Lacey, C. (1970) Hightown Grammar: The School as a Social System. Manchester:
Manchester University Press.
Pollard, A. (1985) The Social World of the Primary School. London: Cassell. (see
Reading 15.2)

Specific treatment of particular issues with regard to dimensions of difference is

provided in books such as the following classic and contemporary studies.

The influence of social class reaches well beyond the classroom (see also Chapter 5) and
excellent websites providing up-to-date data are available from the Sutton Trust and the
Joseph Rowntree Foundation. See also:
Evans, G. (2006) Educational Failure and Working Class White Children in Britain.
Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke.
Feinstein, L. Duckworth, K. and Sabates, R. (2008) Education and the Family:
Passing Success Across the Generations. Routledge: Abingdon.
Jackson, P. and Marsden, D. (1962) Education and the Working Class. London:
Ark.
Sharp, R. and Green, A. (1975) Education and Social Control. London: Routledge.
Willis, P. E. (1977) Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class
Jobs. Saxon House: Farnborough.

On gendered experiences, and how these are reproduced, see:

Arnot, M., David, M. and Weiner, G. (1999) Closing the Gender Gap. Postwar
Education and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Delamont, S. (1990) Sex Roles and the School. London: Routledge.
Francis, B., Skelton, C. and Read, B. (2012) The Identities and Practices of

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438 Part 4 Reflecting on consequences

High Achieving Pupils: Negotiating Achievement and Peer Cultures. London:

Continuum.
Ivinson, G. and Murphy, P. (2007) Rethinking Single Sex Teaching. Maidenhead:
Open University Press.
Jackson, C. (2006) Lads and Ladettes in School: Gender and a Fear of Failure.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Skelton, C. and Francis, B. (2009) Feminism and ‘The Schooling Scandal’. London:
Routledge.
Plummer, G. (2000) Failing Working Class Girls. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham.

On the apparent underachievement of boys, see:

Lingard, B., Martino, W. and Mills, M. (2009) Boys and Schooling: Beyond
Structural Reform. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Warrington, M., Younger, M. and Bearne, E. (2006) Raising Boys’ Achievements in
Primary Schools: Towards a Holistic Approach. Maidenhead: Open University
Press.
Younger, M., Warrington, M. and McLellan, R. (2005) Raising Boys’ Achievement
in Secondary Schools: Issues, Dilemmas and Opportunities. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.

On ethnicity and race, some classic and more contemporary studies include the
following. For a pupil-orientated website ‘about race, racism and life as seen through the
eyes of young people’, try: britkid.org.
Connolly, P. (1998) Racism, Gender and Identities of Young Children: Social
Relations in a Multiethnic, Inner-city Primary School. London: Routledge.
Gillborn, D. (2006) Racism and Education: Coincidence or Conspiracy? Routledge:
Abingdon.
Gillborn, D. and Youdell, D. (2000) Rationing Education. Buckingham: Open
University Press.
Mac and Ghaill, M. (1988) Young, Gifted and Black. Buckingham: Open University
Press.
Nieto, S. (2009) The Light in their Eyes: Creating Multicultural Learning
Communities. New York: Teacher College Press.
Troyna, B. and Hatcher, R. (1992) Racism in Children’s Lives: A Study of Mainly
White Primary Schools. London: Routledge.
Walters, S. (2011) Ethnicity, Race and Education. London: Continuum.

Given the performance pressures of recent years, many schools have returned to the
practice of grouping children by attainment (often imprecisely termed ‘ability’). The
problems were documented many years ago, and remain. Alternative approaches are
offered by ‘learning without limits’.
Hart, S., Dixon, A., Drummond, M.-J. and McIntyre, D. (2004) Learning Without
Limits. Maidenhead: Open University Press. (see Reading 1.4)

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 Chapter 15 Inclusion 439

Ireson, J. and Hallam, S. (2001) Ability Grouping in Education. London: SAGE. (see
Reading 15.4)
Jackson, B. (1964) Streaming: An Education System in Miniature. London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
Swann, M., Peacock, A., Hart, S. and Drummond, M.- J. (2012) Creating Learning
Without Limits. Maidenhead: Open University Press. (Reading 1.4)

Introductions to special educational needs include:

Thompson, J. (2010) The Essential Guide to Understanding Special Educational
Needs. London: Longman.
Wearmouth, J. (2011) Special Educational Needs: The Basics. London: Routledge.

For an international overview, see:

Florian, L. (ed.) (2007) The Handbook of Special Education. London: SAGE.

On disability and special educational needs, innovative perspectives are provided by:
Lewis, A. and Norwich, B. (2004) Special Teaching for Special Children? Pedagogies
for Inclusion. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Thomas, G. and Loxley, A. (2007) Deconstructing Special Education and
Constructing Inclusion. Buckingham: Open University Press. (Reading 15.3)

On the conceptualisation of inclusive education, see:

Hick, P., Kershner, R. and Farrell, P. (eds) (2008) Psychology for Inclusive Education:
New Directions in Theory and Practice. Abingdon: Routledge. (see Reading 15.6)
Mitchell, D., (2005) (ed.) Contextualizing Inclusive Education: Evaluating Old and
New International Perspectives. London: Routledge.

For principled accounts of developing inclusion in primary and secondary classrooms

and schools, see:
Ainscow, M., Booth, T. and Dyson, A. (2005) Improving Schools, Developing
Inclusion. London: Routledge.
Black-Hawkins, K., Florian, L. and Rouse, M. (2007) Achievement and Inclusion in
Schools. London: Routledge.
Sage, R. (2007) Inclusion in Schools: Making a Difference. London: Network
Continuum Education.

For exploration of the ways in which all children’s social, moral and cultural
development can be promoted through debate on issues of social inclusion, see:
Arthur, J. and Cremin, H. (2011) Debates in Citizenship Education. London: Routledge.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These

may include Further Reading, illustrative Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and
Download Facilities for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
part five 5
Deepening
understanding
16 Expertise Conceptual tools for career-long
fascination?

17 Professionalism How does reflective teaching

contribute to society?

Supplementary chapters at reflectiveteaching.co.uk are:

• Starting out Learning as a newly qualified teacher
• Improvement Continuing professional development

This is the final and synoptic part of the book. It integrates

major themes through discussion of teacher expertise and
professionalism.

‘Expertise’ (Chapter 16) harvests and integrates powerful ideas

from previous chapters into a holistic conceptual framework of
enduring issues in teaching and learning. The chapter constructs
a framework describing dimensions of expert thinking. In
Chapter 17, ‘Professionalism’, we consider the role of the
teaching profession on our societies and suggest how reflective
teachers can contribute to democratic processes.
Expertise
Conceptual tools for
career-long fascination?

16
Introduction: A conceptual 4 Learning outcomes (p. 465)
framework for deepening
expertise (p. 444) 4.1 Outcomes for continuing improvement
in learning (p. 465)
4.2 Outcomes for certification and the
1 Educational aims (p. 451) lifecourse (p. 467)

1.1 Society’s goals (p. 451)

1.2 Elements of learning (p. 453) 5 Using the conceptual
framework (p. 468)
2 Learning contexts (p. 455)
Conclusion (p. 470)
2.1 Community context (p. 455)
2.2 Institutional context (p. 457)

3 Classroom processes (p. 459)

3.1 Processes for learners’ social needs

(p. 459)
3.2 Processes for learners’ emotional needs
(p. 461)
3.3 Processes for learners’ cognitive needs
(p. 463)
 444 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Introduction: A conceptual framework for

deepening expertise
The contemporary world is complex, challenging and rapidly developing. As Collarbone
(2009, Reading 16.1) argues, we have to get used to change itself. And there will certainly
be pressure on teachers.
As we saw in Chapter 4 of this book, it is now internationally recognised, more than
ever before, that ‘teachers matter’ (OECD, 2005; Sahlberg, 2012, Reading 4.3; Hattie,
2009, Reading 4.6) – a fact which TLRP’s findings and principles embody and promote.
As Dylan Wiliam argues, the quality of teaching has a far greater effect than differences
caused by type of school. Indeed, ‘there is a four-fold difference in the speed of learning
between the most effective and least effective classrooms’ (Wiliam, 2009, Reading 16.4).
The influence of recent analyses of the ‘effect-sizes’ of different teaching and learning
strategies (see, for instance, Hattie, 2012, Reading 10.7) is to be found throughout this
book. Such findings offer wonderful insights on high-quality teaching. However, specific
findings also need to be integrated more holistically into teachers’ routine practices and
ways of thinking. This brings us to a discussion of the progressive development, and
For extensive supplements
deepening, of teacher expertise.
to this chapter, see
‘Deepening Expertise’ at
reflectiveteaching.co.uk TLRP principles

Effective teaching and learning depends on teacher learning. The need for
teachers to learn continuously in order to develop their knowledge and skills, and
adapt and develop their roles, especially through classroom inquiry, should be
recognised and supported. (Principle 9)

Effective teaching and learning demands consistent policy frameworks

with support for teaching and learning as their primary focus. Policies at
national, local and institutional levels need to recognise the fundamental importance
of teaching and learning. They should be designed to create effective learning
See Chapter 4 environments in which all learners can thrive. (Principle 10)

The development of teacher expertise has been studied for many years with the work
of Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986), Glaser (1999) and Berliner (2004) being particularly
significant. Glaser (1999) identified three key ‘cognitive stages’ in the development of
expertise – thus highlighting a transition from dependent to independent ways of thinking
about classroom practice:

Externally supported > Transitional > Self-regulatory

Whilst this progression makes considerable sense, a further element of expertise lies in
contextually appropriate judgement. In other words, it is not enough simply to accumulate
a ‘box of tricks’ or to assemble ‘teacher tips’ – valuable though these may be. The key
capability is to understand when and how to deploy such capabilities. Berliner (2004)
picked out the significance of contextual judgement and of practice itself in his elaboration

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 445

of five stages of teacher development (originally proposed by Dreyfus and Dreyfus, 1986).
This is summarised by Eaude (2012, see Reading 16.3) as in Figure 16.1 below.
Figure 16.1 Stages in the development of expertise (Eaude, 2012, after Alexander, 2010, pp. 416–17)

Stage Strategies Overall approach Characteristic

Novice Context-free rules and guidelines Relatively inflexible, limited skill Deliberate
Advanced Practical case knowledge Use of rules qualified by greater Insightful
beginner understanding of conditions
Competent Discrimination of what matters Conscious choices, but not yet fast, fluid Rational
or not or flexible
Proficient Accumulated case knowledge Degree of intuition based on prediction of Intuitive
enabling key points to be pupil response
noticed
Expert Deep reserves of tacit knowledge Apparently effortless, fluid, instinctive, Arational
though able to fall back on a
deliberate, analytical approach
Here we see the rationale for the notion of ‘deepening expertise’. The development of
advanced forms of expertise requires practice over a long time, so that many cases and
circumstances are experienced and a wide range of skills are honed. In some fields, such as
music and sport, it has been suggested that 10,000 hours of practice is necessary to achieve
intuitive capabilities (Erisson et al, 2006).
The need for contextual understanding and for experience over many years helps to
explain the common scepticism of many teachers to the ‘latest fad’ or to a ‘new policy’
which may emerge from the media, government or elsewhere. Hargreaves describes such
‘presentism’ as a conservative force (2007, Reading 16.2) but also recognises it as a founda-
tional form of professional knowledge and security, from which new practices can only
develop through work with teachers and in ways which authentically respect their agency,
values, vision and experience.
In summary, the development of teacher expertise occurs over time and is, in essence,
concerned with acquiring more sophisticated ways of thinking about teaching and
learning as well as the refinement of practical skills and curricular knowledge (Winch,
2012). From a reliance on generic rules for challenges such as classroom management,
the expert teacher is able to ‘read’ a situation and draw intuitively on his or her repertoire
of responses. As indicated in Figure 16.1, this appears ‘almost effortless’, but it is also
possible to ‘fall back on a deliberate, analytical approach’. The expert teacher has a reper-
toire of available strategies (see also Alexander, 2008, Reading 16.3). This developmental
process was first introduced in Chapter 3, when it was discussed simply as a career-long
‘spiral of professional development’ (see Figure 3.1, p. 68). From such foundations, this
book has progressed, Part by Part, though educational intentions, conditions for learning,
teaching processes and outcomes. Each chapter has focused on practical challenges, but
has also been written with an eye to the cumulative development of teacher expertise. To
that end too, TLRP’s principles, powerful concepts and expert questions for analysing
teaching and learning in classrooms have been seeded through the chapters.

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446 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Principles, concepts and questions support the interpretation and understanding of

classroom experience and of evidence. If we revisit our discussion in Chapter 3, section
1.2 on ‘evidence-informed practice’, we can see just how vital such tools are. Figure 16.2,
below, reproduces an earlier model (see p. 73) – but with one difference. Here, attention
is drawn to how evidence has to be interpreted and understood. We must ‘make sense’ of
our experience and of the information available to us.

Figure 16.2 Problem

Principles,
concepts and Reflect
evidence-informed
practice Issue Evaluate
evidence
Plan
Dilemmas

EVIDENCE
Analyse Understanding through
evidence principles, concepts
and discussion Make
provision

Collect
Judgement evidence Act

For the development of high levels of expertise, what really matters are the frameworks of
deeper understanding and the values which underpin professional judgement.
Indeed, simple ‘tips’, ‘toolkits’ or lists of ‘what works’, whilst useful and worthy of
careful attention, are not enough to achieve the highest quality of teaching. They can
even be misleading. Hattie (2012, Reading 16.5) recognises this and proposes ‘high-level
principles’ to integrate his otherwise fragmented lists of effective teaching strategies.
James (2007, Reading 2.8) makes clear that improvement in pupil outcomes depends on the
development of authentic teacher understanding. Put another way, as Bruner stated (1996,
Reading 11.3) ‘a teacher’s conception of a learner shapes the instruction he or she employs’.
So at the highest levels of professionalism, there is a key role for overarching, theorised
understanding of learning and of teaching.
Acknowledging this issue in relation to its ‘Teaching and Learning Toolkit’, the
Education Endowment Foundation is very responsible in drawing attention to limitations:

The aim of the Toolkit is to support teachers to make their own informed choices and
adopt a more ‘evidence based’ approach. The evidence it contains is a supplement to
rather than a substitute for professional judgement. It provides no guaranteed solutions
or quick fixes. (educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/toolkit/using-the-toolkit, downloaded
24/12/13).

Of course, TLRP’s principles (see Chapter 4) promote a more holistic, multi-dimensional

view of Education, within which is nested appreciation of the need to achieve high

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 447

standards in basic skills and subject knowledge. Indeed, the model of professionalism
which underpins this book assumes that teachers will be concerned with issues such
as the intrinsic quality of pupil learning experiences, the development of positive
learning disposition and self-confidence, the fulfilment of potential and the provision of
opportunities for all – as well as achieving very high standards in knowledge, skills and
understanding.
Having seeded principles, concepts and questions in each chapter of the book, we are
now able to harvest cumulatively from across the whole text and to offer an integrated,
conceptual foundation for deepening expertise.
The conceptual framework (see Figure 16.2, overleaf) is based on the proposition is
that, in one way or another, teachers inevitably face issues concerning educational aims,
learning contexts, classroom processes and learning outcomes (the rows) and they do
so in relation to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (the columns) (see also an online,
featured version in ‘deepening expertise’ at reflectiveteaching.co.uk).
The ‘expert questions’ in each cell highlight the enduring issues which reflective
teachers need to consider. As we have seen, this calls for evidence-informed professional
judgement. However, the analytic capacity of the concepts which are used to think about
and discuss such evidence is also absolutely vital. Without such generative power, neither
classroom enquiry nor discussion with colleagues will build sustainable professional
understanding. If the concepts have sufficient validity, then sustained use will contribute
to the development of a professional language to both represent teacher expertise and to
challenge those who misunderstand its sophistication.
Having said that, the specific meaning and usage of the identified concepts can certainly
be challenged. The framework is simply an analytic device for representing teacher
expertise. It could be compiled and re-presented in different ways.
Review of the columns of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment are an important way
of using the framework. For example, a classroom teacher, staff team or any other group of
stakeholders in a school might want to focus on curriculum provision alone, in which case
the ‘expert questions’ in that column would be effective probes for this, enabling consid-
erations of curriculum aims, contexts, processes and outcomes (Chapters 8, 9 and 10 cover
this ground too). Pedagogy could be similarly reviewed using the set of expert questions in
its column (and chapters 5, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 15 also focus on these issues). Assessment is
the subject of the third column (which articulates directly with chapters 13 and 14). On the
version of the framework at reflectiveteaching.co.uk/deepening-expertise, individual columns
open and contract to enable focused consideration.
It is also worthwhile to think of the rows. If this is done, the interrelationship of
provision for curriculum, pedagogy and assessment is reviewed in relation to each of
the enduring issues concerned with aims, contexts, processes and outcomes. This is the
approach taken in the remainder of this chapter. Again, to enable simplification, rows
open and contract within the version of the framework at reflectiveteaching.co.uk/deepening- For more information
expertise. Alternatively, it is often insightful to explore connections between the concepts on how the conceptual
and questions in different parts of the framework. To help in this, reflectiveteaching.co.uk framework was created,
see the supplementary
provides further ideas and information in relation to each cell. material for Chapter 16
The framework is simply a tool for thinking and for discussion. on reflectiveteaching.
co.uk.

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448 Part 5 Deepening understanding

ENDURING ISSUES Curricular concepts

1 1.1 Society’s educational goals Breadth: does the curriculum
What vision of ‘education’ is the provision represent society’s educational

EDUCATIONAL
designed to achieve? aspirations for its citizens?
AIMS
1.2 Elements of learning Balance: does the curriculum-as-
What knowledge, concepts, skills, values experienced offer everything
and attitudes are to be learned in formal which each learner has a right
education? to expect?

2 2.1 Community context Connection: does the curriculum

Is the educational experience valued and engage with the cultural
endorsed by parents, community, employers resources and funds-of-
CONTEXTS

knowledge of families and the

LEARNING

and civil society?

community?
2.2 Institutional context Coherence: is there clarity in
Does the school promote a common vision to the purposes, content and
extend educational experiences and inspire organisation of the curriculum
learners? and does it provide holistic
learning experiences?

3 3.1 Process for learners’ social needs Personalisation: does the

Does the educational experience build on curriculum resonate with the
social relationships, cultural understandings social and cultural needs of
and learner identities? diverse learners and provide
appropriate elements of choice?
3.2 Processes for learners’ emotional needs Relevance: is the curriculum
CLASSOOM
PROCESSES

Does the educational experience take due presented in ways which are
account of learner views, feelings and meaningful to learners and
characteristics? so that it can excite their
imagination?
3.3 Processes for learners’ cognitive needs Differentiation: are curriculum
Does the educational experience match the tasks and activities structured
learner’s cognitive needs and provide appropriately to match the
appropriate challenge? intellectual needs of learners?

4 4.1 Outcomes for continuing improvement Progression: does the curriculum-

in learning as-delivered provide an
Does the educational experience lead to appropriate sequence and
OUTCOMES

development in knowledge, concepts, skills depth of learning experiences?

LEARNING

and attitudes?
4.2 Outcomes for certification and the Effectiveness: are there
lifecourse improvements in standards, in
Does the educational experience equip both basic skills and other areas
learners for adult and working life, and for of curricular attainment, to
an unknown future? satisfy society’s goals?

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 449

Figure 16.3
Pedagogic concepts Assessment concepts A framework for
Principle: is our pedagogy consistent Congruence: are forms of assessment fit for teacher expertise:
with established principles for effective purpose in terms of overall educational powerful concepts
and expert
teaching and learning? objectives?
questions

Repertoire: is our pedagogic expertise Validity: in terms of learning, do the forms of

sufficiently creative, skilled and assessment used really measure what they
wide-ranging to teach all elements of are intended to measure?
learning?

Warrant: are our teaching strategies Dependability: are assessment processes

evidence-informed, convincing and understood and accepted as being robust and
justifiable to stakeholders? reliable?

Culture: does the school support Expectations: does our school support high
expansive learning by affirming learner staff and student expectations, and aspire to
contributions, engaging partners and excellence?
providing attractive opportunities?

Relationships: are teacher–pupil Inclusion: are all learners treated respectfully

relationships nurtured as the foundation and fairly in both formal and informal
of good behaviour, mutual wellbeing interaction?
and high standards?

Engagement: do our teaching strategies, Authenticity: do learners recognise routine

classroom organisation and consultation processes of assessment and feedback as
enable learners to actively participate in being of personal value?
and enjoy their learning?

Dialogue: does teacher–learner talk Feeding back: is there a routine flow of

scaffold understanding to build on constructive, specific, diagnostic feedback
existing knowledge and to strengthen from teacher to learners?
dispositions to learn?

Reflection: is our classroom practice based Development: does formative feedback and
on incremental, evidence-informed and support enable learners to achieve personal
collaborative improvement strategies? learning goals?

Empowerment: is our pedagogic Consequence: do assessment outcomes lead

repertoire successful in enhancing towards recognised qualifications and a
wellbeing, learning disposition, confident sense of personal identity?
capabilities and agency?

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450 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Society’s goals: a opportunity for discussion

We start our review of the conceptual framework for deepening understanding by
suggesting a discussion on aims and purposes. Reflective activity 16.1 suggests an initial
focus on national priorities. However, such concerns soon have to be transformed into
practical action in schools and classrooms. What documentation on overall educational
aims is available in your school?

Reflective activity 16.1

Aim: To review national aspirations and consequential links between
curriculum breadth, pedagogic principles and congruent assessment.
Evidence and reflection: This activity challenges us to stand back and
review our education system as a whole. Four questions might be
posed, and could be tackled in discussion with colleagues.
1 Is there a broad consensus on educational purposes for schooling?
An indication of this might be the nature of public debate about
school provision. What aspects are taken for granted? Which are
controversial?
2 How adequately do National Curriculum requirements represent
educational goals on which there is broad agreement? For example,
is the curriculum regarded as being sufficiently broad to provide
an ‘all round education’ and to foster positive attitudes to learning
whilst also ensuring mastery of basic skills and enabling appropriate
qualifications to be obtained?
3 Are favoured approaches to teaching justifiable in terms of
established, evidence-informed principles? Do these reinforce overall
curricular intentions?
4 What sorts of assessment are significant in the school system in which
you work? Are these congruent with overall curricular intentions?
Follow-up: These questions are framed above in quite general terms,
for consideration of wide-ranging issues across an entire school
system. However, they can also be applied much more specifically,
to a particular school, department or classroom. If this is done,
they become powerful tools for stimulating reflection on overall
educational purposes and provision. Our aims and methods should
match of course, but do they?

Breadth: Is your subject knowledge adequate in relation to national priorities?

Principle: Is your pedagogic subject knowledge appropriate for national provision well
founded in terms of what is known about good teaching?
Congruence: Are you familiar with forms of assessment which will reinforce your aims,
and will not inadvertently distort pupil learning?

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 451

1. EDUCATIONAL AIMS
1.1 Society’s goals
What vision of ‘education’ Breadth: does the Principle: is our pedagogy Congruence: are forms
is the provision curriculum represent consistent with of assessment fit for
designed to achieve? society’s educational established principles purpose in terms of
aspirations for its for effective teaching overall educational
citizens? and learning? objectives?

Education connects our past to the future – but exactly what happens is worked out through debate and action in the present.
Children and young people are our most precious asset. They come to embody our culture, and their values and
capabilities will determine the ways in which our economy and society will evolve over the twenty-first century.
Education both reflects society and contributes to it. Issues such as whether education reproduces social differences or
provides new opportunities thus become very important. What vision of education should we adopt?
The Education Reform Act 1988 specified official educational aims for England and Wales. Children are to be offered a
‘balanced and broadly based curriculum’ which:
●● promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils; and
●● prepares pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life.
The law thus formally enshrines a rounded conception of education. However, pressure for short-term performance tends to
narrow such goals – and thus we have a major issue of recent decades. The curriculum frameworks for Scotland, Wales,
Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland promote similarly broad overall aims.
Curriculum: Breadth
There are many views about the areas of learning and experience which should be provided by schools (see Chapter 9).
Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence proposes eight areas, as does the curriculum in Wales and Northern Ireland. These
encompass fields such as: arts and creativity; language and literacy; environment and society; modern languages;
mathematics; science and technology; health and physical education; religious and moral education.
In England, very particular emphasis has been given to core subject areas of English, maths and science in primary
education and to subjects in the EBacc in secondary. Maintaining breadth in pupils’ actual classroom experiences is
a big challenge for teachers in any event, and is made difficult in such circumstances. Curriculum, assessment and
accountability need to be fully aligned to reinforce breadth of provision.
Pedagogy: Principle
This challenge concerns the extent to which teachers’ pedagogic judgement is informed by a deep understanding of
learning and teaching and of the factors involved. TLRP’s ten principles (see Chapter 4) is one way of representing
these factors holistically so that their interconnectedness is emphasised. Such principles often underpin national
recommendations but, at best, they should directly inform teacher expertise.
TLRP’s principles form four groups. The first concerns the goals and moral purpose of education, knowledge to be learned
and the prior experience of the learner. Three aspects of teacher expertise, in ‘scaffolding’ learning, assessment for
learning and active engagement, form another. The role of social processes and informal learning feature next. Finally, the
principles emphasise the significance of teacher learning and the need for consistent policy frameworks.
Assessment: Congruence
Assessment activity should support learning objectives – hence ‘assessment for learning’ (see Chapter 13).
TLRP’s project on learning environments (Entwistle, 2009) studied ways in which assessment activity is aligned with
learning objectives, appropriate for student backgrounds and fully supported institutionally. Assessment was thus seen as
being much more than a narrow technical process, but woven into educational organisations, subjects and their practices.
Such congruence supports learning because the learner can more easily understand and engage with available feedback.
This work built on the concept of ‘constructive alignment’ (Biggs, 2007), which asks whether learning activities and forms
of assessment are consistent and fit for their purpose.
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452 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Elements of learning: a case study

Bringing the curriculum to life

Year 4 teacher Simon Mills took out a tube of sugar-coated chocolate buttons and told the children
he was being short-changed. He was certain there were not as many buttons of his favourite colour
as the others. Could the children help find out if this was true?
The lesson in data handling had begun and the children were instantly engaged. They worked in
groups at their computers, filling in a spread sheet as they counted sweets, and discussing how to
solve the problem. Everyone was keen to share their ideas and hear what other people had to say.
The lesson was filmed at a Bristol junior school, to illustrate the TLRP principle ‘Teachers should
scaffold learning in appropriate ways’ – something which demands a secure teaching repertoire
to enable the teacher to respond confidently to pupil learning needs. The school was involved in
the TLRP’s InterActive project, which found that ICT in the classroom will not automatically bring
improvements in learning; teachers and children need to choose and use technological tools
appropriately.
“One thing I think very carefully about is what tool I’m going to use,” says Simon. “I sit down and
think, ‘am I going to use this book or that book?’ ‘How do I demonstrate what a full stop is and
what a capital letter is?’” For this particular lesson, the questions he asked himself included: am I
teaching ICT today or maths? Am I going to use a tool they’re familiar with or a new one?
In this case, Simon Mills wanted to ensure the children could access the maths, so he chose
technology that would help them do so quickly. Whichever choice he makes, though, “It’s important
to use real tools with real outcomes.”
Simon likened his job to that of an orchestra conductor, and said it was more important to him
to have an agenda than a plan. “It’s not a passive role. I’m trying to lead the children toward
something. I have got an agenda. I have got an outcome, which is an end point. I know I have got
to get there.”
Significant numbers of children in our schools find it difficult to access the curriculum and may attain
at levels below their abilities. Such children may be bored or distracted, unable to concentrate for all
sorts of reasons.
However, teachers like Simon bring the curriculum to life for their students by providing an
interesting curriculum, varied learning experiences and authentic feedback.

Repertoire: The teacher makes informed decisions about strategies for advancing children’s learning and
keeping them engaged and autonomous.
A video of this lesson, and commentary upon it, can be viewed in the Chapter 16 resources at reflectiveteaching.
co.uk.

For more information on the TLRP project see www.tlrp.org/proj/phase11/phase2i.html or Sutherland, R.,
Robertson, S. and John, P. (2008) Improving Classroom Learning with ICT (London, Routledge).

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 453

1. EDUCATIONAL AIMS
1.2. Elements of learning
What knowledge, Balance: does the Repertoire: is our Validity: in terms of
concepts, skills, values curriculum-as- pedagogic expertise learning, do the
and attitudes are to experienced offer sufficiently creative, forms of assessment
be learned in formal everything which skilled and wide-ranging used really measure
education? each learner has a to teach all elements of what they are
right to expect? learning? intended to measure?

Pupils at school acquire knowledge, concepts, skills, values and attitudes, and they do so through their work across the
whole curriculum and beyond.
Knowledge and concepts to be learned are often suggested by National Curriculum frameworks, and may be
complemented by promotion of the skills and disposition of ‘learning-how-to-learn’. Some of these elements of learning,
such as the basic skills of literacy and numeracy, are typically given priority in the formal curriculum.
Values and attitudes are no less important. Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence is said to be underpinned by the values
inscribed on the mace of the Scottish Parliament – wisdom, justice, compassion and integrity. However, the tacit
messages that go out from the ‘hidden curriculum’ of everyday experience may have a particularly direct influence.
Teachers thus have enormous responsibilities not just for the content of what learners may learn, but in contributing to the
values and attitudes of our future citizens.
Curriculum: Balance
As HMI (1985, Reading 10.1) put it: ‘A balanced curriculum should ensure that each area of learning and experience
and each element of learning is given appropriate attention in relation to the others and to the curriculum as a whole’
(Chapter 9). If areas of learning are organised in terms of subjects, a balanced allocation of time and resources is crucial.
Elements of learning – knowledge, concepts, skills, values and attitudes – are taught within each curriculum area and
again need to be balanced. Overemphasis on knowledge or skills sometimes de-motivates learners and should be
complemented by support for conceptual understanding and opportunities to develop personal perspectives. Such goals
are clearly dependent on having an appropriate pedagogic repertoire.
Pedagogy: Repertoire
Educational objectives are wide-ranging so that a range of teaching approaches is required – from which teachers select
having considered the needs of learners, subject-matter goals and other circumstances (Chapter 11). Alexander (2008,
Reading 12.3) affirms many variations of pedagogic repertoire, but suggests that three broad aspects can be identified:
●● organisational: whole-class teaching, collective group work, collaborative group work, one-to-one activity with
the teacher, one-to-one activity with peers;
●● teaching talk: through use of rote, recitation, instruction, discussion, dialogue, etc.;
●● learning talk (by pupils): such as narrate, explain, speculate, argue, negotiate, etc.

To make provision for all elements of learning to be taught through classroom activities and tasks, teachers need to be
confident users of a range of pedagogic approaches.
Assessement: Validity
‘Assessing what is easy to measure is not the same as assessing what what is educatonally important – but it is tempting
to do so nonetheless (Chapter 14). In classrooms, for example, it is routine to test forms of pupil performance, but much
harder to assess deeper understanding. Learning is not always ‘on the surface’, so we have to find insightful ways of
investigating and analysing.
In general, it is easier to assess knowledge and skill than it is to assess understanding and attitudes. The former tend to
be more amenable to categoric questions and tests. Understanding and attitudes are likely to be revealed more through
dialogue, discussion and demonstration and to require teacher interpretation of the available evidence. Again, to draw
out these crucial elements of learning in valid way, a confident pedagogic repertoire is needed.

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454 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Community context: a case study

Parents as partners
David and Lucy, 11-year-old twins, were looking forward to their move up to secondary school.
David, a sporty, outgoing, but quirky boy, was particularly enthusiastic. His more conformist sister
was less keen to leave the comfort of the junior classroom.
But in the event, Lucy thrived and David struggled – he failed to make friends, was bullied, and
had to be switched out of his tutor group at the end of Year 7. The twins’ parents were unable to
provide the support or have the access to school that they had had before, and their mother found
this period, and the changes in her children, difficult.
Researchers who followed the twins through their transfer believe a programme from TLRP’s
Home–school Knowledge Exchange project (HSKE) could have made all the difference. HSKE
helped to bridge home and school by valuing the contributions of all parties: parents, children
and teachers. Involvement in such a scheme might have enabled David’s parents to work with his
teachers to help him to develop different coping strategies and to deal with the challenges to his
sense of self.
School transfer can challenge children’s established identities and force them to reassess who they
are and how they interact with others. HSKE enabled parents, teachers and children to engage
with this challenge together, and provided a structure that made it easier for parents to share their
knowledge of their children with the school.
One of HSKE’s three strands was secondary transfer. Action researchers worked with four
primary schools in Bristol and Cardiff and their receiving secondaries on improving children’s
experience of transfer by bringing schools, parents and children together to share the same
learning experiences.
For example, videos of Year 7s, their parents and their teachers talking about secondary school life
were shown to Year 6s and their parents and teachers. Year 6 children made passports of the skills
they might need in secondary school. This meant they had to reflect on themselves as individuals, to
imagine themselves in the new setting and to offer themselves advice.
When they started at secondary, children brought in photos of their out-of-school lives. Parents were
invited to an informal evening with teachers, and one secondary held an event specifically to discover
how the knowledge of the Somali community could be drawn on by the school.
The children involved appeared to adjust more quickly to secondary school and to have better
attitudes towards learning. They also made significantly greater progress in literacy between Year 6
and Year 7 than other children.

Connection: Home–school knowledge exchange supports curriculum engagement with the real lives of
children and parents.

For more information on the TLRP project, see: tlrp.org/proj/phase11/phase2e.html. The case study account
above is from: Osborn, McNess and Pollard (2006).

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 455

2. LEARNING CONTEXTS
2.1 Community context
Is the educational Connection: Does the Warrant: Are the teaching Dependablity: Are
experience valued and curriculum engage strategies evidence- assessment processes
endorsed by parents, with the cultural informed, convincing understood and
community, employers resources and funds- and justifiable to accepted as being
and civil society? of-knowledge of stakeholders? robust and reliable?
families and the
community?

‘Community’ is associated with social relationships, cultures and histories and with a collective sense of place and identity
(see Chapter 5). Some people and families may feel deeply embedded in their communities and benefit from extensive
social networks; such social capital often brings status and advantage. Others, perhaps minority groups, may feel more
marginal or even excluded. Such diversity is a very strong feature of contemporary life.
TLRP’s research has consistently shown the significance of informal, out-of-school learning: what happens within schools
is enriched by understanding of what happened outside schools. Those in the community can thus help considerably, if
constructive and trusting connections are made.
However, those beyond the school gate are also positioned as consumers. Parents, employers and others expect children
to receive high-quality education, and inspectors and the media are quick to condemn schools when standards fall short.
Forms of pedagogy and assessment now have to be justified – hence the concepts of warrant and dependability.
Curriculum: Connection
‘Only connect – live in fragments no longer’, wrote E. M. Forster. This thought can be applied to the meaningfulness
and linkage of the curriculum with the communities which each school serves (see Chapter 10). TLRP’s Home–school
Knowledge Exchange project affirmed the knowledge of families and devised ways of drawing this into the curriculum.
Outcomes in literacy and numeracy improved and transfer between Key Stages 2 and 3 was facilitated (Feiler et al., 2007;
Winter et al., 2009). The Royal Society of Arts promotes an ‘area based curriculum’ (Thomas, 2010, Reading 10.4).
The underlying theme here is about the contextual meaningfulness of the curriculum. Whilst national frameworks exist,
local adaption is likely to enhance both the perceived value of schooling and the quality of learning.
Pedagogy: Warrant
The word ‘warrant’ has several meanings associated with forms of authorisation and justification, ranging from the Royal
Warrant to an arrest warrant.
In relation to pedagogy, the concept of warrant challenges us to justify our practice to stakeholders such as parents,
employers and learners themselves. We defined pedagogy earlier as ‘the act of teaching, together with its attendant
theory and discourse’ (Chapter 11). Further, it was suggested that maintaining a sound educational rationale and forms
of reflective practice can support continuing improvement in the quality of professional judgements (pp. 8–9). This is one
clear way of fulfilling the responsibility, set out in the Codes of Conduct and Practice of the UK GTCs and professional
associations, for maintaining the quality of teaching.
Assessment: Dependability
How much confidence can we place in different forms of assessment (see Chapter 14)? Technically speaking, high
dependability arises when an assessment is both valid and reliable – it measures what is intended and does so with high
consistency. Consistent reliability is not easy to achieve. As TLRP’s Commentary on assessment pointed out (Mansell and
James, 2009, Reading 14.5), it can be undermined by unfair or biased marking and by variations in standards applied
by different teachers. Other studies have shown how differences in testing situations or in pupil preparation can affect
performance. Electronic marking may achieve consistency in that respect, but struggles on some tests of validity. On
the other hand, teacher assessment is likely to strengthen the validity of judgements made, but remains vulnerable to
inconsistency unless moderation processes are taken extremely seriously.
For all these reasons, the dependability of school assessments always has to be worked for.
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456 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Institutional context: a case study

Pupil consultation is right on target
When Rivington and Blackrod High School consulted with pupils about target setting, it helped to
inform teachers’ understanding of what school learning felt like for Year 10 and Year 11 students.
By the end of the initiative, the whole-school approach was giving a more active role to students
in deciding their targets. Teachers were offering clearer guidance on ways of raising attainment
in specific subject areas. Students now had a much clearer understanding of their targets and
seemed motivated by the increased ownership and choice, while remaining realistic about their
capabilities.
Nine students worked with humanities teachers for two years to investigate pupil views and attitudes
towards learning, and how the school’s work on target setting could be improved. The teachers and
students met regularly to discuss their progress and attainment. During interviews with a researcher
from TLRP’s ‘Consulting Pupils’ network, the students indicated that they:

●● wanted respect and to be involved in their education;

●● did not tolerate poor learning environments;
●● had clear ideas about what good teaching and learning looked like;
●● had mixed feelings about the value of target setting; and
●● wanted to know how to improve their work as well as what required improvement.
Some students felt that being told that they would receive a poor grade affected their confidence.
Others made suggestions for improvements:
‘Someone that knows you should sit down and speak to you and discuss where you are now and
what you think you can achieve.’ (Y10 student)
‘It’s easier if the teacher has a word with you and says, “Look, you’re slipping in this” rather than
having to set the grades.’ (Y10 student)
Involvement in the project saved one student from being permanently excluded. He now felt he
could talk to staff, and the kudos of being involved enhanced his self-esteem and tolerance of school
systems.
Under the new process, students were invited to set their own targets based on their average KS3
points and chances graphs. The Head of Year summed up the project’s impact.
‘They had a much clearer understanding of the targets and were motivated by the element of
ownership and choice yet realistic about their capabilities ... It is surprising what nine students can
achieve and I am sure they are probably unaware of the effect their work has had on school policy
… It certainly opened my eyes toward the effectiveness of “pupil voice” and has influenced the
way I now encourage teams of staff to include “pupil feedback” in the departmental procedures.’

Expectations: Being involved in discussing and setting their own targets enhanced aspirations and enabled
children to confidently reach for higher goals.

For more information on the TLRP project, see tlrp.org/proj/phase1/phase1dsept.html, or consult: Rudduck and
McIntyre (2007, also Reading 1.3). The case study above is drawn from Cox (2004).

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2. LEARNING CONTEXTS
2.2 Institutional context
Does the school promote Coherence: is there Culture: does the school Expectations: does our
a common vision to clarity in the support expansive school support high
extend educational purposes, content and learning by affirming staff and student
experiences and inspire organisation of the learner contributions, expectations, and
learners? curriculum and does engaging partners and aspire to excellence?
it provide holistic providing attractive
learning experiences? opportunities?

Three points about effective schools are often picked out (Sammons, Hillman and Mortimore, 1995):
●● effective headteachers act as leading professionals;
●● there is a resolute commitment to the improvement of teaching and learning;
●● there is shared vision and goals to lift aspirations and provide consistency in practices.
In complementary ways, a ‘learning school’ is one in which teachers, pupils and others systematically commit to
collaborative self-improvement on teaching and learning. Leaders at all levels within the school work to discover, release,
support and spread the expertise of colleagues (James et al., 2007). Pupil learning is thus enhanced.
Curriculum: Coherence
A coherent curriculum is one that makes sense as a whole; and its parts are unified and connected by that sense of
the whole. This requires expert selection, planning and presentation of curriculum knowledge. National curricula may
structure subject content, but schools must exercise judgement about their specific schemes of work.
Coherence and progression within areas of learning enable students to build their understanding cumulatively. In Scotland,
the Curriculum for Excellence states that: ‘all children and young people have an entitlement to a curriculum which they
experience as a coherent whole, with smooth and well-paced progression’ (Education Scotland, 2013).
Another dimension of coherence concerns the relationship of one curriculum area to another. In England, cross-curricular
studies have been recommended in the curriculum to enable children and young people to apply what they have learned –
an approach which ‘respects the integrity of subjects but lessens the rigidity of their boundaries’ (e.g. Rose, 2009).
Pedagogy: Culture
School culture is often cited as a major influence on teaching and learning. In ideal circumstances, a culture of collaboration
would exist among the management and staff of the school, in which the values, commitments and identities of
individuals are perfectly aligned with the teaching and learning strategies and aspirations of the institution. Things are
usually more complicated – but the ways in which such complexity is handled is crucial.
TLRP’s studies of workplace cultures contrasted ‘expansive’ and ‘restrictive’ learning environments (Fuller and Unwin,
2003). In the former, staff were engaged in meaningful work, with supportive leadership and opportunities for personal
learning and progression. Another TLRP project showed how teachers’ sense of wellbeing and job satisfaction is a key
factor in their effectiveness (Day et al., 2007, see also Reading 1.1).
Assessment: Expectations
Learners benefit when significant others in their lives believe in them. Parental and teacher expectations are particularly
significant for children and young people (Gipps and MacGilchrist, 1999, Reading 6.5; Hattie, 2009, Reading 4.6) and
are often based on judgements about capability and potential. Expectations are thus pervasively embedded in perception,
relationships and everyday life. As such, although tacit, they are particularly meaningful to learners and influential in the
formation of self-belief (Dweck, 1986, Reading 2.6). Expectations are thus a form of ongoing, social assessment. When
applied negatively to whole groups, cultural expectations can present significant barriers to learning learning.
Raising expectations is a common recommendation for school improvement. But to be effective, such expectations have to
be authentic, because a connection has to be made with the self-belief of learners. Expectations are thus inevitably linked
to the leadership of the school as a whole, and to the culture of the communities which it serves.

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Processes for learners’ social needs: a case study

Removing barriers to learning
Teachers at an East Midlands primary school wanted to find ways to improve the learning of lower
attaining pupils, so they asked the children themselves. Their answers, along with the findings from
classroom observations by researchers, were used to create a more positive learning environment
for all.
The school focused on 12 low-attaining children with special educational needs over a half-term.
Pupils were asked questions such as:
●● What helps you learn in English?
●● What helps you learn in maths?
●● What makes it difficult for you to learn?
●● Is there anything the teachers or other children can do to make it easier for you to learn?

The most significant findings were that:

●● most pupils believed they could only work with the support of adults, especially in English;
●● more thought needed to be given to feedback and praise;
●● there were only limited opportunities for independent work.
The school acted on these findings. Opportunities for more individual, and more independent, work
were provided. Teachers continued to praise pupils for their effort but also reinforced the particular
things they had done well, and indicated next steps.
The school built opportunities for greater independence into lesson planning and designed more
activities which would enable children to experience success. For example in maths, simpler individual
exercises were designed and pairs of pupils were sent to do an activity together without help from
an adult. Teachers also began to focus on constructive feedback as well as straightforward praise. For
example: ‘That’s great, you’ve got the first sound of every word right.’ The researchers also talked
with support staff about the importance of both making positive comments to the children and
prompting the children without giving them answers. On top of all that, pupils saw their comments
being acted upon.
TLRP projects (Ainscow et al.. 2006, Howes, 2009) found that the development of inclusive practices
requires those within a school to focus collaboratively on how to remove barriers experienced by
excluded learners. Becoming more inclusive involves being ready to experiment with new practices
which can meet specific personalised needs.

Inclusion: By receiving constructive feedback and opportunities, children with special needs and lower
attainers were enabled to develop both confidence and skills.

For more information on the two TLRP projects, see tlrp.org/proj/phase1/phase1asept.html, or consult Ainscow,
Booth and Dyson (2006). Also view tlrp.org/proj/smbdavies.html, or consult: Howes Davies and Fox (2009).
The case study is drawn from: Walters, McParland and Lichfield (2008).

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3. CLASSROOM PROCESSES
3.1 Processes for learner’s social needs
Does the educational Personalisation: does Relationships: are Inclusion: are all
experience build on social the curriculum resonate teacher–pupil learners treated
relationships, cultural with the social and relationships nurtured respectfully and fairly
understandings and cultural needs of as the foundation of in both formal and
learner identities? diverse learners and good behaviour, mutual informal interaction?
provide appropriate wellbeing and high
elements of choice? standards?
Once, teachers aimed to fill the ‘empty vessel’ of each child’s mind. Later, the activity of the pupil in ‘making sense’ of new
knowledge became recognised. In both cases, there was little consideration of social circumstances and relationships.
Now, the enduring role of culture and social processes are better recognised. The ways in which knowledge is understood
are cultural, and the processes through which pupils engage with learning are influenced by peer and teacher
relationships within the school and by family, community and media beyond. Further, young people are engaged not only
in learning specific knowledge and skills, but in a process of personal development. They develop an identity within their
network of social relationships in family, school and community. This is not easy, and provision for Personalisation, good
relationships and inclusive participation are likely to be greatly appreciated by children and young people.
Curriculum: Personalisation
There has been much discussion in England about the meaning of ‘personalised learning’ (see Chapter 10). The Chief
Inspector explained: ‘Personalising learning means, in practical terms, focusing in a more structured way on each child’s
learning in order to enhance progress, achievement and participation’ (Teaching and Learning in 2000 Review Group,
2006, p. 2, Reading 10.7). The Group recommendation was for more responsiveness from teachers, including use of
assessment for learning, pupil consultation, learning how to learn and new technologies.
This is not, then, a throwback to ‘child-centredness’ in the sense of following pupil interests for their own sake. Rather, it
proposes customisation of curriculum entitlements so that learners from diverse backgrounds and capabilities are better
able to engage with them appropriately. Personalisation thus implies elements of choice. However, for both manageability
and effectiveness, many of these choices are likely to be structured around common issues which arise in tackling learning
difficulties or extending understanding. This requires expert judgement.
Pedagogy: Relationships
‘Good relationships’ between the teacher and class are at the heart of pedagogic effectiveness – and every teacher knows
this. But what does it really mean? A good relationship is founded on mutual respect and acceptance of ways of getting
on together – described technically as a ‘working consensus’ (Pollard, 1985; Chapter 6, Reading 6.3). This embraces
taken-for-granted rules about acceptable behaviour and understandings about how infringements will be dealt with.
The teacher leads in establishing such rules, but must be mindful of pupil interests and act fairly and consistently. The
understandings which result are the basis of the moral order of the classroom and the foundation of good behaviour.
Expectations for standards of work then follow. As successes are achieved, a sense of fulfilment and wellbeing is shared,
and a positive classroom climate is created. This climate has to be nurtured and sustained over time.
Assessment: Inclusion
Every child certainly does matter, and ensuring that no one is ‘left behind’ is not easy (see Chapter 15). Children with special
educational needs within mainstream classes require particular attention to ensure that potential barriers to their learning
are removed as far as possible. In the case of a physical disability this may require a practical form of provision. Inclusion
is more complex for children who have some form of learning difficulty. Careful and sensitive diagnostic work is necessary.
An enduring problem for education systems is that some groups of pupils tend to underperform. The strongest pattern is
that of social class but other factors such as ethnicity and gender are important too. TLRP’s inclusion projects showed
how teacher expectations about capabilities influence learners – sometimes adversely (Ainscow et al. 2006). Engaging
positively is thus likely to be very helpful (Howes et al., 2009).

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Processes for learners’ emotional needs: a case study

Becoming an individual
Hazel had a vivid imagination and considerable artistic skills. When she started primary school, she
was also very determined and somewhat egocentric. Her school learning in Reception and Year 1 was
disappointing and she tended to reject the curriculum tasks offered by her teachers in favour of the
richness and independence of her own imaginative world. For Hazel, school offered little that was
meaningful.
In Year 2 there were three important developments. First, Hazel was taught by a teacher who really
worked to develop a close relationship. The teacher described the result as ‘like opening Pandora’s
Box’. Second, Hazel began to be aware of her younger sister’s progress. Affection and support from
parents was now mixed with sibling rivalry, and this focused Hazel’s attention on learning to read.
Third, Hazel’s parents worked closely with her teacher. They read to her, supported her attempts to
read and talked to her about her approach to books.
After one bath-time chat about what to do if ‘stuck’ on a word, Hazel finally began to believe in
herself. Her father said, ‘Well, you’re good at teaching yourself … You’re the one that’s learning and
picking these things up.’ Tucked up in bed and with books around her, she found that it was true.
She could work things out, and, bit by bit, she began to read. Moving from concern and support,
her parents and teacher then had to manage her pride and enthusiasm.
Hazel was one of a group of children whose learning was tracked by TLRP researchers from reception
through their entire school careers. The researchers sought to understand the social influences on the
children as they learned and developed as individuals.
For Hazel, there was a supplementary discovery – that she could express her imagination through
writing. This gave her a medium for success within the core curriculum, and in this respect, the
curriculum and the person began to connect. Hazel’s learning needs fascinated many of her
successive teachers and, when engaged, Hazel was able to realise much of her potential. Sadly, there
were no similar developments in mathematics; and she perceived formal testing of performance as
‘something done to her’.
In primary school, Hazel formed a strong friendship with Harriet. They shared similar perspectives,
independence and humour. By age 11, their culture was distinct, their self-confidence had developed
and their individual identities were assured as they moved into secondary education.
Factors such as the school’s curriculum plans, Hazel’s national test results, her teachers’ subject
knowledge and pedagogic skill, Ofsted findings and the market position of the school were all
relevant to this story. But they are wholly inadequate as a way of understanding what was going on
as Hazel learned and developed as a person. In her early twenties, Hazel studied and worked as an
artist.

Relevance: As a young child, Hazel was unable to engage with the curriculum until she found ways of
expressing herself and succeeding in school terms.

A TLRP Research Briefing summarising the implications of the Identity and Learning Programme is at: tlrp.
org/pub/documents/Pollard_RB_23_FINAL.pdf. For Hazel’s story in particular, consult: Pollard with Filer (1997).

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3. CLASSROOM PROCESSES
3.2 Processes for learners’ emotional needs
Does the educational Relevance: is the Engagement: do our Authenticity: do
experience take due curriculum presented teaching strategies, learners recognise
account of learner in ways which classroom organisation routine processes
views, feelings and are meaningful to and consultation enable of assessment and
characteristics? learners and so that learners to actively feedback as being of
it can excite their participate in and enjoy personal value?
imagination? their learning?
We all, at any age, value our dignity and appreciate it when our individuality is recognised. And we also, as part of our
personal development, have to learn to appreciate the needs of others. Goleman (1996) called this ‘emotional intelligence’
– combining social empathy and skills with personal awareness and capacity to manage one’s own feelings. Schools have
always worked hard to support such development through curricular provision such as PSHE, drama and the arts.
Feelings about learning itself will directly affect outcomes. Pupils are expert at detecting teacher mood, respect and interest,
and research demonstrates the importance of providing a consistent, positive classroom climate. Confidence to tackle new
learning challenges is helped by interesting curricula, engaging activities and meaningful feedback. Pitching such learning
experiences appropriately is crucial too, with anxiety arising if they are too challenging, and boredom if deemed too easy,
repetitive or irrelevant. Such feelings are felt individually but are almost always strongly influenced by peer culture. John
Holt’s classic book, How Children Fail (1964), argued that underperformance is linked to such fear of failure.
Curriculum: Relevance
School inspectors got this right when they wrote: ‘The curriculum should be seen by pupils to meet their present and
prospective needs. What is taught and learned should be worth learning in that it: improves pupils’ grasp of the subject
matter; increases their understanding of themselves and the world in which they are growing up; raises their confidence
and competence in controlling events and coping with widening expectations; and progressively equips them with the
knowledge and skills needed in adult working life’ (Her Majesty’s Inspectors, 1985, p. 45, Reading 10.1).
In the contemporary world, we have even more diverse and rapidly changing societies. Inequality and underperformance
remain intractable for many, so the challenge for schools to offer relevant curricula is very considerable. National
frameworks should provide for local adaption, and teachers’ knowledge of their learners and communities is vital.
Pedagogy: Engagement
TLRP research on pupil consultation (e.g. Rudduck and McIntyre, 2007, Reading 1.3) and learner identities (e.g. Pollard
and Filer, 2007, Reading 1.2) showed that, if pupils feel that they matter in school and are respected, then they feel
more positive about themselves as learners. They can understand and manage their own progress better, and feel more
included. The underlying driver here is termed ‘agency’ – the opportunity for self-directed action and fulfilment.
Young people become more engaged if their perspectives, concerns and experiences are taken seriously. The projects found
that pupil contributions were invariably practical and constructive – and were thus also beneficial to teachers. Such
feedback supported more open, collaborative and communicative relationships and thus had the potential to transform
pedagogic strategies and enhance learning outcomes.
Assessment: Authenticity
Traditional assessments measure what a student can recall or do in the formal context of testing. By comparison, authentic
assessment puts the emphasis on the meaningful application in real-life situations (Wiggins, 1989). Rather than being
required to simply demonstrate performance for an artificial purpose, the learner has the opportunity to apply their growing
knowledge and capability to genuine activity. The task, and feedback on it, is thus more personally meaningful. Authentic
assessment is likely to affirm those who have the deeper levels of skill and understanding which are needed for application.
Overcoming the artificiality of school so that new knowledge can be grounded in the ‘real world’ is not easy. Project work is
a long-standing strategy and new technologies provide wonderful resources. There are many contemporary initiatives to
promote ‘real-world learning’, primarily because transfer of school learning consistently proves to be difficult.

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462 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Processes for learners’ cognitive needs: a case study

Time to talk
The slogan ‘it’s good to talk’ has become a cliché, but that’s because it’s true. Projects such as TLRP’s
SPRinG and Cambridge’s Thinking Together have demonstrated how effective pupil dialogue and
discussion can boost children’s attainment, enthusiasm and self-efficacy.
Examples published by Thinking Together show how teachers who are successful in teaching children to
collaborate effectively model the kind of talk that is useful in discussion.
Here, a Key Stage 3 teacher introduces a maths activity to the whole class. The maths activity uses
software called ‘Function Machine’, in which the children are asked to consider what operation might
have been done to one number in order to end up with another. As well as deciding on the operation,
the groups have to come up with a strategy for discovering it and for testing their ideas.
Teacher: OK. I’m going to put a number in …
Louis: One thousand?
Teacher: OK, Louis immediately said one thousand – is that a good number to put in?
Child: No
Teacher: You’re shaking your head – but why do you think it is not? … Shall we come back to you?
You’ve got an idea but you can’t explain it?
OK, Louis had one thousand. Anybody think ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to that idea? … David.
David: Start off with an easier number.
Teacher: Start off with an easier number. By an easier number what kind of number do you mean?
David: Um. Something like – lower – five.
Teacher: Fine. A smaller number – a lower number – yes. Louis can you see that point of view?
Louis: Yes
Teacher: If we put in a thousand we could end up with a huge number. If we put in five do you think
it will be easier to work out what the machine has done?
Class: Yes
Teacher: Everyone agree? OK, so I’m going to type in five to start with …
In this discussion the ground rules for talk are embedded in the teacher’s demonstration of the activity.
The language she uses is full of indicator words, such as ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘if’ and ‘why’ as she leads them
through a line of reasoning. She accepts and discusses the challenges made by David and the class to
Louis’ suggestion, whilst respecting his contribution in initiating the discussion.
She demonstrates how to consider the validity of alternative suggestions, at the same time as seeking
clarification. She invites others to speak so that as many people as possible feel able to join in the
discussion. Finally she ensures that an agreement is sought and reached. In this way, the teacher is
demonstrating effective collaboration. The children are engaged in the discussion, motivated to participate
and are real partners in the learning.

Dialogue: The teacher draws pupils into decision-making about an investigative strategy, respecting their
ideas but leading their reasoning.

This case study is adapted with permission from Dawes and Sams (2004). See also TLRP’s Commentary,
Assessment in Schools: Fit for Purpose on tlrp.org or reflectiveteaching.co.uk

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 463

3. CLASSROOM PROCESSES
3.3 Processes for learners’ cognitive needs
Does the educational Differentiation: are Dialogue: does teacher– Feeding back: is there
experience match the curriculum tasks and learner talk scaffold a routine flow of
learner’s cognitive activities structured understanding to build constructive, specific,
needs and provide appropriately to on existing knowledge diagnostic feedback
appropriate challenge? match the intellectual and to strengthen from teacher to
needs of learners? dispositions to learn? learners?

Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understanding. These include thinking,
knowing, remembering, judging and problem solving. These high-level functions of the brain draw on capabilities such
as language and perception. The future promise of neuroscience is considerable (see Howard-Jones, 2007), but social
and cultural factors remain crucial in classroom teaching and learning processes.
The brilliance of Vygotsky’s psychology derives from his insight in relating cognitive, social and cultural factors together.
So we meet each pupil’s cognitive needs through social processes of teaching and learning, and the understanding
that is developed relates to culturally embedded knowledge. Crucially, the teacher mediates between knowledge and
learner. A teacher’s explanation, questions, discussion, or structured task, provides type of ‘scaffolding’ it combines
challenge and support so that the learner is encouraged to extend their understanding.
Curriculum: Differentiation
Curriculum goals must be converted to tasks and activities and then presented to learners in ways to which they can
relate. Too difficult, and frustration often follows; too easy, and boredom may result. The goal is to match the learner
and the task so that he or she feels appropriately challenged. Pleasure from success then reinforces learning. But since
all learners are different, there is considerable skill in achieving a differentiated match (see Chapter 10).
Three basic strategies can be used to achieve this:
●● vary the task: so slightly different tasks are set to meet the needs of particular individuals or groups;
●● vary the expected outcomes: so pupil performance would be judged using specific criteria;
●● vary the level of support: so a classroom assistant might support some children, whilst others would work alone.
Pedagogy: Dialogue
‘Whole-class interactive teaching’ describes structured, teacher-controlled but pupil-active methods. Questioning in
challenging, engaging and respectful ways is an important way in which pupil understanding can be extended.
Dialogic teaching takes this further to engage the teacher and learner together and to explicitly use language as a tool for
learning (Mercer and Littleton, 2007, Reading 11.6). Research suggests that such responsive scaffolding of learning
supports longer-term commitment to learning. Alexander (2008, Reading 12.3) identified five characteristics:
●● collective: teachers and pupils address learning tasks together;
●● reciprocal: teachers and pupils listen to each other, share ideas and consider alternative viewpoints;
●● supportive: pupils articulate their ideas freely and confidently;
●● cumulative: teachers and pupils build on each other’s ideas;
●● purposeful:
teachers plan and steer classroom talk in relation to educational goals.
Assessment: Feedback
Providing appropriate feedback to learners has one of the largest measurable effects of any teaching strategy (Hattie,
2009, Reading 4.6; Spendlove, 2009, Reading 13.3). This fact underlies ‘assessment for learning’ (Black and Wiliam,
1998) which has now been taken up in many school systems across the world. Such formative assessment is an
integral part of pedagogy and is designed to help learners grow their capacity to manage their own learning. The
TLRP project on Learning How to Learn (James et al., 2007, Reading 2.8) showed that the most effective teachers
have frameworks of subject and developmental understanding which enable them to respond constructively to pupils’
attempts to learn. Such diagnostic and knowledgeable flexibility is essential (see Chapter 13).
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464 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Outcomes for continuing improvement in learning:

a case study
A cultural revolution in teaching and learning
Mulberry school was formed from the ashes of two secondary closures. Anna, the new headteacher,
believed that cultural rebuilding required a concerted move from a teaching-centred view to a
learning-centred view. For the Senior Leadership Team (SLT) it was an opportunity to develop a
process of reflection on the very process of learning itself – learning how to learn.
When Mulberry joined TLRP’s Learning How to Learn Project (LHTL), the most talented teachers in the
1,100-pupil school were already providing Inset sessions for their colleagues, based on their subject
expertise. This was complemented by departmental reviews, lesson observations, self-evaluation
interviews with staff about lessons observed, and interviews with young people who had taken part
in that lesson.
For the SLT, promoting LHTL would ‘put learners in the driving seat’. Self- and peer-assessment would
be key strategies, and setting learning objectives and understanding criteria would promote learning
autonomy. Staff would therefore be able to move beyond routine ‘delivery’ of the curriculum to more
self-aware and reflective teaching.
Creating a ‘learning how to learn’ mindset in pupils was dependent on teacher feedback, clearly
focused on helping pupils to develop their understanding, to think more critically about their
learning, and to self-evaluate. Guidelines for staff explained the characteristics of effective feedback.
Mulberry students were taken seriously from the outset. They evaluated lessons through an
interactive pupil questionnaire on the school intranet. Examples of questions were: Does your teacher
try to find out what you already know before you’re starting a new topic? Does your teacher give the
class opportunity to make choice and decisions about the work you’re doing?
The school also instituted ‘lesson study’ in which two teachers plan a lesson together with a specific
focus in mind (see Chapter 10). In one example, three pupils, chosen across a range of ability or
approaches to learning, were observed. Later the teachers talked through what went well and what
could be refined, and the lesson was repeated with another group.
For Anna, the goal was to truly become a learning organisation:
‘A learning organisation would be open to change and develop what it was doing, enthusiastic
about reflecting on what it’s actually doing and learning about what other people are doing.
It would be outward looking to both … academic research and also actual practice in other
schools and want to impart [to] the whole educational community. A positive and confident
place.’
Asked whether this truly described Mulberry, she replied: ‘I’d say we’re well on the way.’

Reflection: The school provided both formal and informal structures and processes to help teachers and
children think about their learning.

For more information on TLRP’s Learning How to Learn project, see the Research Briefing at p. 356 and
tlrp.org/proj/phase11/phase2f.html. Two books for teachers are available: James et al. (2007) and James et al.
(2006). See also Reading 2.8.

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4. LEARNING OUTCOMES
4.1 Outcomes for continuing improvement in learning
Does the educational Progression: does Reflection: is our Development: does
experience lead the curriculum-as- classroom practice formative feedback
to development in delivered provide an based on incremental, and support enable
knowledge, concepts, appropriate sequence evidence-informed learners to achieve
skills and attitudes? and depth of learning and collaborative personal learning
experiences? improvement strategies? goals?

Education is always, in a sense, about the tension between ‘what is’ and ‘what might be’. The expert teacher supports
learners in moving forward to higher and higher levels of attainment.
Ensuring progression in the educational experiences provided for pupils is therefore vital. Only through new challenges
can they deepen and broaden their knowledge. However, the ultimate educational goal is to support the development of
self-motivated and resilient learners who are not only knowledgeable but capable of taking control of their own learning.
Through encouragement to achieve personal learning goals at school, we sow the seeds of commitment to lifelong learning.
Reflective processes provide ways of marrying such ambitions, of reconciling what is and what might be. They enable
teachers to monitor their own performance, both reflexively and in collaboration with others, and thus to stimulate their
own continuing professional development.
Curriculum: Progression
Teaching which consistently achieves cumulative progression for learners requires high levels of subject knowledge, three
components of which were identified by Shulman (1986, Reading 9.7; see Chapter 9).
‘Content knowledge’ is of great importance, because teachers in full command of the raw material of their subject are
better able to guide, support and extend the learning of their pupils.
However, it is essential that teachers understand how to use content knowledge in their teaching. Through ‘pedagogic
content knowledge’ expert teachers connect the subject to the learner. The teacher understands the best way of explaining
key points, of framing particular tasks, of using examples for their subject. One TLRP project studied the most effective
ways of teaching secondary science (Millar et al., 2006). Another investigated ‘threshold concepts’ (Land et al., 2006).
The third and final form of subject expertise is ‘curricular knowledge’. This concerns understanding the way subject material
is ordered, structured and assessed by national requirements, institutional policies or other circumstances.
Pedagogy: Reflection
Reflective practice is based on open-minded enquiry and a willingness to use evidence to challenge one’s own provision
(see Chapter 3). This might be based on external evidence of school or pupil performance, on reading research findings,
on small-scale personal enquiries or observations, on discussions or collaborative activities with colleagues. There are
many possibilities but, in all cases, evidence is used to generate reappraisal. In this way, taken-for-granted thinking is
challenged and professional judgement is refined (see Heilbronn, 2010, Reading 3.6).
Reflective enquiry may be focused on particular problems or issues and is best carried out in systematic ways and for specific
purposes. Understanding then becomes embedded in teacher expertise and enables decision-making at other times.
Assessment: Development
Physical, cognitive, social and emotional development all influence and are influenced by educational experiences. This, we
know, is an enduring process (see for instance, Blyth, 1984). Resilient and resourceful learners develop when teaching
combines appropriate challenge and support – ‘building learning power’, as Claxton puts it (2002; see Reading 2.9).
Assessment for Learning (Chapter 13) promotes pupil self-assessment so that learners can reflect on where they are,
where they need to go next and how to get there (Assessment Reform Group, 2002, Reading 13.2). This requires an
understanding of desired outcomes and of appropriate processes of learning, as well as the opportunity and commitment
to act on such knowledge. Such self-regulated approaches to learning can be nurtured by encouraging students to set
personal learning goals and by providing supportive feedback.

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466 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Outcomes for certification and the lifecourse:

a case study
‘Here’s the keys, you’re free now’
Tony Wilf was in his fifties, adjusting to the death of his wife, and had two young teenagers still at
home. He wanted to look after them properly, and thought it would be nice to make home-made
fish and chips.
‘I couldn’t remember how to do batter so I asked one of the old ladies next door, and she gave me
this book,’ he told researchers. ‘But I could not read.’ Tony ended up going to the chip shop because
he felt too humiliated to ask the neighbour, or his children, to read the recipe out to him.
Tony had been unfortunate in his schooling. ‘I was told time and time again by teachers, “you’re
thick, you don’t understand”. If somebody had said, “right, what’s the problem?”… that would have
been fine.’
Tony had worked as an unskilled labourer for most of his life, and enjoyed learning from the older
craftsmen, but he knew his literacy problems had stopped him from advancing.
It was 40 years after leaving school that Tony was finally diagnosed with dyslexia. In fact, this came
about because he was trying to help his daughter, Clare, with her own literacy.
Clare had trouble with her handwriting, so Tony decided to get a home computer to print out her
work. ‘So I went to “Computers for the Terrified”. And it worked. I got into it, I really enjoyed that,
and then something came up about “insert so and so after the third paragraph” and I thought,
“what’s a paragraph?” … so that’s why I started coming back to doing the English …’
Tony’s first English class didn’t work out because he and the tutor got into arguments about his use
of block capitals to write letters. His school experiences had left him unable to deal with not being
listened to. Fortunately he tried again, and this time the tutor dealt with students as individuals. The
use of coloured overlays designed for dyslexics led to a big improvement in his reading. Apart from
improving his basic skills, the courses provided a focus for his life: ‘what I like about it, you know,
everybody works as a group; nobody takes the Mickey out of anybody’.
Tony became interested in local history and started writing. ‘It’s as though I’ve been locked away for
years and somebody’s said, “well here you go, here’s the keys, you’re free now”,’ he said.

Empowerment: Supportive adult education opened new horizons for Tony, releasing his innate talents and
interests.

Tony’s case is adapted from Hodkinson et al. (2007). It is available, with much more, from tlrp.org/proj/
phase111/biesta.htm. An accessible book of the project is: Biesta, Field, Goodson, Hodkinson and Macleod
(2010). A comprehensive case for lifelong learning has been made by Schuller and Watson (2009).

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4. LEARNING OUTCOMES
4.2 Outcomes for certification and the lifecourse
Does the educational Effectiveness: are there Empowerment: is our Consequence:
experience equip improvements in pedagogic repertoire do assessment
learners for adult and standards, in both successful in enhancing outcomes lead
working life, and for an basic skills and other wellbeing, learning towards recognised
unknown future? areas of curricular disposition, capabilities qualifications and a
attainment, to satisfy and agency? confident sense of
society’s educational personal identity?
goals?

What outcomes do we want from education?

We certainly need people who can contribute effectively in economic terms within the labour market. We also need citizens
with social and global awareness in response to growing cultural diversity and the ecological challenge. We need those
who will become good parents and contribute to their communities and civil society. And then there is the need for
future technologists … and the arts ... and so on, and so on. A review of the National Curriculum in Engand proposed an
over-riding set of economic, social, cultural, personal and environmental goals (DfE, 2011).
Whilst there is relative continuity in general priorities, specific needs and circumstances do change over time. An enduring
priority is that learners should have self-confidence and a positive learning disposition. This relates to empowerment and
‘agency’ – the intrinsic, personal capacity to adapt to circumstances throughout the lifecourse.
Examinations are the traditional way of certifying capabilities in relation to summative attainment in mainstream school
subjects. However, can innovative forms of assessment, such as portfolios, represent broader, developmental achievements.
Curriculum: Effectiveness
School performance is a major public issue and will always be a concern of parents, governors, local authorities, media and
politicians (see Chapter 14). The quality of teaching is the single most important factor in realising pupil potential, a fact
that is now internationally recognised (OECD, 2005; Hattie, 2009). And the moral commitment of teachers to learners
also calls for active monitoring of outcomes. Reviews of performance thus provide a valuable focus for systematic
reflective and collaborative enquiry.
Inspection of schools is managed in different ways in each nation of the UK, but there appears to be an increasing focus on
the quality of teaching and learning itself and, of course, on pupil outcomes. Significantly, the professional judgement of
inspectors has the potential to tackle issues which numeric data cannot reach. For monitoring the performance of school
systems internationally performance in key subject areas is sampled, as is done in the OECD’s PISA study.
Pedagogy: Empowerment
The first of TLRP’s ten principles states that: ‘Learning should aim to help people to develop the intellectual, personal and
social resources that will enable them to participate as active citizens and workers and to flourish as individuals in a
diverse and changing society’ (see Chapter 4). So empowerment is the very stuff of ‘education’ in its broadest sense. But
what does this mean in the classroom?
Dweck (2000, Reading 2.6) contrasted pupils with a ‘mastery’ orientation from those who develop ‘learned helplessness’.
Experiences of classroom life contribute to such self-beliefs. By creating opportunities for learners to take independent and
successful action, teachers support the development of self-confidence and positive learning dispositions.
Assessment: Consequence
In taking stock of their work as a whole, teachers need to consider whether or not they have been able to enrich the lives of
the learners in their care and increased learners’ life-chances (see Chapter 15).
Are they better able to acquire the qualifications they will one day need to enter the labour market? We need to be sure
that new knowledge, understanding and skills are secure. Indeed, it is crucial, that all students acquire good basic skills
before they leave school. But have they also developed self-confidence and a strong sense of personal identity?

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5 Using the conceptual framework

The conceptual framework represents the issues that teachers face on a day-to-day basis. It
is offered as a tool to support professional reflection and deepen expertise. It is a reference
point for many of the major questions that must be faced when practical classroom judge-
ments are made.
The framework is an explicit tool for reflecting on theory and practice, as recommended
by Timperley et al. in a wide-ranging international review of continuing professional
development for teachers (2007, Reading 16.6).
In the ‘Deepening Expertise’ section of reflectiveteaching.co.uk, research and practice
underlying each concept is explored further drawing on the work of UK specialists. Please
just ‘click through’ the cell in which you are interested.
Here are some ways in which the framework has been used:

Problem solving during initial training

Student teachers were introduced to the conceptual framework and ‘expert questions’
before going into schools – but at that stage, it all seemed a bit complicated. During their
time in school, they were asked to identify their ‘biggest challenge’ and to relate it to the
framework in discussion with a mentor. The issues underlying their problems became
clearer. When back at college, these experiences were shared in group discussions with
other students.

‘Well, I was in survival mode at school really, but I did the exercise and began to see how
the way the children were responding to me related to the curriculum I was providing
and to the feedback I was giving them. Once I’d begun to realise how everything fits
together, things started to drop into place. The framework is a good device for problem-
solving.’ (Student Teacher)

Reflecting on professional commitment

Sally Brown had been teaching very successfully for 12 years in primary schools, and
had been an advanced skills teacher for several years. What was it that kept her in the
classroom?

‘I’ve been wondering about applying for management jobs for ages, but the framework
showed me why I really prefer to be a hands-on teacher. I enjoy my classroom work
immensely but I’ve found it hard to explain exactly what I do to other people, and even
to myself! Now I feel I can explain. The framework gives a good overview of why teaching
is difficult, but also why it is fascinating!’ (Classroom Teacher)

Analysing teaching and learning

To start a discussion about effective teaching at a Special School, each member of staff
was asked to write about a successful lesson, describing and analysing what made it work.

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 469

Having shared their stories, the staff considered their practice in the light of the
conceptual framework. How far were the concepts and questions reflected in narratives
of experience? What changes would there have been if certain questions had been asked
before planning the lesson?

‘The framework offers a way of looking at our practice with a discerning eye, and
to really discuss what we’re doing. It reveals gaps, and then we collectively develop
solutions.’ (Deputy Head)

Supporting curriculum development

A primary school redeveloped its approach to foundation subjects to make them more
relevant and accessible to the children. The staff team used the conceptual framework to
assess and evaluate the content, approach and effectiveness of their ideas.

‘I feel the concepts in the framework reflect the important elements of a 21st century
school curriculum. For me it asks the questions of why and how we are teaching rather
than what – and it offers a structure to think about our provision. Pedagogy, it seems,
has for some years not been as important a discussion topic as SATs and results, but I
think that effective pedagogy needs to be our principal concern.’ (Headteacher)

Reflective activity 16.2

Aim: To explore using the conceptual framework to reflect on professional expertise.
Evidence and reflection: Consider each of the applications of the framework illustrated
above. Do these approaches resonate with you – for problem solving, reviewing
professionalism, analysing practice or curriculum development?
Select one of them and identify a particular issue which has challenged you. Does the
framework help in reviewing this?
Extension: Use the framework when discussing a significant shared issue with a group
of colleagues. Does it prevoke new lines of discussion?

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470 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Conclusion
This chapter has presented a conceptual framework which holistically represents the major
dimensions of teacher expertise. The framework is organised around nine enduring issues
associated with educational aims, learning contexts, classroom processes and learning
outcomes. Each issue is explored in relation to curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. The
chapter then provides both case study illustrations and a brief introduction to some of the
research which underpins each concept. Links are also made back to chapters within the book.
The conceptual framework is offered as a contribution to the development of a shared
professional language. It is a support for professional thinking and discussion together.
However, the framework also celebrates teacher expertise, for the truth is that, whilst
it may seem complex, teachers work and succeed within this terrain all the time. Indeed,
during a career, a great deal of professional fulfilment is derived from exploring the issues
which the framework highlights.
The contemporary challenge is to identify this expertise more explicitly and to find
ways of representing it more clearly.
If this can be done, the profession may become more self-confident as well as more
effective. The public may become even more appreciative of the skills, knowledge, under-
standing and moral commitment which good teachers embody.

Key readings
Many of the Key Readings suggested for Chapters 3 on reflective practice are very
relevant for this chapter, including, for example, Schön (Reading 3.2) and Stenhouse
(Reading 3.3).

Key Readings for Chapter 4, on the principles of effective teaching and learning, are
also highly pertinent to the enduring issues which have been identified. For example, see
OECD (Reading 4.4) or Hattie (Reading 4.6).

On continuing professional development through a career, the best summary of effective

practice is Timperley et al.’s (2007) (Reading 16.6).

We offer supplementary suggestions on the specific issue of expertise itself. For a

philosophical overview of the nature of expertise, see:
Winch, C. (2012) Dimensions of Expertise: A Conceptual Exploration of Vocational
Knowledge. London: Continuum.

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 Chapter 16 Expertise 471

Developmental accounts of how expertise evolves through the interaction of practice and
analysis are provided by:
Eraut, M. (1994) Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence. London:
Routledge.
Erisson, K. A., Charness, N., Feltovich, P. and Hoffman, R. R. eds. (2006) The
Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Flook, J., Ryan, M. and Hawkins, L. (2010) Professional Expertise: Practice, Theory
and Education for Working in Uncertainty. London: Whiting and Birch.
Loughran, J. (2010) What Expert Teachers Do: Enhancing Professional Knowledge
for Classroom Practice. London: Routledge.
Shulman, L. S. (2004) The Wisdom of Practice – Essays on Teaching, Learning and
Learning to Teach. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Two books which analyse and apply teacher expertise in primary school contexts are:
Eaude, T. (2012) How Do Expert Primary Classteachers Really Work? A Critical
Guide for Teachers, Headteachers and Teacher Educators. Northwich: Critical
Publishing. (Reading 16.3)
Sangster, M. (2012) Developing Teacher Expertise: Exploring Key Issues in Primary
Pratice. London: Bloomsbury Academic.

In secondary education, expertise is applied in the context of particular subjects. There

are many guides, but for more specific treatment, see:
Goodwyn, A. The Expert Teacher of English. London: Routledge.
Li, Y. and Kaiser, G. (2010) Expertise in Mathematics Instruction. London: Springer.
Tsui, A. (2003) Understanding Expertise in Teaching: Case Studies of Second
Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This is an exceptional chapter which integrates the ‘expert questions’ posed throughout
the book into an overarching conceptual framework. To extend this journey, the internet
offers many sources for deepening expertise further.

The Deepening Expertise section of reflectiveteaching.co.uk is being developed to provide

links to websites which extend understanding and application of particular concepts.

For an excellent guide to the use of the internet for education, see:
Houghton, E. (ed.) (2012) Education on the Web: A Tool-kit to Help You Search
Effectively for Information on Education. Slough: NFER.

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Professionalism
How does reflective
teaching contribute
to society?
17
Introduction (p. 474) 4 Reflective teaching and the
democratic process (p. 485)
1 Professions and 4.1 Demystifying the democratic process
professionalism (p. 475) (p. 488)
4.2 Identifying decision-makers (p. 488)
1.1 Professional and union organisation
(p. 475) 4.3 Preparing the case (p. 488)

1.2 Professionalism (p. 476) 4.4 Forming alliances (p. 489)

4.5 Managing the media (p. 489)
4.6 Lobbying decision-makers (p. 490)
2 Education and society (p. 478)
4.7 Following up (p. 490)
2.1 What should an education system be
designed to do? (p. 478)
Conclusion (p. 490)
2.2 What can actually be achieved through
education? (p. 482)

3 Classroom teaching and

society (p. 483)
474 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Introduction
Historically, there is a strong tradition of civic responsibility among teachers in all parts
of the UK, and the contribution to public life of socially aware professional educators has
been very strong.
Indeed, teaching reflects moral purpose and has significant social consequences.
For these reasons, commitments to educational quality and to social justice have been
promoted by the UK General Teaching Councils. For example, the GTC NI’s Code of
Values and Professional Practice states:

Teachers will, as reflective practitioners, contribute to the review and revision of policies
and practices with a view to optimising the opportunities for pupils or addressing
identified individual or institutional needs. (GTC NI, 2007, p. 44)

In our discussion of social contexts, Chapter 5, we introduced the idea of social

development being based on a dialectical process, as individuals respond to and act within
the situations in which they find themselves (Mills, 1959, Reading 5.1). Actions in the
present are thus influenced by the past, but they also contribute to the future (see Archer,
1979, Reading 17.1). All teachers, as individuals, are members of society and we hope that
reflective teachers will be particularly capable of acting in society to initiate and foster
morally and ethically sound developments as ‘imaginative professionals’ (Power, 2008,
Reading 17.5).

TLRP principles
Two principles are of particular relevance to this chapter on professionalism and teachers’
role in society:

Effective teaching and learning depends on teacher learning. The need for
teachers to learn continuously in order to develop their knowledge and skills, and
adapt and develop their roles, especially through classroom inquiry, should be
recognised and supported. (Principle 9)

Effective teaching and learning demands consistent policy frameworks

with support for teaching and learning as their primary focus. Policies at
national, local and institutional levels need to recognise the fundamental importance
of teaching and learning. They should be designed to create effective learning
See Chapter 4 environments in which all learners can thrive. (Principle 10)

There are four sections in this chapter. The first discusses the establishment of professional
associations and moves on to consider forms of ‘restricted’ and ‘extended’ professionalism.
The relationship between education and society is then addressed, drawing on the
theoretical framework referred to above. The third section considers the classroom
responsibilities of a socially aware and reflective teacher and discusses the formation of
classroom policies. Finally, we focus on the actions that a reflective teacher could take as

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 Chapter 17 Professionalism 475

a citizen in trying to influence democratic processes of decision-making by local, regional

and national governments.
The RT website offers resources that will help with these issues.

1 Professions and professionalism

1.1 Professional and union organisations
Some professions have very long histories. For instance, law and medicine have served
enduring needs for social order and personal health. However, from the Enlightenment and
industrial revolution onwards, many other professional groups emerged as new demands
for specialised expertise developed – engineering, accountancy, nursing and teaching
were amongst these. Today, our complex modern societies depend on a very wide range
of highly organised professions.
The rationale for professions has a strong moral dimension in fostering collaboration
to provide valued services to others, but professional groups also often act to promote
and defend the interests of their members – just as trade unions do. Indeed, trade unions
developed in a similar historic period in response to the employment conditions of the
industrial revolution and as a necessary defence of employee interests. ‘Unity’, as they say,
‘is strength’ whether you are a respected professional, such as a doctor, or a lowly paid
cleaner on the minimum wage.
Because of this appeal to both the public good and members’ interests, there is often
some tension in the actual practices of both trade unions and professional associations.
This is illustrated for contrastive effect in Figure 17.1 below.

Figure 17.1
Unionism Professionalism Contrasts between
Stakeholders Members Clients, society unionism and
professionalism
Pay and working conditions Quality of services
Foci include
Member interests Collective improvement

The figure simplifies great complexity, for most trade unions and professional associations
partially cross-over in terms of their stakeholders and foci. The British Medical Association
(BMA) is an example of a very well-established professional association which articulates
the values and moral principles of the National Health Service whilst also defending the
material interests of its members. The Royal College of Nursing attempts the same but, as
with school teaching, lacks some of the status and cultural capital of the BMA.
In Scottish education, the distinction in functions is relatively clear, with the Educational
Institute of Scotland (EIS) having defended the employment interests of teachers since its
foundation in 1847. On the other hand, the General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS)
was founded in 1965 to register teachers, maintain professional standards and enhance
the quality of teaching on behalf of all stakeholders. Since 2012, GTCS has become fully

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476 Part 5 Deepening understanding

independent of government. There are, of course, some boundary negotiations between

the EIS and GTCS, but the two major teacher organisations are broadly complimentary.
In England, the situation is more complex. There are a number of trade unions and there
has been relatively little cooperation between them historically. Where one may focus on
working conditions, another may offer radical critiques of government policy and a third
may attempt more cross-over into professional concerns. Some have more members from
primary, secondary, further or independent sectors; and others cater for the particular circum-
stances of headteachers. As teacher unions compete for members, contributions to public
debates are often fragmented and it is hard for a positive public impression of the profession
to form. The establishment of a General Teaching Council for England (1998 to 2011)
was not fully endorsed by teacher unions which left it vulnerable to closure. The teaching
profession in England thus lacks a coherent, collective voice at present.
In Wales and Northern Ireland, their General Teaching Councils remain financially
vulnerable but are strategically of great importance as teaching continues its struggle
to establish itself as an esteemed profession. Perhaps a ‘Royal College of Teaching’ or
something comparable will be established in England. If this happens, then reflective
teachers with concerns for the quality of public services should, in principle, strongly
support it. A collective organisation to regulate and improve teaching quality and to
celebrate and promote teacher expertise is necessary in each country. This should
complement the workplace concerns of the unions.

1.2 Professionalism
Eric Hoyle (1974) first drew the powerful distinction between ‘restricted’ and ‘extended’
professionalism.
●● Restricted professionalism describes the competence underpinning core
effectiveness. Skills and perspectives are derived from immediate classroom
experience; and workplace learning occurs gradually, but largely passively.
Consideration of teaching methods tends to be private and personal autonomy
may be protected. Involvement in professional development is infrequent and each
teacher prefers to develop in his or her own way.
●● Extended professionalism envisages that skills and understanding are developed
from the interaction of practical experience and analysis, including theory; there is
awareness of social, economic and political contexts which impinge on education;
and workplace events are considered in relation to policies and overall educational
purposes. Teaching methods are shared with colleagues and reviewed in terms of
research-informed principles. High value is placed on professional collaboration
and on networking in sectoral or subject associations. Pedagogic repertoire and
subject knowledge are kept up to date in active, committed and open-minded ways.
These contrastive models of teacher professionalism still resonate. For example, a review
by Menter et al. (2010) for the Scottish Government used the restricted–extended spectrum
in summarising distinctions between four conceptions of professionalism (Reading 17.2).
This is summarised in Figure 17.2:

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 Chapter 17 Professionalism 477

Figure 17.2
Restricted professionalism Extended professionalism Models of teacher
professionalism
The effective teacher The reflective The enquiring The transformative and practice
teacher teacher teacher

Menter and his colleagues suggested that models of the ‘effective teacher’ have been
favoured by many governments for the last 30 years and linked to the establishment of
‘standards’ to which teachers are expected to conform. National systems of quality control
can thus be established. However, whilst these are necessary, they may not be sufficient.
Extended professional models are promoted in many teacher education programmes
because of their intrinsic support for innovation and improvement in practice. For
example, the GTC for Northern Ireland sets competences for ‘Teaching: the Reflective
Profession’ (GTC NI, 2007, Reading 17.3) and Scotland’s Code of Professionalism and
Conduct (2012) resonates across the spectrum. A related point about the need for expert
teachers, and thus for training which combines theory and practice, was made by an inter-
national panel reviewing teacher education for the Government of Ireland (Sahlberg et al.,
2012, Reading 17.4).
It seems that there is a broad tension here. Many teachers are committed to the concept
of ‘extended professionalism’ and appreciate the trust and esteem which are enjoyed by
colleagues in countries such as Finland. But some governments, despite their protestations
that teachers are extremely important, are not yet prepared to really support the full devel-
opment of the profession. There remains, as Onora O’Neill argued in her Reith Lectures
(2002), a crisis of trust in those who provide public services. It is clear from international
evidence that this will have to change if overall standards of attainment are to improve.
In particular, new relational models of accountability are needed, which recognise mutual
responsibilities at all levels of the system (see GTC E, 2011, Reading 5.5). Teachers really
do matter. Extended professionalism, with its capacity for intelligent innovation, is the
foundation of high-quality education in the modern world.

Reflective activity 17.1

Aim: To consider aspirations for our professional development as a teacher.
Evidence and reflection: Read Sally Power’s short article on the ‘Imaginative
Professional’ (Reading 17.5) which draws attention to a distinction between ‘private
troubles’ and ‘public issues’. To what extent are you able to identify public issues
underlying particular challenges in your professional experience? Share and discuss
these with colleagues.
Now consider how your personal and professional development might be facilitated,
bearing in mind your circumstances. Strategically review, in other words, the
possibilities for your future biography in the light of your work context and the period
of history you happen to be living through.
Extension: Is there scope for becoming proactive, in seeking to contribute to policies or
practices in your school, or in relation to external policies and practices? How might
this be taken forward?

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2 Education and society

Education has very often been seen as a means of influencing the development of societies.
Two major questions have to be faced.
●● What should an education system be designed to do?
●● What can actually be achieved through education?
We will address these in turn and draw out some implications for reflective teachers.

2.1 What should an education system be

designed to do?
The discussion below is structured in terms of five areas in which education has broad
social significance (see Chapter 9 for a related discussion of educational aims). These areas
of significance are:
●● wealth creation
●● cultural reproduction
●● social justice
●● individual rights
●● environmental sustainability.
Wealth creation. One national priority for education is to contribute to economic goals.
For instance, in the latter part of the industrial revolution in Great Britain, an important part
of the argument for the establishment of an elementary school system was that it should
provide a workforce which was more skilled and thus more economically productive. The
idea became the linchpin of ‘human capital’ theory in the 1960s (Schultz, 1961) and many
new nations, influenced by analyses such as Rostow’s The Stages of Economic Growth
(1962), put scarce resources into their education systems. The economics of education is
still a flourishing area of policy and research.
In Britain, the links between education and economic productivity are constantly being
drawn by governments, with particular attention to the standard of basic and vocational
skills achieved in schools and to the proportion of young people acquiring advanced
knowledge and skills in higher education. This aspiration has provided a rationale for
education reforms for several decades – in good times and bad. For example, a Secretary
of State for Education for England stated:

Far from difficult economic times being a reason to scale down our ambitions, the economic
challenges we face are a reason to accelerate our reform programme. Already China
and India are turning out more engineers, more computer scientists and more university
graduates than the whole of Europe and America combined. And the success of other
nations in harnessing their intellectual capital is a function of their determination to develop
world-beating education systems. (Michael Gove, speech to the National College, June 2010)

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 Chapter 17 Professionalism 479

As this example illustrates, concern for economic competitiveness has been fuelled by
international comparisons between pupil achievement in Britain and that in other countries
– most notably those in the Pacific Rim (e.g. Reynolds and Farrell, 1996; Oates, 2010).
The inference which is often drawn from such work is that British education is deficient
in some way. For example, following publication of the Reynolds and Farrell study,
‘interactive whole-class teaching’ became a top priority in England, for this appeared to
be the pedagogy which was contributing to pupil success and educational achievement
in countries such as Singapore and Taiwan. Following publication of Oates’s report, the
National Curriculum was reviewed to ‘sequence core knowledge’ in the same way as high
performing countries. It is very worthwhile to study other countries, and understanding
about effective teaching and learning is accumulating globally as TLRP’s principles
indicate in Chapter 4 (see also Hattie, 2009, Reading 4.6), but the economic imperative
sometimes seems to alarm governments and leads to rather simplistic policy borrowing.
Cultural reproduction. Alternatively, there are those who would highlight the
‘function’ of education in the production and reproduction of a national culture.
Use of an education system for the production of a sense of shared national identity
is common in many parts of the world, particularly where states have been established
relatively recently or are growing rapidly. For example, in the US through much of the
twentieth century, the country was required to ‘assimilate’ and ‘integrate’ successive
groups of new immigrants into an ‘American culture’. The education system was seen as
a vital part of the ‘melting pot’. Of course, a highly questionable assumption here was that
there was a single American culture, but the notion of the existence of a set of ‘central
values’ was important in this period of the development of the US. Pre-existing identities
may be diminished by such use of education to develop or assert a national culture, and
these costs are usually borne by minority or less powerful groups. The historical case of
the education provided in the colonies of the British Empire provides a particularly graphic
example of this last point (Mangan, 1993).
Following UK devolution, the unique culture and history of Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland has been increasingly prominent. For example, the people of Wales
preserve an important part of their culture through the teaching of Welsh in their schools,
but, at the same time, their education system inducts Welsh children into the culture of
the United Kingdom. In the unique position of Northern Ireland, the education system
reflects strong historic and cultural links to England, but also looks towards the Republic
of Ireland with its own independent traditions. Scotland, with its exceptional educational
and political history, is wrestling to settle its position in relation to England, the UK and
European Union – with echoes in its national Curriculum for Excellence. In England too,
debates about the curriculum often touch on the presence or otherwise of iconic cultural
elements. This can be traced back to influence of Arnold (1889) who helped to define the
classical curriculum that remains influential today. Indeed, study of Shakespeare and key
episodes in English history were deemed essential in the initial 1988 construction of the
National Curriculum, and they remain prominent.
Schools also have direct connections to the specific communities in which they are
located and to the families from which pupils come. This is reflected in unique decisions
on curricular priorities and in local adaption of national curricular requirements. Such

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tailoring of provision is designed to build on and extend existing learner experiences and
understandings. These, of course, reflect the culture, language and funds of knowledge of
each family and community (see Thomas, 2010, Reading 10.4).
Education thus plays a part in producing and reproducing culture at each of these levels,
and schools have a unique role in managing the formative processes where local cultures
and national expectations first meet.
Social justice. Contributing to social justice is a third central purpose which is often
identified for education systems. This concern influenced the 1944 Education Act as
applied to England, Wales and Northern Ireland and also, following disappointment in
the divisions of grammar and secondary modern schools, the subsequent expansion of
comprehensive schools from 1965. The issue features prominently in the educational
goals which are set by many countries in Europe and across the world (for example, see
the UN Millennium Development Goal to ‘ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere will
be able to complete a full course of primary schooling’). One critical point to make is that
‘equality of opportunity’ and the meritocratic ideal, which often lie behind policies on
this issue, are concepts which are vulnerable to rhetoric. There is a significant difference
between articulating a concern, and really contributing to change. Paulo Freire, who was
internationally recognised for his advocacy of a ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ (Freire,
2000), also insisted on this need to face the structural inequalities of wealth, status and
power which exist. If such issues are glossed, then the promotion of social justice through
education policy is very unlikely to be successful.
A key issue remains the tail of underachievement which tragically affects almost 20
per cent of young people (see Chapter 5, Section 1.3). This phenomenon has been recog-
nised and studied for many years. For example, Rutter and Madge published their classic
analysis of ‘cycles of disadvantage’ in 1976. The Centre for Wider Benefits of Learning
has shown how underperformance can be identified in infancy which grows year on year
so that trajectories can be mapped and, sadly, predicted (Feinstein et al., 2008, Reading 1.6).
Twenty-five per cent of children from poor backgrounds do not meet expected attainment
at the end of primary, compared with just 3 per cent of pupils from affluent circumstances;
and 20 per cent of young people do not achieve five good GCSEs. There is no shortage of
knowledge about this phenomenon (Cabinet Office, 2011). At the root of such problems
is the extent of inequality within UK societies. Wilkinson and Pickett’s (2009) brilliant
analysis of ‘why more equal societies almost always do better’ is just the latest research to
demonstrate the fundamental influence of cycles of advantage and disadvantage.
The concern for social justice through education can partly be seen as a desire to
ensure that there is a legitimated system for fulfilling potential, certifying capabilities and
allocating jobs in democratic societies, and thus for facilitating social mobility based on
merit. However, we know too, that there are severe limits on the effectiveness of education
in eroding structural inequalities.
However, having recognised the structural realities, we should also affirm that
education can change lives and that futures cannot be entirely pre-determined. Indeed,
learning depends on the quality of talk and interaction far more that on wealth itself – it’s
just that patterns do tend to emerge. Commitment to social justice is likely to remain very
important.

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Individual rights. As we saw in Chapter 9, supporting the personal development of

pupils is a fundamental educational objective for teachers. In relation to ‘education and
society’, this commitment is underpinned by international understanding about human
rights.
Formal conventions on human rights were developed after the tragic experiences of the
Second World War, and are thus based on deep and principled understanding of the need
for moral and ethical standards (see Council of Europe, 1985, Reading 17.6). They still
frame international law and set principles for the behaviour of governments and others in
contemporary societies.
A clear exposition of the relationship between social structures and individual opportu-
nities is contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations, 1948).
Article 1 of the Declaration states that:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience.

These rights are to be enjoyed, according to Article 2:

Without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

There then follow many articles dealing with rights and fundamental freedoms of
movement, thought, religion, assembly, political participation, work, leisure and an
adequate standard of living.
The implications for education of these provisions are made explicit in Article 26. It
asserts that:

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the
strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial and religious groups.

Education was expected to have a crucial role in the dissemination of the UN Declaration
across the world, for the document was to be ‘displayed, read and expanded principally in
schools and other educational institutions’ in all member states.
Needless to say, the achievement of social justice and individual rights for all citizens
remains a noble and appropriate goal. However, it is one which will probably always be
with us for, as discussed earlier in this chapter, it is optimistic to think that educational
provision alone can overcome structural inequalities in society. Indeed the necessity of
adopting a United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 underlines that
fact. The general principles of the Convention focus on providing equal treatment, the
child’s best interests and giving appropriate weight to the views of the child.
The Human Rights Act 1998 is the most significant UK legislation because it incorpo-
rates the European Convention on Human Rights into British law. The struggle to establish
and maintain human rights may never be entirely overcome, but teachers, through their
daily work, have tangible opportunities to make a difference to the lives of their pupils
(Osler and Starkey, 2010).

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Environmental sustainability. This educational goal does not have the historical
record of the other four, and yet appears to be crucial for the survival of life as we know
it. Global warming develops inexorably and appears to be having significant effects on
weather, sea levels, flora and fauna – and thence on food supply, energy policies, health
and transport, housing, etc. Although politicians demonstrate concern and have established
goals for carbon reduction, large scale and sustained action has not been taken across all
dimensions of contemporary societies.
When this happens, it is likely that education will be required to give more promi-
nence to environmental education so that the next generation can be better prepared
for the future. This is already happening in some countries. For example, New Zealand
expresses its educational vision in terms of ‘young people who will seize the oppor-
tunities offered by new knowledge and technologies to secure a sustainable social,
cultural, economic and environmental future for our country’ (New Zealand Ministry of
Education, 2012).
Education policies and systems can thus be designed to emphasise economic production,
cultural reproduction, social justice and individual rights. In the future, environmental
sustainability may also become a high priority. Whilst such goals are not necessarily
conflicting, various tensions and dilemmas are often posed. One obvious issue concerns
the rights of minority groups to maintain an independent culture and sense of identity
within a majority culture. Another is the dilemma between the demands of individual
development and those of economic production – or, indeed, of environmental sustain-
ability. We raised such value concerns in Chapter 3 and argued that a reflective teacher
should make informed and responsible judgements about them. The ways in which action
might follow will be discussed further below.
We now move on to the second question: ‘What can actually be achieved through
education?’

2.2 What can actually be achieved through

education?
There has been a long running debate on this topic. Some people, such as Coleman, Coser
and Powell (1966), Jenks et al. (1972) and Bowles and Gintis (1976), have argued that
education can make little difference to social development. Although coming to the issue
from different theoretical perspectives, they argue that educational processes reflect and
reproduce major features of existing society, particularly with regard to distinctions related
to social class. The suggestion is that relationships of power, wealth, status and ideology
are such that education should be seen as a part of the dominant social system, rather than
as an autonomous force within it.
Others, such as Berger and Luckman (1967), may be seen as taking a more idealistic
theoretical position. They argue that, since our sense of reality is ‘socially constructed’
by people as they interact together, there is, therefore, scope for individuals to make an
independent impact on the course of future social development. For a tangible example,

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the consequences of the agreements on Human Rights could be considered within schools
and classrooms, as suggested by Osler and Starkey (2010). Thus there is potential for
education to influence change.
We have here the competing positions of those who believe in social determinism
ranged against those who believe in individual voluntarism. As we have already seen,
education is very often expected to bring about social and economic developments and it is
an area which tends to attract idealists. However, we also have to recognise that the major
structural features of societies are extremely resistant to change. What is needed then is
a theoretical position which recognises the importance of action and of constraint. Such
a position would accept that education has a degree of relative autonomy and would thus
legitimate action by individuals to contribute to future social development.
Such a theoretical framework is provided by what we call the dialectic of the individual
and society (see Chapter 4 for a full discussion and, in particular, Reading 5.1). As Berlak
and Berlak (1981) put it:

Conscious creative activity is limited by prevailing social arrangements, but human actions
and institutional forms are not mere reflections of them. (1981, p. 121)

The clear implication is that people can make their own impact and history but must do so
in whatever circumstances they find themselves. If this theoretical framework is adopted,
social developments can be seen as the product of processes of struggle and contest
between different individuals and groups in society. Such processes are ones in which
education must, inevitably, play a part.
Our answer to the question of what education can actually achieve must thus be based
on a guarded and realistic optimism – as Power suggests, we need ‘the imaginative
professional’ (2008, Reading 17.5). The dialectical model of the influence of individuals
and social structures recognises constraints but asserts that action remains possible. This
places a considerable responsibility on a reflective teacher whose professional work is both
shaped by, and contributes to, society.

3 Classroom teaching and society

As we have seen, one implication of the adoption of a dialectical model of the relationship
between individuals and society is that it highlights the possible consequences, for the
‘macro’ world of society, of actions, experiences and processes which take place in the
‘micro’ world of the classroom. In Chapter 3, we raised this issue with the assertion that
‘reflective teaching implies an active concern with aims and consequences as well as
with technical efficiency’ and we must pick up the themes again here. One of the most
important issues concerns the influence of a reflective teacher’s own value commitments.
In Chapter 3, Section 2.1, we argued that reflective teachers should accept democrati-
cally determined decisions but should act both as responsible professionals and as
autonomous citizens to contribute to such decision-making processes. The ‘imaginative-
professional’ (Power, 2008, Reading 17.5) is called for.

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We also suggested that attitudes of ‘open-mindedness’ and ‘responsibility’ are essential

attributes. Open-mindedness involves a willingness to consider evidence and argument
from whatever source it comes. It is thus the antithesis of closure and of habituated or
ideological thinking.
Focusing on English examples, there is a link between these attributes and the provi-
sions of the National Curriculum for personal, social, moral and health education (PSME)
and citizenship. Children and young people can thus be encouraged through the formal
curriculum to review both their personal agency and the social processes that underpin
society. They may also be introduced to global issues. The rationale for this provision
relates to the development of children’s responsibilities in a liberal democracy.
The development of Human Rights’ legislation also reinforced the importance of
citizenship. In a recommendation to all member states of the European Union, the Council
of Ministers reaffirmed the understandings embodied in the United Nations’ Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention of Human Rights (Council of
Europe, 1985, Reading 17.6). The Council suggested that study in schools should ‘lead to
an understanding of, and sympathy for, the concepts of justice, equality, freedom, peace,
dignity, rights and democracy’. Osler and Starkey (2007) claim that the United Nations’
Declaration is accepted as a worldwide moral standard and that fundamental freedoms are
what make effective political democracies possible. Importantly, since 1998, the principles
underlying these declarations have been incorporated into the UK’s Human Rights Act.
These are seen as being fundamental to democratic societies, and all schools, including
those for young children, are encouraged to introduce them to their pupils and to develop
their understanding (Osler and Starkey, 2010). Additionally, the adoption of the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) has considerable significance for practice in
schools. Beck (1998) reminds us of the enormous influence of Marshall and Bottomore’s
1950 classic, Citizenship and Social Class (1992). In particular, they set out a number
of freedoms – entitlement to welfare, free education and health – which are seen as the
essence of the social element of citizenship.
Yet, the political context of recent years suggests that there are some tensions and
contradictions. For instance, in England, at the same time as government rhetoric has
praised teacher autonomy and the exercise of judgement, the professional work of
teachers has continued to be structured centrally, with strong curricular prescription,
inspection procedures and sanctions to ensure compliance. Unfortunately, successive
governments have not yet understood that teachers should be treated as active, thinking,
value-driven professionals with whom partnerships to develop the educational system
should be created. At times, indeed, teachers were cast as the core ‘problem’ (HMCI,
1995). This point is illustrated by evidence from the Primary Assessment Curriculum
and Experience (PACE) project, which explored the impact of the introduction of the
National Curriculum from as far back as 1988. A major conclusion was that changes in
curriculum, assessment and pedagogy were mishandled in many ways because of the
lack of sincere attempts to work with teachers (Osborn et al., 2000; Pollard et al., 2000).
From 1997, Labour governments maintained similar policies, with the result being that
there was considerable professional disengagement, with retirement, recruitment and
retention problems. From 2010 the Coalition Government maintained constraint, albeit

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with its own particular priorities ranging from ‘core knowledge’ to synthetic phonics and
examination changes.
We can thus see that the relationship between teacher and society in England has
dramatically changed since the inception of the National Curriculum following the
Education Reform Act of 1988. From a position of some public esteem and professional
recognition, could the role of the teacher now simply be cast as being to comply with
centrally defined frameworks? Perhaps not, but as Simco (2000) argues, there is a danger
that acceptance of compliance could eventually lead to the teaching profession retreating
from consideration of aims, values and their associated pedagogies. This would be deeply
damaging, for engagement with underpinning values remains essential to the moral
foundations of teaching as a professional vocation. Nor should we ever forget how policy
is actually created, and the influence that remains with teachers. As Bowe and Ball with
Gold (1992, Reading 17.7) argue, policy is not formed solely through political struggles
and through the construction of legislation and official documents. Its operational reality is
formed in the ‘context of practice’ – where it is often reformulated and ‘mediated’ through
the application of professional judgement (see also Osborn, McNess and Broadfoot, 2000;
Chapter 3, Section 2.7).
Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales and England are developing in increasingly distinctive
ways and providing some important contrasts as, indeed, does the Republic of Ireland. The
basic truth is that, whatever a government may attempt to determine, there are some conten-
tious issues in education that cannot be avoided. In addition to questions about educational
outcomes and standards, these include issues concerning individual dignity, equality and
freedom, and the influence of sexism, racism and other forms of discrimination based on
social class, age, disability or sexual orientation. These are issues upon which, we would
argue, children have rights that socially responsible teachers should not compromise. We
take this to constitute a ‘bottom line’, a value commitment to the fundamental rights of
citizens in a democratic society and a necessary underpinning for a reflective professional.

4 Reflective teaching and the democratic process

In our discussion of ‘reflective teaching’ (see Chapter 3), we suggested that, in addition to
professional responsibilities to implement democratically determined decisions, teachers
as citizens also have responsibilities to act to influence the nature of such decisions.
Teachers have rights and it is perfectly reasonable that they should be active in contrib-
uting to the formation of public policy. In terms of Bowe, Ball and Gold’s model (1992,
Reading 17.7), this is about teacher engagement in the ‘context of influence’. The role, as
Sachs (2003) suggested, is close to that of the activist, and the methods to be utilised are
those which have been well developed in recent years by a variety of pressure groups.
There are seven basic elements of successful pressure group activity:
1 Demystifying the democratic process
2 Identifying decision makers

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3 Preparing the case

4 Forming alliances
5 Managing the media
6 Lobbying decision-makers
7 Following up.
An exceptional example of pressure group activity in recent years was the campaign
orchestrated by the Cambridge Primary Review in England. This was founded on the
discontent of many primary school educators with the degree of state control to which they
had been subject. The National Curriculum prescribed what to teach and National Strategies
told them how to teach. Standardised assessment tests (SATs) measured pupil performance
whilst the inspection regime held schools to account. The groundswell of concern from
phase-based associations was strong. These included NPT (the National Primary Trust),
NPH (the National Primary Headteachers), NAPE (the National Association for Primary
Education), ASPE (the National Association for the Study of Primary Education), NaPTEC
(the National Primary Teacher Education Conference) and CASE (the Campaign for the
Advancement of State Education). Professional associations such as the National Union
of Teachers (NUT), National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers
(NASUWT) and Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL) were also extremely active,
though the most influential in recent years had probably been the National Association of
Head Teachers (NAHT).
The Cambridge Primary Review team was able to harvest, shape and represent a lot of
this concern (Alexander et al., 2010). They obtained funding from an educational charity,
consulted in meetings with practitioners across the country, liaised with stakeholder
organisations and commissioned reviews of research evidence on a structured range of
contemporary topics. These strategies legitimated the voice which they were then able
to articulate. Journalistic help was recruited and press releases were issued on a wide
range of issues and with considerable success in securing coverage. Civil servants were
consulted on proposals as they emerged and lobbying took place of politicians in both the
government and opposition parties. This was just as well as the Labour government fell in
May 2010, soon after publication of the review report. The Coalition government appeared
to be better disposed to the basic thrust of the review. In particular, it was claimed that the
extent of state control of schools and of professional practice was to be rolled back. Whilst
this headline outcome was consistent with the proposals of the Review, it is noticeable that
other aspects of the education policies of the Coalition showed disregard for the evidence
and stakeholder opinion which had been marshalled. Perhaps at this point the Review’s
proposals were too complex, put too stridently, or just inconsistent with the predilection
of Ministers – it is hard to tell.
The review delivered a coherent message about an issue of widespread professional
and public concern. It was timely in publishing its findings in the run up to an election,
and it made many proposals which were broadly consistent with the stated policies of an
incoming government. However, where the politicians wished for other outcomes, the
review was quietly bypassed.

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This example suggests that there is both luck, judgement and vulnerability in pressure
group activity and that, whilst some things may be achieved, compromises often have to
be accepted. Even with significant resources and expertise, it also sometimes appears to
be an uphill struggle to get decision-makers to simply understand all the dimensions of
important educational issues. However, when the dust settled in England, the work of the
Cambridge Primary Review was significant – not least by establishing conditions for the
National Curriculum Review which followed it (DfE, 2011) and the policy development
of opposition parties.
Pressure group activity and collective action by individuals can thus both bring about
new policy priorities and lead to a reappraisal of existing positions. This is an essential
feature of democratic decision-making and we would suggest that reflective teachers have
both the right and responsibility to contribute to such processes. Reflective activity 17.2
suggests learning about these processes by studying in depth a single example of political
activity and decision-making.

Reflective activity 17.2

Aim: To investigate processes of political activity and decision-making with regard to
an educational issue.
Evidence and reflection: A necessary basic strategy here is to focus on one issue and to
trace the debates in the media and elsewhere. This could helpfully be undertaken
with colleagues so that the workload is shared. The issue could be local or national.
Newspapers provide useful sources of easily retrievable information. Some, such as
The Times, publish an index and this is particularly helpful. The BBC and Guardian’s
websites are also particularly good.
Having gathered a variety of statements about the issue in question, an attempt should
be made to classify them so that the competing positions are identified. From this
point, it may be possible to gather policy statements directly from the participants, by
letter, discussion, interview or library search.
Finally, the decision-point can be studied. Were the public arguments influential? What
interests seem to have prevailed when decisions were taken?
Extension: Having studied an example of political influence on decision-making,
it is worth taking stock of what has been learned. Did you feel that the debate
reflected appropriate educational concerns? Could educationalists have made more
constructive contributions?

We are conscious, though, that this is a book which is primarily designed to support student
teachers during periods of school-based work and that activities to influence wider policies
may seem inappropriate. We include them because such activity is a logical consequence
of taking extended professionalism and reflective teaching seriously – and because some
preparation for such activity is perfectly possible before taking up a full time teaching post.
One of the most important aspects of this is to demystify the democratic process itself and
we will make various suggestions on this and with regard to the seven elements of pressure

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group activity which we have identified. These might be followed up by small groups of
students or teachers, perhaps by taking an educational issue as a case study, or indeed, by
facing a real current issue.

4.1 Demystifying the democratic process

There is a tendency to regard decision-making as something done by ‘them’ – an ill
defined, distant and amorphous body. In fact, decisions in democracies are taken by elected
representatives. The connection between the ordinary citizen and decision makers can thus
be much more close, direct and personal.
Some possible ways forward here include visiting a relevant meeting of your local or
regional council, assembly or parliament. For example, council committee meetings are
normally open to the public and attendance at an Education Committee meeting is likely
to be very interesting to reflective teachers. Alternatively, you could write to or make an
appointment with your local elected representative. Discuss their views on educational issues
and get them to explain the constraints and pressures within which they serve. Or, even more
locally, you could ask to attend a meeting of the governing body of your school. You could
note who the governors are and enquire about their powers in relation to the affairs of your
school. Consider the potential for partnership between teachers and governors.

4.2 Identifying decision-makers

Lists of elected representatives, such MPs, MSPs, Assembly Members and Councillors,
are normally available in local libraries, official offices and on the internet. It is then
necessary to identify those who have a particular interest in education and those who
have a particular degree of influence over decisions. Lists of members with an interest in
education from the education committee of your council or national parliament will be
helpful. The names of school governors will be available in your school.
It is also often appropriate to identify the leaders of political groups and those who speak
on education issues. In addition, the chair of the Finance Committee on a local council
or Treasury Ministers in government are likely to be worth picking out – depending, of
course, on the issue under consideration.
A further group to identify is the education officers, civil servants and special advisers
who advise decision-makers and implement many decisions. They can be extremely
influential.

4.3 Preparing the case

It is essential to prepare a case well. This requires at least three things:
●● appropriate factual information about the issue;
●● good educational arguments in support of whatever is being advocated;
●● an understanding of the interests and political circumstances affecting those whom
it is hoped to influence.

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A great deal of factual information can be gathered from the internet by visiting the
websites of national, regional or local government agencies and through discussion
facilities, blogs and social media. Face-to-face discussion should be sought with people
who are be involved locally with the issue under consideration. Sources within your
school should be one starting-point. Newspapers also offer a regular source of reports
and comment on educational developments and can be monitored for relevant material. If
possible, it is worth checking key facts from a number of sources.
To develop coherent educational arguments, the research literature is an important
resource (see the suggestions on reflectiveteaching.co.uk). Almost all significant educational
topics have been researched at some time, and there is much to learn from the experience
of others. Of course, one would certainly wish to discuss the issues under consideration
with colleagues, and to build a really secure understanding.
Regarding the interests of those whom one wishes to influence, a good place to start
is with any published policy statements or manifestos. This could be followed up by
discussion and by making judgements regarding the pressures and constraints that they
face.

4.4 Forming alliances

Representative democracy is designed as a system which links decision-making with the
views of a majority. It follows that the most successful type of campaigning is likely to be
one which is broadly based – one which is produced by an alliance of interested parties
bringing concerted pressure to bear on policymakers.
Reflective teachers may thus wish to act with others if and when they wish to influence
public policy. Obvious places to look for allies are: other colleagues, perhaps through
sectoral or subject associations, trade unions or the General Teaching Councils; parents
and the importance of parental support cannot be overestimated; other workers in the
public services; local community and interest groups who may be directly or indirectly
affected by the issues under consideration; and existing national pressure groups such as
those listed earlier in this section.

4.5 Managing the media

Important issues here include: clarifying, very clearly indeed, your key message; carrying
out a review of the types of media which might be interested in educational issues (press,
radio, television, etc.); holding discussions with people who have had experience of
managing publicity to learn from them; carrying out an analysis of the types of stories or
news that each media outlet is likely to be interested in and, crucially, of the ways in which
they are likely to handle educational issues; considering the timing constraints that appro-
priate media outlets face; holding discussions with selected journalists to get first-hand
knowledge of their concerns; preparing press releases and considering suitable images
for photographic or filming purposes; and identifying and supporting a spokesperson for
press follow-up.

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4.6 Lobbying decision-makers

There are any number of possibilities here ranging from discrete lobbying, discussion and
letter writing, through to petitions, media campaigns and demonstrations. However, it is
important to remember that not many politicians enjoy being forced to change course, but
most are open to persuasion if they have not previously taken up a hard, public position.

4.7 Following up
There is no mystery here. If agreement for changes in policy or practice is reached, it is
simply necessary to check that the agreement is enacted. One might, for instance, be alert
to the possibility of policies being ‘watered down’ as attention moves onto new issues.

Conclusion
Education is inevitably concerned not just with ‘what is’ but also with what ‘ought to be’
(Kogan, 1978). We hope that this book will help teachers and student teachers to develop
not only the necessary skills of teaching but also the awareness and commitment which
will ensure their contribution as extended and imaginative professionals in the future.

Key readings
Many of the books suggested as further reading for Chapters 3 and 5 will also be
relevant here.

An excellent overview of key dimensions of professionalism, including a paper by Sally

Power on ‘the imaginative professional’ (Reading 17.5) is:
Cunningham, B. (ed.) (2008) Exploring Professionalism. London: Institute of
Education.

Eric Hoyle’s classic paper on restricted and extended professionalism can be found in:
Hoyle, E. and Megarry, J. (2005) World Yearbook of Education 1980: The
Professional Development of Teachers. London: Routledge.

For a historically contextualised account of the development of teachers’ professional

agency, see:
McCullough, G., Helsby, G. and Knight, P. (2000) The Politics of Professionalism:
Teachers and the Curriculum. London: Continuum.

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 Chapter 17 Professionalism 491

On the structural relationships between education and society, with fascinating

comparative and historical dimensions, see:
Archer, M. (1979) The Social Origins of Educational Systems. London: SAGE.
(Reading 17.1)

Interconnections between social structures and pedagogic practices are illustrated in the
work of Paolo Freire, such as:
Freire, P. (2000) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. London: Continuum.

Stenhouse continues to have much to teach us on the role of the teacher in a democracy
and Sachs continues and extends the tradition. Wrigley et al. demonstrate what is
possible in schools across the world:
Sachs, J. (2003) The Activist Teaching Profession. Buckingham: Open University
Press.
Stenhouse, L. (1983) Authority, Education and Emancipation. London: Heinemann.
Wrigley, J., Thompson, P. and Lingard, R. (eds) (2012) Changing Schools: Alternative
Ways to Make a World of Difference. London: Routledge.

The United Nations Convention on Children’s Rights is an important international

statement. For an excellent account of both it and its implications for the UK, see:
Newell, P. (1991) The UN Convention and Children’s Rights in the UK. London:
National Children’s Bureau.

For a child-focused account and more general guidance on Human Rights education, see:
Alderson, P. (2000) Young Children’s Rights. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Osler, A. and Starkey, H. (2010) Teachers and Human Rights Education. Stoke-on-
Trent: Trentham Books. (see also Reading 17.6)

For penetrating analyses of how education policy is created in government and may be
mediated by teachers, see:
Ball, S. J. (1994) Education Reform: A Critical and PostStructural Approach.
Buckingham: Open University Press. (see also Reading 17.7)
Ball, S. J., Maguire, M. and Braun, A. (2011) How Schools Do Policy: Policy
Enactments in Secondary Schools. London: Routledge.
Cunningham, P. (2011) Politics and the Primary Teacher. London: Routledge.

Action by reflective teachers within the democratic process calls for some knowledge of
political structures and processes. For an excellent UK overview, see:
Leyland, P. (2012) Constitution of the United Kingdom: A Contextual Analysis.
Oxford: Hart Publishing.

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492 Part 5 Deepening understanding

Of course, much of the philosophy which underpins this book as a whole was all set out
a century ago by John Dewey:
Dewey, J. (1916) Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of
Education. New York: Macmillan

reflectiveteaching.co.uk offers additional professional resources for this chapter. These may
include Further Reading, Reflective Activities, useful Web Links and Download Facilities
for diagrams, figures, checklists, activities.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Reflective activities

PART 1: BECOMING A REFLECTIVE PROFESSIONAL

1. Identity. Who are we, and what do we stand for?
1.1 To reflect on your own decision to become a teacher.
1.2 To compare your personal values with the statements developed by the Teaching
Councils.
1.3 To develop insight into our identity and work as a teacher.
1.4 To explore one of the features of ‘growing up’: the multiple and sometimes contra-
dictory expectations that different people have of children and young people.
1.5 To find out young people’s criteria for a ‘good teacher’.
1.6 To begin to construct a biographical understanding of a pupil.
1.7 To understand our perceptions of ‘pupils’.
1.8 To review the learning of a pupil in the light of Susan Hart’s Framework for
Innovative Thinking.

2. Learning. How can we understand learner development?

2.1 To consider the application of behaviourist, constructivist and social constructivist
psychology in classroom practice.
2.2 To evaluate the exercises taken by pupils in your class/es.
2.3 To monitor the use and abuse of concepts of ‘intelligence’.
2.4 To map the influence of culture on the learning disposition of a pupil.
2.5 To review and apply knowledge about factors affecting learning.

3. Reflection. How can we develop the quality of our teaching?

3.1 To review experienced dilemmas.
3.2 To explore how improvement can come from collecting evidence of our teaching.
3.3 To deepen collaboration with colleagues.

4. Principles. What are the foundations of effective teaching and learning?

4.1 To reflect on the moral purposes of education in relation to learner development.
4.2 To review TLRP’s principles on knowledge, prior learning, pedagogy and assessment.
4.3 To review TLRP’s principles on engagement, relationships and informal learning.
4.4 To consider the roles of teacher learning and public policy development in educa-
tional improvement.
494 Reflective activities

PART 2: CREATING CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

5. Contexts. What is, and what might be?
5.1 To review and explore the significance of ideology, culture, opportunity and
accountability.
5.2 To consider the meaning and significance of ‘agency’, both for teachers and for
learners.

6. Relationships. How are we getting on together?

6.1 To identify the overt and tacit content of classroom rules, routines and understandings.
6.2 To check that we are acting in ways which are regarded as being ‘fair’.
6.3 To gather information on how pupils feel about curricular activities which they
undertake in school.
6.4 To monitor and place in perspective our own feelings on classroom relationships.
6.5 To ‘measure’ overall classroom environment at a particular point of time.
6.6 To evaluate progress towards an inclusive classroom.

7. Engagement. How are we managing behaviour?

7.1 To understand pupil behavior in our classroom circumstances.
7.2 To explore and understand a school’s policies and practices with regard to behaviour
management.
7.3 To review the repertoire of strategies for managing behaviour which we typically
use.
7.4 To investigate one’s classroom management skills.
7.5 To evaluate the beginning of a session and to consider areas for improvement.
7.6 To monitor periods of transition in your own teaching.
7.7 To review the end of a session and identify areas for improvement.
7.8 To monitor responses to a classroom crisis.

8. Spaces. How are we creating environments for learning?

8.1 To plan the resources to support specific learning activities.
8.2 To produce a classroom plan.
8.3 To evaluate routine activities to maximising time for teaching and learning.
8.4 To monitor an individual pupil to estimate active learning time.
8.5 To evaluate the variety of learning objectives, tasks and activities, and the extent to
which they engage pupils.
8.6 To consider the affordances and constraints of a particular piece of software.
8.7 To consider the pros and cons of group working.

PART 3: TEACHING FOR LEARNING

9. Curriculum. What is to be taught and learned?
9.1 To examine statements of aims and values presented in National Curriculum and
school documentation.
9.2 To consider the influence of views of knowledge on a part of a national or school
curriculum.

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 Reflective activities 495

9.3 To consider knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes in planned schemes of work.
9.4 To consider the idea of transformations when preparing to teach.

10. Planning. How are we implementing the curriculum?

10.1 To consider the quality of activities in schemes of work.
10.2 To explore the extent to which sharing learning intentions or success criteria influ-
ences feelings of engagement for pupils.
10.3 To structure teaching and learning in a curriculum area.
10.4 To evaluate the stimulus and variety of tasks and activities.
10.5 To review existing lesson planning.
10.6 To evaluate a teaching session with particular reference to the appropriate appli-
cation of subject knowledge.

11. Pedagogy. How can we develop effective teaching strategies?

11.1 To identify aspects of the craft, art and science of pedagogy in our own teaching.
11.2 To reflect from a learner’s perspective on aspects of a teacher’s pedagogy.
11.3 To explore how principles about pedagogy relate to our own planning and teaching.

12. Communication. How does use of language support learning?

12.1 To investigate who speaks and how much during a lesson.
12.2 To identify question and response patterns in a lesson.
12.3 To analyse and categorise an example of classroom talk.
12.4 To reflect on what messages we, as teachers, communicate about reading to
learners.
12.5 To compare and contrast the writing and reading expectations in the lessons of two
different teachers.

13. Assessment. How can assessment enhance learning?

13.1 To apply principled reflection to putative assessment for learning practices.
13.2 To reflect on the influence of beliefs and related assessment practices on learner
identity and self-efficacy.
13.3 To identify aspects of feedback and marking practice to improve.
13.4 To support pupil development as autonomous self-regulating learners.
13.5 To reflect on the ways in which teachers aid learning through minute-by-minute and
lesson-by-lesson adjustments.

PART 4: REFLECTING ON CONSEQUENCES

14. Outcomes. How do we monitor student learning achievements?
14.1 To consider the bases of comparison used in learning and teaching.
14.2 To highlight dilemmas between construct validity and reliability.
14.3 To investigate the danger that high-stakes assessment distorts curriculum
provision.
14.4 To obtain direct evidence of pupils’ feelings about routine assessment.
14.5 To identify information about the children which it is important to know and record.

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496 Reflective activities

14.6 To develop an informative and constructive procedure for reporting to parents.

15. Inclusion. How are we enabling learning opportunities?

15.1 To reflect on understandings of learner diversity.
15.2 To reflect on our understanding of inclusive education and on our provision for some
or all of the learners in the class.
15.3 To explore school policy and provision for learners identified as having special or
additional needs, and to reflect on their implications for classroom practice.
15.4 To reflect on how far, and in what ways, our classroom practices support all learners
including those identified as having special or additional needs.
15.5 To reflect on inclusive pedagogy and its classroom application.

PART 5: DEEPENING UNDERSTANDING

16. Expertise. Conceptual tools for career-long fascination?
16.1 To review national aspirations and consequential links between curriculum breadth,
pedagogy principles and congruent assessment.
16.2 To explore using the conceptual framework to reflect on professional expertise.

17. Professionalism. How does reflective teaching contribute to society?

17.1 To consider aspirations for our professional development as a teacher.
17.2 To investigate processes of political activity and decision-making with regard to an
educational issue.

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List of case studies,
checklists, figures
and research
briefings

PART 1: BECOMING A REFLECTIVE PROFESSIONAL

1. Identity. Who are we, and what do we stand for?
Figure 1.1 Professional values as articulated by the General Teaching Councils
of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and the Department for
Education, England (2013)
Figure 1.2 Year 7 friendship groups
Figure 1.3 Perspectives of Year 7 friendship groups
Figure 1.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Figure 1.5 A framework for innovative thinking
Figure 1.6 Social influences on learners through a school career
Figure 1.7 Mediating mechanisms for achievement of the wider benefits of
learning
Research Briefing Teacher careers and effectiveness
Research Briefing Consulting pupils about teaching and learning

2. Learning. How can we understand learner development?

Figure 2.1 Development, experience and curriculum
Figure 2.2 A behaviourist model of roles in the teaching–learning process
Figure 2.3 A constructivist model of roles in the teaching–learning process
Figure 2.4 A social constructivist model of roles in the teaching–learning process
Figure 2.5 Some features of behaviourist, constructivist and social constructivist
models of learning in school classrooms
Figure 2.6 Everyday language embodying labelling
Figure 2.7 Sally and Andrew illustrate ‘mastery’ and ‘helplessness’ in learning
Figure 2.8 Risk, boredom and motivation
498 List of case studies, checklists, figures and research briefings

Figure 2.9 Factors affecting learning engagement

Figure 2.10 Two metaphors for learning
Research Briefing Education and neuroscience

3. Reflection. How can we develop the quality of our teaching?

Figure 3.1 The spiral of professional development
Figure 3.2 Common dilemmas faced by teachers
Figure 3.3 Evidence-informed practice
Figure 3.4 Regulations for the education of pupil teachers, 1846
Figure 3.5 The process of reflective teaching
Figure 3.6 A comparison of teachers’, researchers’ and politicians’ knowledge

4. Principles. What are the foundations of effective teaching and learning?

Figure 4.1 Ten evidence-informed educational principles for effective teaching
and learning
Figure 4.2 Key features in a repertoire of effective teaching
Research Briefing Enhancing home–school knowledge exchange

PART 2: CREATING CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

5. Contexts. What is, and what might be?
Figure 5.1 Health and social problems in relation to inequality
Research Briefing School, family, neighbourhood?

6. Relationships. How are we getting on together?

Figure 6.1 A classification of types of teacher and pupil classroom action
Figure 6.2 Parameters of pupil behaviour
Figure 6.3 A positive cycle of teaching, learning and relationships
Figure 6.4 A negative cycle of teaching, learning and relationships

7. Engagement. How are we managing behaviour?

Figure 7.1 Child, environment and behaviour
Figure 7.2 Progression in classroom management
Checklist 7.1 To pre-empt general misbehaviour and improve engagement
Checklist 7.2 To record incidents of ongoing ‘problem’ behaviour

8. Spaces. How are we creating environments for learning?

Checklist 8.1 To examine the classroom environment
Checklist 8.2 To consider the pedagogical and practical implications of the
classroom use of ICT
Figure 8.1 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory
Figure 8.2 Plan of a Key Stage 2 classroom
Research Briefing Teaching and learning with new technology

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 List of case studies, checklists, figures and research briefings 499

PART 3: TEACHING FOR LEARNING

9. Curriculum. What is to be taught and learned?
Figure 9.1 Education: the interaction of knowledge, development and curriculum
Figure 9.2 A comparison of educational aims across sectors
Figure 9.3 The four capacities of Scotland’s Curriculum for Excellence
Figure 9.4 The supple learning mind (from Claxton et al., 2011)
Figure 9.5 UK curricula structures for primary education (2012)

10. Planning. How are we implementing the curriculum?

Figure 10.1 School philosophy, policies, schemes of work and teacher planning
Figure 10.2 Elements of a lesson plan
Figure 10.3 Bloom’s taxonomy and deeper learning
Figure 10.4 The cognitive demand of common secondary school tasks
Figure 10.5 The lesson study cycle
Research Briefing Personalising learning

11. Pedagogy. How can we develop effective strategies?

Case study 11.1 Studying teenage magazines
Case study 11.2 Studying a child’s reading development
Case study 11.3 Learning in the graveyard
Research Briefing Improving pupil group work
Figure 11.1 The science, craft and art of pedagogic expertise

12. Communication. How does use of language support learning?

Case study 12.1 Zoe’s reading and its influence on her teaching

13. Assessment. How can assessment enhance learning?

Figure 13.1 Fixed and growth mindsets
Figure 13.2 Scotland’s ‘Assessment is for Learning’
Research Briefing Promoting learning how to learn
Research Briefing Assessment for learning

PART 4: REFLECTING ON CONSEQUENCES

14. Outcomes. How do we monitor student learning achievements?
Figure 14.1 International comparisons: The Learning Curve
Figure 14.2 Lee ‘shows his working’
Figure 14.3 A child’s feelings about SATs
Figure 14.4 The rise in GCSE attainment
Figure 14.5 A five-stage cycle for school improvement
Figure 14.6 Forms of records
Research Briefing School league tables : Are they any good for choosing schools?

15. Inclusion. How are we enabling learning opportunities?

Case study 15.1 Kate and the inclusive pedagogical approach

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500 List of case studies, checklists, figures and research briefings

Figure 15.1 Differentiation-polarisation process and its consequences

Figure 15.2 Metaphors for teaching diverse learners
Figure 15.3 Supporting children with special educational needs
Figure 15.4 Major themes of inclusive pedagogy
Figure 15.5 Analysing Katie’s inclusive pedagogy
Research Briefing Developing inclusion

PART 5: DEEPENING UNDERSTANDING

16. Expertise. Conceptual tools for career-long fascination?
Figure 16.1 Stages in the development of expertise
Figure 16.2 Principles, concepts and evidence-informed practice
Figure 16.3 A framework for teacher expertise: powerful concepts and expert
questions

17. Professionalism. How does reflective teaching contribute to society?

Figure 17.1 Contrasts between unionism and professionalism
Figure 17.2 Models of teacher professionalism and practice

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Acknowledgements

Many, many people have contributed to this new edition of Reflective Teaching in Schools.
An extensive consultation was held and colleagues in schools and teacher education
institutions across the UK were engaged through discussion, questionnaires and advice
its future development. The book has a long history too, with its first version dating from
1987, and with major contributions to various editions from Sarah Tann, Pat Triggs, Julie
Anderson, Janet Collins, Mandy Swann, Neil Simco, Sue Swaffield, Jo Warin and Paul
Warwick.
Many educationalists engaged in the UK’s Teaching and Learning Research Programme
(TLRP, TLRP-TEL, 1999–2012) contributed in one way or another to the thinking which
is reflected in these pages, in particular, through the ‘ten principles for effective teaching
and learning’. TLRP was a very large investment in educational research which coordi-
nated the work of over 100 project, thematic and developmental activities – all based on
active engagement between researchers, practitioners and other research users. In 2008,
the TLRP Steering Committee, chaired by Bob Burgess, first endorsed the idea of building
TLRP findings into these resources on Reflective Teaching. TLRP was funded by UK
national governments and by the Higher Education Funding Council for England, and was
managed by the Economic and Social Research Council.
The development of the conceptual framework to represent teacher expertise (Chapter
16) took place in active partnership with the GTC E and the other UK Teaching Councils.
Thanks, in particular, to Jane Hough and Lesley Saunders. Very helpful consultation also
took place at conferences of the: Universities’ Council for the Education of Teachers,
British Educational Research Association, National Association for Primary Education
and the National Association of Primary Teacher Education.
This edition benefits from the work of primary and secondary specialists at the
University of Cambridge and from excellent support from colleagues at the Institute of
Education, University of London and the Graduate School of Education, University of
Bristol. I would also particularly like to thank colleagues from across the UK who read
and commented on sample chapters. These included, Tim Cain, Roland Chaplain, Linda
Clarke, Jean Dourneen, Mary Jane Drummond, Tony Eaude, Lorna Hamilton, Peter Hick,
Steve Kennewell, Tricia Maynard, Ian Menter, Yolande Muschamp, Phil Rigby, d’Reen
Struthers and Tatiana Wilson. A very, very long list of colleagues has also assisted with
the development of readings to accompany this book. Others are contributing to make the
website a comprehensive resource at reflectiveteaching.co.uk.
502 Acknowledgements

Issues related to the development of the book have been discussed with many
classteachers, headteachers, advisers, inspectors and policymakers as a by-product of
engagement in research, policy and practice over the past decade. It is appropriate to
acknowledge the collegiality of those involved in the review of the National Curriulum in
England: Mary James, Tim Oates and Dylan Wiliam, the sincerity of civil servants at the
DfE, and the wisdom of many of those consulted for that exercise. Important influence
has also derived from those engaged in subject associations for the teaching of English,
maths, science, history, geography, etc; major primary education organisations such as the
Association for the Study of Primary Education, Cambridge Primary Review and NAPE;
and teacher unions such as ATL, NUT and NASUWT. Among important contributions
from teachers, are the anonymised case studies in Chapters 11 and 12 and case studies in
Chapter 16.
The book has its origins at what is now Oxford Brookes University and responded to
the vision of John Isaac. My thanks go also to colleagues at the University of the West of
England, University of Bristol, University of Cambridge and at the Institute of Education,
University of London, who have significantly influenced my understanding of teaching
and learning over the years. They too may find that echoes in this book.
Frances Arnold, Alison Baker, Rosie Pattinson and other members of the Bloomsbury
team have been a wonderful source of enthusiasm and practical help throughout the
production of this book and its associated reader and website.
The development of new versions of Reflective Teaching for Early Years, Further and
Higher Education is extremely exciting and the leadership of Jen Colwell, Yvonne Hillier,
Maggie Gregson and Paul Ashwin is exemplary. Amy Pollard has been an enormous help
in holding together the different strands of this evolving series.
For permission to reproduce figures or text, thanks are due to:
Susan Hart and Routledge for the text in Figure 1.5, A framework for innovative thinking, from
Hart, S. (2000) Thinking Through Teaching.
The Government Office for Science for Figure 1.7, Mediating mechanisms for achievement of
the wider benefits of learning, from Feinstein, L., Vorhaus, J. and Sabates, R. (2008) Learning
Through Life: Future Challenges. Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project.
Mandy Swann for the text of Figure 2.6, Everyday language embodying labelling.
US National Research Council (NRC) for the foundation of Figure 2.9, Factors affecting learner
engagement, from NRC (1999) Improving Student Learning.
The Teaching and Learning Research Programme for Figure 4.1, Ten evidence-informed
educational principles for effective teaching and learning, James, M. and Pollard, A. (2006)
Improving teaching and learning in schools: A commentary by the Teaching and Learning
Research Programme.
Bloomsbury for Figure 5.1, Health and social problems in relation to inequality, from Wilkinson,
R. and Pickett, K. (2009) Why Greater Equality Makes Societies Stronger.
Routledge for Figure 7.2, Progression in classroom management, from Chaplain, R. (2003)
Teaching Without Disruption in the Primary School.
Barry Fraser and Darrell Fisher for the short form of the ‘My Class Inventory’ from their (1983)
Assessment of Classroom Psychsocial Environment: Workshop Manual.
Guy Claxton and TLO for Figure 9.4, The supple learning mind, from Claxton, G., Chambers,
M., Powell, G. and Lucas, B. (2011) The Learning Powered School: Pioneering 21st Century
Education.

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 Acknowledgements 503

Bloomsbury for Figure 10.3, adapted from Male, B. and Waters, M. (2012) The Secondary
Curriculum Design Handbook.
Pete Dudley for Figure 10.5, The lesson study cycle, from Dudley, P. (2011) Lesson Study: a
Handbook.
The Scottish Government for Figure 13.2, Scotland’s Assessment is for Learning, from Learning
and Teaching Scotland (2007) Assessment is for Learning.
Tony Eaude and Critical Publishing for Figure 16.1, Stages in the development of expertise, from
Eaude, T. (2012) How Do Expert Primary Classteachers Really Work?.
The Teaching and Learning Research Programme for Figure 16.2, from A framework for
teacher expertise: powerful concepts and expert questions, from Pollard, A. (ed.) (2010)
Professionalism and Pedagogy: A Contemporary Opportunity.
The Teaching and Learning Research Programme for Research Briefings on: Teacher careers,
Education and neuroscience, Consulting pupils, New technology, Personalised learning, Pupil
group work, Learning how to learn, and Assessment for learning and Developing inclusion.
George Leckie and Harvey Goldstein, and the Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol,
for two Research Briefings: Are school league tables good for choosing schools? and Family,
school, neighbourhood?

Andrew Pollard
December 2013

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
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Index

This index categorises reflective schools, classrooms, teachers, pupils, teaching and learning, and related
concepts under different headings, including Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP) findings;
it covers Chapters 1–17 but not personal names or key reading lists. Letters and typographical elements with
page numbers signify various features: an ‘f’ indicates a figure; an ‘(RA)’ indicates a reflective activity (in
boxed text); an ‘(RB)’ indicates a figure in a research briefing; a ‘(CS)’ indicates a case study; bold type
indicates TLRP principles (in boxed text); italic type indicates framework concepts (in boxed text); underlined
type indicates principal coverage of these principles and concepts (Chapters 4 and 16).

A levels 257 active teachers 77–8

academies 111, 127, 132 additional learning needs (ALN) 426
accessibility 220, 402–3 additional support needs (ASN) 426
authority and 162–3 adult and working life 397
accountability 111, 135, 137–8, 382, 398, 405 achievement and 467, 479
collaboration 138 (RA) economic factors 27–8, 239f, 381, 478
economic factors 137 vocational learning 257, 258
inspections 136, 272 affordances 204, 228
political factors 135–6, 381 constraints and 204–5
underperformance and 136, 381 AfL (Assessment for Learning) 94f, 101–2, 211f,
achievement 167, 227, 251, 352, 380, 383–4, 384 292, 352–5, 353, 355 (RA), 356, 356 (RB),
(RA), 399, 425, 459, 467 357, 358–9, 360f, 369–70, 370 (RA), 371,
accountability 405 371 (RB), 372–4, 380, 453
accuracy 395 authenticity 461
attainment groups 224 autonomy 354, 373
birth date and 415 feedback 365–6, 367 (RA), 371 (RB), 463
consultation 458 (CS) groups 363
economic factors 479, 480 learning objectives 360–2, 369, 451
league tables 399, 401, 401 (RB) mindsets 357, 358 (RA)
monitoring 394 observation 373
numerical tracking 396–7 ownership 372
recording 404f, 405 peer assessment 367, 368 (RA)
self-esteem and 169 personalised learning 290
standards 393, 393f prior learning 103 (RA), 368–9
acquisition in learning 61–3, 62f questions 362, 363–4
acting 182 relationships 357–8
active engagement 34, 94f, 103, 104, 174, 211f, schemes of work 370
214–15, 215 (RA), 303, 353 self-assessment 367, 368 (RA), 371 (RB), 465
empowerment 103–4 speaking 101, 354, 362, 363, 371 (RB)
political factors 103 values 355, 357
active feedback 366 visibility 366
active learners 415, 467 age 25, 415
constructivism 38, 39, 43f birth date 415
participation in learning 62f, 62–3 constructivism 38–9
social cognition 43f CPD 25
538 Index

cultures and 25 self-assessment 367, 368 (RA), 371 (RB), 465

groups 224
moral issues 415 balance in curricula 95, 237, 249, 249 (RA), 250, 254, 256, 256,
physical appearance 416 272, 272, 345, 448f, 453
physiological development 25–6, 45 accountability 272
agency 44, 142 (RA), 461, 467 see also individual terms knowledge 453
ALN (additional learning needs) 426 behaviour 150, 153 (RA), 156–7, 157f, 159, 174, 175f, 175–6,
APU (Assessment of Performance Unit) 394 177, 184, 459
area-based curricula 111, 273 behaviourism 35–7, 37f, 42 (RA), 43f
artefacts 260 blame and 185
arts 244 checklist 199
ASN (additional support needs) 426 disruption 156, 157, 159
assessment 27, 49, 102, 131, 238, 251, 257, 280, 352, 354, 357, engagement 178 (RA)
380, 382, 384, 384–6, 385, 387, 387, 390 (RA), 392, expectations on 180
394, 396, 397, 397, 406, 446, 449f, 450 (RA), 451, 453, mind and 47, 48, 48 (RB)
455, 467 needs and 434 (CS), 435f
accountability 381, 382, 398 preconceptions and 180
achievement and see achievement skills 162
authenticity 167, 286, 330, 344, 364, 372, 449f, 461 see also authority; discipline
bias 161 behaviourism 36, 37, 37f, 42 (RA), 43f
comparative study 114, 381, 382f control and 36–7, 43f
conflated aims 394 laws 35–6
consistency 385, 455 bias 161–2 see also equality of opportunities; fairness; inclusion
dilemmas 386, 387, 387 (RA), 399–400 bilingualism 176, 347–8
diplomas 257 biographical understanding 20, 20 (RA), 477 (RA)
engagement 177 communication 20 (RA), 142 (RA)
feedback 177, 390 (RA) recording and 20
motivation and 352, 390, 391f birth date 415
performance data 398–9, 401 blame 185
political factors 251 blocking 186
protests and 389 Bloom’s taxonomy 282–4, 283f, 284f, 329
questions 386 boredom 158
recording 402–3 motivation and risk 57, 58f
self-esteem and 389–90 orchestration and 190
social factors 102, 387 brain-based learning 47, 48, 48 (RB)
success criteria 285–6 learning styles 48 (RB)
targets 398, 456 (CS) brain functioning 46–7, 48 (RB), 336
teaching to the test 388 (RA), 388–9 cognition 163–4
tests 49, 251, 257, 385, 392–3, 393f, 395 mind and 47, 48, 48 (RB), 247, 248f, 249, 309
unpredictability 386, 386f breadth in curricula 95, 237, 254, 256, 256, 257, 272, 272, 448f,
Assessment for Learning see AfL 450 (RA), 451
Assessment of Performance Unit (APU) 394 accountability 272
at risk groups 107 (RB) budgets 134–5
attainment groups 224 enrolment and 135
audiences 182, 304 (CS), 326, 341 (CS), 346 buildings 134
authenticity 167, 286, 291 (RB), 330, 330, 344, 364, 372, 449f, bullying 19
461 bureaucratic practice 93
authority 163, 178, 180, 181, 183–4, 185, 186
accessibility and 162–3 Cambridge Primary Review 239f, 486–7
crises 195 carers 141, 225, 405
engagement 187–8 emotional factors 141–2
moral issues 163 home–school relationships 226
self-confidence 178 needs and 427
self-esteem and 168 see also families
see also behaviour; discipline caring and scientific professions 82
autonomy 135, 269, 354, 369, 373, 458 (CS), 460 (CS) chaining 346
peer assessment 367, 368 (RA) child-centred strategies 38, 39, 43f

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citizenship 484 commitment 5–6

human rights and 484, 485 resilience and 11 (RB), 110
PSME and 484 see also individual terms
class groups 418 commodification of education 132
dilemmas 418 consumers and 455
homogeneity and 417–18 common sense 88
class sizes 134 communication 20 (RA), 84–5, 108 (RA), 142 (RA), 326–7,
classroom climates 163, 164 347, 349, 489
cognition 163–4 audiences 326
questions 164, 165 (RA) behaviour 162
social factors 166 cognition 328
classroom plans 212, 212 (RA) feedback 100, 344–5
communication 212 grammar 345
classrooms 139, 204, 208, 209, 228, 293 reading 335–40, 342 (RA)
checklist 208–9 see also ICT; recording; speaking; writing
rules and routines 150–1, 152 (RA), 153 (RA) communities 111, 133, 207–8, 273, 430, 431, 432, 432f, 435f,
closed-ended questions 329 455, 479–80
cognition 26, 37–8, 57, 347, 463 area-based curricula 111, 273
assessment 396 consumers and 455
cognitive demand 282–4, 283f, 284f, 287–9, 329 knowledge 142
emotional factors and 35 learning 105
metacognition 59, 63, 328 multicultural 129, 161, 413, 479
prior learning 99 relationships 164
social 40–2, 42 (RA), 42f, 43f, 317, 463 spatial issues 207
social factors 163–4 communities of practice 84, 130
cognitive demand 282 comprehensive schools 126–7, 257
matching and 287–9 conspirational mediation 87
taxonomy 282–4, 283f, 284f, 329 constructivism 38, 39f, 39–40, 42 (RA), 43f
cognitive styles 57 child-centred strategies 38, 39, 43f
coherence of curricula 238, 262, 273–4, 274, 327, 339, 448f, 457 cognition 37–8
knowledge 274 social 40–2, 42 (RA), 42f, 43f, 317, 463
collaboration 12, 68, 83, 84, 85–6, 94f, 104, 113, 138 (RA), 149, stages 38, 39
174, 210 (RA), 211f, 241, 280, 326, 343 (RA), 411 consultation 16, 17, 17 (RB), 105, 154, 154–5 (RA), 456 (CS),
area-based curricula 111, 273 458 (CS)
communities of practice 84, 130 autonomy 458 (CS)
educational networks 356 (RB) engagement 105
empowerment 280 feedback 458 (CS)
engagement 85 motivation and 456 (CS)
learning communities 105 recording 155 (RA)
Lesson Study 86 (RA), 294–7, 297f, 464 (CS) self-esteem and 456 (CS)
mediation 87 consumers 455
negotiation 281, 462 (CS) continuing professional development see CPD
pressure group activity 489 contracts 12
trust and 85 hours of work 12, 140
see also communication; groups Convention on the Rights of the Child 481, 484
collaborative mediation 87 coping strategies 139, 148, 284
colleagues 10, 12, 84–5, 134, 138 (RA), 210 (RA), 226–7, 343 corporal punishment 197
(RA) CPD (continuing professional development) 4, 11 (RB), 68, 94f,
achievement and 227 109–10, 139–40, 211f, 307, 427–8, 444, 465, 474
biographical understanding 142 (RA) cultures 109
inclusion and 168–9, 428, 428 (RA), 435f expertise 68, 68f, 88
inclusive pedagogy 433–4 (CS), 435f knowledge 109
lesson plans 286 lifelong learning 25
Lesson Study 86 (RA), 294–7, 297f warranted practice 29
needs and 227 creative mediation 87
schemes of work 276 (RA) creative talk 334
commands 186 drama 335

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540 Index

storytelling 334–5 drama 335

creative writing 319 (CS), 320, 321, 460 (CS) effectiveness and 12, 87, 136, 448f, 467
engagement and 320–1 engagement and 54, 63, 94f, 97, 142, 176, 176–7, 206, 211f,
materials 319 (CS), 320, 320 (CS) 220, 226, 234, 238, 268, 273, 273, 347, 448f, 455
out-of-school learning 319–20 (CS) environmental issues 239f
credit approaches 34 equality of opportunities and 263
crises 195 foundation subjects 253, 254, 271
flashpoints and 167–8 geography 243, 277
maximum reassurance 195 hidden 235, 247
minimal disturbance 195 history 126, 259, 260, 337, 339
pausing and 195 home–school relationships 455
recording 196 (RA) inclusion 424
critical pedagogy 309 integrated 253, 255–6
oppression and 308–9 knowledge 86 (RA), 98, 235–6, 237f, 238, 240, 241–2, 242
crowd control 174 (RA), 244, 255, 258–63, 277, 281–2 (RA), 292–3, 294
cultural capital 412 (RA), 294–7, 297f, 309, 453
cultures 53, 54, 56, 56 (RA), 109, 128, 130, 239f, 480 lesson plans 279f, 279–81, 282–90, 283f, 284f, 285 (RA),
age and 25 287 (RA), 313
collaboration 138 (RA) literacy see literacy
communities 129, 161, 413, 479 matching 288, 419, 448f, 463
communities of practice 130 mathematics 106, 107, 107 (RB), 255, 263, 386f, 387 (RA),
EAL and 348 388, 394, 452 (CS), 462 (CS)
exclusion 130 motivation 58, 278
expectations and 457 out-of-school learning and 63
families 54–5 personalised learning 58, 154, 254–5, 255, 289, 332, 337,
knowledge and 54 343, 417, 448f, 459
learning dispositions 54 political factors 77, 484–5
literacy 176 programmes of study 271–2
media 55 progression and 193, 242, 276–7, 277, 282, 448f, 465
mind and 47 PSME 484
national 479 relationships 154
political factors 129–30 relevance 58, 278, 278, 332, 448f, 461, 469
pupil 16, 19, 106, 128–9 see also peer groups schemes of work 274–6, 276 (RA), 278
school 55, 55, 86, 129, 130, 130, 166, 216, 449f, 457, 464 (CS) sciences 85, 99, 260, 341 (CS), 394
situated learning 54 skills 98, 240, 245–6, 246f
social cognition 40–1 social factors 239f, 247
staffroom 129 specialisms 5
technology 55 supple learning minds 247, 248f, 249
curricula 35f, 97–8, 192, 213, 234–5, 237, 238, 240, 242–4, 247, timetabling 271
250, 251–2, 252f, 253–4, 255, 263, 268, 269, 270f, 271, values 237–8, 240 (RA), 453
293, 297–8, 446, 448f, 450 (RA) cyclical curricula 254
accountability 136 cyclical expertise 68f
area-based 111, 273 cyclical learning 157, 158, 158f, 159f
arts 244 behaviour 159
assessment 251, 386, 388 (RA), 388–9, 391f, 392, 393, 393f, boredom 158
402 control and 158–9
autonomy 269 enjoyment 158
balance 95, 237, 249, 249 (RA), 250, 254, 256, 256, 272, fairness 157–8
272, 345, 448f, 453 cyclical school improvement 399, 400, 400f
behaviourism 36 cyclical teaching 78, 79f
breadth 95, 237, 254, 256, 256, 257, 272, 272, 448f, 450 Lesson Study 86 (RA), 294–7, 297f, 464 (CS)
(RA), 451
coherence 238, 262, 273–4, 274, 327, 339, 448f, 457 data protection 403
consultation 154, 154–5 (RA) design in writing 344
cultures 239f, 479 devolution 127, 128, 129–30
cycles 254 dialogue see speaking
dilemmas 250, 255 diaries 160 (RA), 196 (RA)

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diet 45 child-centred strategies 38, 39, 43f

differentiation 287–9 see also individual terms credit approaches 34
dilemmas 69–71, 70f, 71 (RA), 139, 250, 255, 386, 387, 387 devolution and 127, 128, 129–30
(RA), 399–400, 418, 429–30, 482 engagement 17 (RB), 40–1, 54, 60f, 61 (RA), 85, 94f, 97, 105,
diplomas 257 141, 154, 174, 176–7, 177, 178 (RA), 193, 196, 197,
disability 416 211f, 213, 222, 226, 234, 249, 268, 273, 285 (RA), 289,
discipline 149, 174, 179f, 182–3, 185, 186, 187 (RA), 197–200, 290, 304–5 (CS), 305, 311–12 (CS), 315, 319–20 (CS),
304–5 (CS), 305 320–1, 329, 332, 338, 357, 361, 363, 431, 449f, 452
blocking 186 (CS), 460 (CS), 461, 462 (CS)
commands 186 active 34, 94f, 103–4, 174, 211f, 214–15, 215 (RA), 303,
corporal punishment 197 353
crowd control 174 checklist 197
engagement and 174, 191 (RA), 196, 197 consistency 190–1
fairness 198 enjoyment and 158, 337–8
flow of sessions 191 framing 188
questions 181 (RA) gaining attention 187–8
reprimands 156, 168 observation 191 (RA)
see also authority; behaviour orchestration 190
displays 208–9 overlapping 189
disruptive behaviour 156, 157, 159 pacing 189–90
drama 335 questions 278 (RA)
dyslexia 466 (CS) recording 61 (RA)
relationships 108 (RA)
EAL (English as an additional language) 347, 348 social factors 54, 60f, 63, 142, 176, 206, 220, 226, 238, 273,
EBacc 251 273, 347, 448f, 455
ecological systems theory 205f, 205–6 variety and 215, 215 (RA)
economic factors 27–8, 44, 124, 137, 176, 239f, 412, 478, 480 wholeheartedness 81–2
budgets 134–5 withitness 189
equality of opportunities and 131, 132, 480 England 139, 226–7, 476
generational factors 132 accountability 136, 137
ICT and 220 assessment 394, 398
political factors and 124–5, 381, 478–9 budgets 135
technology and 27 curricula 136, 237, 241–2, 251, 252f, 253, 254, 256, 272,
Education Act 1944 256 389, 392, 451, 479, 484
Education Act 1997 197 inclusion 422
Education Act 2002 95, 237 needs 425, 426, 428, 429 (RA), 429f, 430
Education Act 2011 95–6 pressure group activity 486–7
Education Reform Act 1988 451 English as an additional language (EAL) 347, 348
Education Scotland 136–7 English curricula see literacy
educational networks 356 (RB) enjoyment 158, 337–8
educational research 83, 84f see also individual terms enrolment 135
EIS 475–6 environmental issues 125, 239f, 341 (CS), 482
11-plus 49 dilemmas 482
emotional factors 6, 6 (RA), 10, 35, 59, 100, 141–2, 163–4, 166, global warming 482
461 questions 195
acceptance 166 Equality Act 2010 412
control and 171 equality of opportunities 99, 126, 131f, 131–2, 256–7, 263, 411,
empathy 166 480
genuineness 166 collaboration 138 (RA)
needs and 434 (CS), 435f meritocracy 126–7, 131, 480
passion 5 political factors 96
regard 153, 166 rights and 416
safety 164 equipment 134, 209–10, 210 (RA), 213–14 (RA), 214
emotional intelligence 461 collaboration 210 (RA)
empathy 166 ethnicity 413
empowerment 16, 22, 87, 103–4, 140, 177–8, 241, 280, 312, national cultures and 479
431, 449f, 467 preconceptions and 161, 413

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542 Index

European Convention on Human Rights 481 unpredictability and 194–5, 196 (RA)
evaporated time 213 folk pedagogy 302
Every Child Matters 106, 112, 269 formative assessment see AfL
evidence-informed practice 71–3, 73f, 79 (RA), 80–1, 88 formative feedback 344–5
ownership 72 foundation subjects 253, 254
political factors 127 prescription 254
evidence-informed principles 92–3, 94f, 116–17, 211f programmes of study 253, 271
exam boards 272 frameworks for innovative thinking 23, 24 (RA), 24f
exams and tests 49, 251, 257, 385, 392–3, 395 framing 188
achievement 251, 393, 393f freeze-frame 335
exclusion 130 friendship groups 224
exercise 45 friendships 16, 460 (CS)
recording 45–6 (RA) behaviour 157, 157f
expertise 68, 88, 444–6, 445f, 469 (RA), 469–70 friendship groups 224
cycles 68f see also peer groups
expectation and 52, 161, 167, 180, 284, 358, 390, 449f,
457 gay and lesbian issues 414
knowledge and 259, 445 GCSEs 251, 257, 392, 393, 393f, 401
see also AfL; curricula; pedagogy; skills gender 207, 304 (CS), 338, 413
exploratory talk 334 masculinity and 419
play 161
facial disfigurements 416 polarisation 419
fairness 150, 152, 157–8, 198 political factors 414
consistency and 190–1 preconceptions and 161, 413–14
control and 148 sexuality and 414
matching and 158 generational factors 132
questions 153 (RA) genetic factors 46
faith schools 413 geography 243, 277
families 54–5, 133, 141, 176, 206, 225–6, 405, 479–80 global factors 114, 116
communities 455 achievement and 479
emotional factors 141–2 collaboration 113
engagement 226 comparative study 114, 381, 382f
generational factors 132 curricula 242
genetic factors 46 economic factors 27, 124–5, 381, 478
health 45 global warming 482
knowledge 142 ideologies 126
league tables and 401 social factors 131f, 131–2
literacy and 460 (CS), 466 (CS) standards 75
needs and 427 global warming 482
social cognition 40 governors 488
see also home–school relationships curricula 269
feedback 100, 177, 286, 329–30, 344, 365, 366, 371 (RB), 390 grade inflation 393, 393f
(RA), 449f, 458 (CS), 463, 464 (CS) grammar 346–7
active 366 knowledge 345
authenticity 167, 286, 330, 344, 364, 372, 449f, 461 grammar schools 126, 256–7
comments 366 groups 105, 218, 222, 223 (RA), 223–4, 225, 315, 316, 316
engagement 461 (RB), 317, 333, 433, 434–5, 435f
formative 344–5 age groups 224
marking and 365, 366, 367 (RA) attainment groups 224
flashpoints class groups 417–18
control and 167–8 communities 435f
discipline 168 friendship groups 224
flow of sessions 191 interest groups 224
beginning of sessions 192, 192 (RA) reciprocal teaching 223
development of sessions 192 seating groups 223
ending of sessions 193–4, 194 (RA) speaking 315, 317, 333–4, 334 (RA), 363
transition of classes 193, 193 (RA) task groups 222

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 Index 543

GTCs 7f, 72, 137, 474, 475–6 realism and 139

identity 4, 5, 6, 6 (RA), 9, 10, 11, 12, 27, 58, 138–9, 140, 347,
hands up 331, 363 460 (CS)
health 44–5 acting and 182
crises 195 AfL 357–8, 358 (RA)
diet and 45 assessment 389–90
equality of opportunities and 131f, 131–2 biographical understanding 20, 20 (RA), 142 (RA), 477 (RA)
exercise and 45, 45–6 (RA) communities 207
professional groups 475 coping strategies and 139
PSME 484 cultures 129–30
social factors 44 emotional intelligence 461
stress 389 expectations on 14 (RA)
health and safety 212 friendships 460 (CS)
helplessness and mastery 51f, 51–2 learning dispositions 54
hidden curricula 235 national cultures and 479
social factors 235 personality 57
values 247 resilience 11 (RB)
hierarchy of needs 21, 21f self-perception 15
history curricula social factors 4, 94f, 95, 124, 211f, 234, 411
ideologies and 126 transfer of schools and 454 (CS)
knowledge 259, 260 values 8 (RA), 8–9
reading 337, 339 work–life balance 140
home 176 writing 341 (CS)
home languages 176, 347 see also inclusion; peer groups
EAL and 347, 348 ideologies 125–6, 128
home–school relationships 106, 107, 207, 225, 226, 405–6, 406 collaboration 138 (RA)
(RA), 460 (CS) control and 127–8
achievement and 405 personalised learning 291
autonomy 460 (CS) political factors 126, 127
communities 455 selection 126–7
engagement 460 (CS) inclusion 168–9, 169, 170, 348, 390, 410, 411–12, 417, 419,
knowledge 106, 107, 107 (RB) 419–20, 421, 422–3, 423, 423 (RA), 424, 424 (RB), 425,
materials 454 (CS) 430–1, 431, 436, 449f, 459
risk and 107 (RB) achievement and 169, 384
self-confidence 226, 460 (CS) checklist 170 (RA)
technology 207 class groups and 417–18
homogeneity 417–18 communities 430, 431
homophobia 414 hands up 331
hot-seating 335 learning ability and 416–17
hours of work 12, 140 metaphors 420, 421 (RA), 421f
human rights 481, 484 peer groups 418–19, 435f
citizenship and 484, 485 personalised learning and 424
inclusion 410 polarisation and 419f
Human Rights Act 1998 481, 484 political factors 420, 421–2
social factors 436
ICT (information and communications technology) 106, 216, see also age; disability; ethnicity; gender; needs; physical
218–19, 220, 404f, 452 (CS), 466 (CS) appearance; sexuality; social class
accessibility 220 inclusive pedagogy 431, 432f, 432–3
checklist 219–20 communities 432, 432f
IWBs 212, 216, 218, 286, 304 (CS) needs 458 (CS)
knowledge 106 peer groups 433, 433–4 (CS), 434–5, 435f, 436 (RA)
scaffolding 100 individual portfolios 404f
smartphones 220 individual work 224–5
software 216, 217, 219 (RA), 399, 462 (CS), 464 (CS) informal learning 34, 94f, 105–6, 125, 204, 206–7, 211f, 411
tablets 220 engagement 108 (RA)
idealism 9 home–school relationships 106, 107, 107 (RB), 207, 460
emotional factors 5 (CS)

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544 Index

knowledge 98 bilingualism 176, 347–8

social factors 207–8 grammar 345, 346–7
spatial issues 207 home languages 176, 347, 348
informal speaking 326 labelling 22, 50f, 50–1, 53 (RA), 416
information and communications technology see ICT metaphors 12–13, 13 (RA), 61–3, 62f, 420, 421 (RA), 421f
initial teacher education see new teachers spelling 384–5
innovative mediation 87 vocabulary 347, 425–6
inspections 136, 272, 467 see also communication
underperformance and 136 later years teachers 11 (RB)
instructional tasks 98 leaders 114, 116
integrated curricula 253, 255–6 league tables 399, 401, 401 (RB)
intelligence 49–50, 52, 53 (RA) learners 141, 236, 237f, 286, 358, 449f, 459, 465
emotional 461 learning 27, 27f, 34, 35, 35f, 61, 64, 206, 356, 356 (RB)
expectations on 52 learning communities 105
knowledge and see knowledge learning dispositions 54
labelling and 50f, 50–1, 53 (RA) learning objectives 275, 280, 286, 313, 360, 361, 362, 369, 451
mastery and 51f, 51–2 autonomy and 369
social factors 100 collaboration 280
tests 49 success criteria 362
transformability 51 visibility 361
interactive whiteboards (IWBs) 212, 216, 218, 286, 304 (CS) learning schools 457
groups 218 learning styles 48 (RB), 57
interest groups 224 lesbian and gay issues 414
intonation and vocal skills 162, 182, 346 lesson plans 279f, 279–80, 281, 282, 285 (RA), 286, 287, 287
inventories 164, 165 (RA) (RA)
IWBs (interactive whiteboards) 212, 216, 218, 286, 304 (CS) AfL 290
groups 218 assessment 285–6
checklists 286
knowledge 54, 63, 82, 98, 106, 235–6, 237f, 240, 241, 242, 242 cognition 282–4, 283f, 284f, 287–9
(RA), 244, 245, 255, 258–9, 261–3, 274, 277, 292, 293, coping strategies 284
294 (RA), 303, 309, 339, 344, 345 engagement 285 (RA)
AfL 292 ICT 286
collaboration 241 knowledge 289
control and 241 learning objectives 280, 286, 313
empowerment 241 personalised learning 289
exchange 106, 107, 107 (RB) safety 286
expertise and 259, 445 Lesson Study 86 (RA), 294–7, 297f, 464 (CS)
funds of 107 (RB), 142 observation 296
ICT 106 risk 296
Lesson Study 86 (RA), 294–7, 297f visibility 296–7
pedagogical content 260, 261 (RA), 262, 281–2 (RA), life and work skills 397
292–3, 306, 465 achievement and 467, 479
personal 98 economic factors 27–8, 239f, 381, 478
personalised learning 289 vocational learning 257, 258
political factors and 83, 84f, 241–2 lifelong learning 25, 96
prior learning and 103 (RA) moral issues 97 (RA)
questions 330–1 listening 341 (CS)
self-knowledge 139 creative talk 334–5
skills and 43f, 109, 238, 245, 336–7, 434 (CS), 453 skills 162, 182
transformations 344 literacy
valued 98 assessment 388, 394
see also cognition bilingualism 176, 347–8
out-of-school learning 106, 107, 107 (RB)
labelling 22, 50f, 50–1, 416 reading 304–5 (CS), 305–6, 311–12 (CS), 312, 335–40, 341
recording 53 (RA) (CS), 342, 342 (RA), 343 (RA), 460 (CS), 466 (CS)
language 40, 53 (RA), 54, 162, 182–4, 280, 326, 341 (CS), 345, scaffolding 318
347, 349 spelling 384–5

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 Index 545

storytelling and 334–5 preconceptions and 129

writing 319–20 (CS), 320–1, 341 (CS), 342–5, 343 (RA), multilingualism 176, 347–8
346–7, 384–5, 460 (CS), 466 (CS) multimodal texts 340, 344
lobbying 490 multiple choice questions 386
local authorities 111, 394
Local Government Act 1986 414 names 182
narratives
market-controlled education 132 oral 334–5, 341 (CS)
consumers and 455 reading 338
marking 365, 366, 367 (RA) national cultures 479
masculinity 419 nature and nurture 44, 46, 47
mastery and helplessness 51f, 51–2 NCDS 26–7
matching 158, 287–9, 288, 419, 448f, 463 needs 20–2, 425, 428, 428 (RA), 429 (RA), 434 (CS), 435f, 436
materials 134, 209–10, 210 (RA), 213–14 (RA), 214, 260, 304 (RA)
(CS), 305–6, 319 (CS), 320, 320 (CS), 341 (CS), 343 achievement and 459
(RA), 454 (CS) ALN 426
artefacts 260 ASN 426
audiences 304 (CS) at risk groups 107 (RB)
collaboration 210 (RA) consistency 427
discipline 304–5 (CS), 305 CPD 427–8
engagement 304–5 (CS), 305 dilemmas 429–30
transformations 260, 261 (RA) disability and 416
mathematics dyslexia 466 (CS)
assessment 386f, 387 (RA), 388, 394 EAL and 347, 348
engagement 452 (CS) hierarchy 21, 21f
ICT 452 (CS), 462 (CS) political factors 426–7
knowledge and 255, 263 SEBD 434 (CS), 435f
out-of-school learning 106, 107, 107 (RB) SEN 227, 425–6, 429f, 435f, 458 (CS)
media 55, 487 (RA), 489 see also ICT negotiation 156, 281, 462 (CS)
mediation 87 engagement 462 (CS)
meritocracy 126–7, 131, 480 moral issues 148
political factors 127 new teachers 6, 27–8, 88, 468
metacognition 59, 63, 328 authority 181
metaphors 12–13, 13 (RA), 61–3, 62f, 420, 421 (RA), 421f curricula 263, 287 (RA)
mind 309 emotional factors 6, 6 (RA)
behaviour and 47, 48, 48 (RB) idealism 5, 9
folk pedagogy 302 pedagogy 304–5 (CS), 305–6, 311–12 (CS), 312, 319–20
supple learning minds 247, 248f, 249 (CS), 320–1
mind frames 114, 116 relationships 170–1
mindsets 357f, 357–8, 358 (RA) self-confidence 181
engagement and 357 stages 9–10
minimal intrusion strategies 184–5 Newsom Report 256–7
modelling 318, 333 NFER 114
monitoring 78, 160, 394 Northern Ireland 137, 476
recording 160 (RA) assessment 392
moral issues 97 (RA), 140, 148, 163, 184, 415, 474 culture 479
human rights 410, 481, 484, 485 curricula 251, 252f, 253, 451
PSME 484 devolution and 128, 129, 130
values and 237, 475 evidence-informed practice 72
mother tongues 176, 347 inclusion 422
EAL and 347, 348 needs 426
motivation 57–8, 352, 390, 391f, 456 (CS) values 7f
boredom and risk 57, 58f Nuffield Review 239f, 257
engagement from see engagement numeracy see mathematics
relevance and 278 numerical tracking data 396–7
multicultural communities 129 nurture and nature 44, 46, 47
ethnicity 161, 413, 479 nutrition 45

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observation 296, 311 (CS), 312, 343 (RA), 373 peer assessment 367, 368 (RA)
recording 152 (RA), 191 (RA), 404f peer groups 16, 18f, 19, 55, 141, 177, 207, 418, 433, 433–4
Ofsted 136, 425, 428, 429 (RA) (CS), 434–5, 435f
open-ended questions 330 assessment by 367, 368 (RA)
feedback 329–30 gender 207, 419
unpredictability 195 needs and 434 (CS), 435f, 436 (RA)
open-mindedness 81, 82, 484 perspectives on 18f
oppression 308–9 physical appearance 415–16
prescription and 241–2, 254, 258, 484, 486–7 polarisation 418–19
orchestration 190 status 19
out-of-school learning 106, 108, 204, 310–11, 312, 319 (CS) performance data 398–9, 401
area-based curricula 111, 273 recording 399
collaboration 85–6 personal, social, moral and health education (PSME) 484
communication 108 (RA) personalised learning 58, 58, 154, 254–5, 255, 289, 290, 291,
communities 455 291 (RB), 332, 337, 343, 417, 424, 448f, 459
engagement 319–20 (CS) authenticity 291 (RB)
ICT 220 engagement 289, 290
informal learning 106, 107, 107 (RB), 108 (RA) ownership 291
knowledge 63 risk 291 (RB)
metacognition 63 personality 57
social factors 164 physical appearance 415–16
overlapping 189 facial disfigurements 416
ownership 17, 72, 291, 372 preconceptions on 415
physiological development 25–6, 45
pacing 189–90 picture maps 14 (RA)
paired work 223 PISA 114
parents see families play 161
participation in learning 62f, 62–3 Plowden Report 38
passion 5 polarisation 418–19, 419f
passive learners 36–7, 43f policymaking 94f, 110–11, 125, 204, 211f, 234, 380, 444, 474
passive teachers 485 national level 112
pausing 195 political factors 112, 112–13 (RA)
pedagogical content knowledge 260, 262, 281–2 (RA), 292–3, school level 111, 271
306, 465 school locality level 111
materials 260, 261 (RA) values 95–6
pedagogical thoughtfulness 310 political factors 77–8, 83, 95–6, 103, 112, 112–13 (RA), 126,
pedagogy 93, 221, 302, 302f, 305, 306, 306 (RA), 309–10, 313 127, 135–6, 139–40, 251, 381, 414, 420, 421–2, 426–7,
(RA), 318, 319 (CS), 320, 321, 321 (RA), 342, 446, 484–5
449f, 450 (RA), 451, 469 collaboration 83
AfL 103 (RA) comparative study 381
content knowledge 260, 261 (RA), 262, 281–2 (RA), 292–3, devolution 127, 128, 129–30
306, 465 economic factors and 124–5, 381, 478–9
CPD and 307 knowledge and 83, 84f, 241–2
critical 308–9 prescription 241–2, 258, 484, 486–7
engagement and 177, 320–1 pressure group activity 487 (RA), 488, 490
folk 302 social factors and 106
ICT 219–20 trust and 477
inclusive 431–3, 432f, 433–4 (CS), 434–5, 435f, 436 (RA), vocabulary 425–6
458 (CS) prescription 241–2, 254, 258, 484
knowledge 303 pressure group activity 486–7
materials 304–5 (CS), 305–6, 319 (CS), 320, 320 (CS) pressure group activity 485–9, 487 (RA), 490
mind and 309 alliances 489
out-of-school learning 310–11, 312, 319–20 (CS) lobbying 490
prior learning 311, 311–12 (CS), 312 media 487 (RA), 489
repertoires 184, 221, 281, 308, 313, 313–15, 316, 316 (RB), prior learning 34, 94f, 98–9, 211f, 268, 311, 311 (CS), 312, 368,
317–18, 318, 328, 358, 364, 449f, 453 369
warranted practice 455 engagement 311–12 (CS)

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equality of opportunities and 99 recording 20, 45–6 (RA), 53 (RA), 61 (RA), 152 (RA), 155
knowledge and 103 (RA) (RA), 191 (RA), 327–8 (RA), 402, 403 (RA), 404f, 405
observation 311 (CS), 312 accessibility and 402–3
questions 195, 368–9 diaries 160 (RA), 196 (RA)
professionalism 75–6, 476, 477, 477 (RA), 477f ICT 399, 404f
professional groups 475f, 475–6 safety records 286
see also individual terms regard 153, 166
programmes of study 253, 271–2 relationships 7f, 104, 108 (RA), 129, 148, 149, 149, 150, 152,
protective mediation 87 153, 154, 160, 164, 166, 170–1, 206, 329, 425, 449f, 459
PSME (personal, social, moral and health education) 484 authority 162–3
puberty behaviour 150, 459
physical appearance 416 cycles of learning 157–8, 158f, 159f
physiological development 26 discipline 149, 185
public schools 307 emotional factors 166, 171
pupil cultures 16, 19, 128–9 fairness and 148, 150, 152
ICT 106 flashpoints and 168
see also peer groups initial encounters 150
pupils 14, 29, 140, 141, 155, 156f, 221, 451 mindsets 357–8
expectations and 14 (RA), 52, 161, 161, 167, 180, 180, 284, monitoring 160 (RA)
358, 390, 449f, 457 moral issues 184
perspectives on teachers 15, 15 (RA), 155 negotiation 148, 156
self-perception 14, 140, 141 regard and 153
teachers’ perspectives on 22, 23, 23 (RA), 161 safety 150
see also cultures; families; peer groups
qualifications see achievement religion 413
questions and answers 152 (RA), 153 (RA), 181 (RA), 278 repertoires 184, 184, 185–6, 187 (RA), 188, 221, 281, 308, 313,
(RA), 329, 330–1, 331 (RA), 362, 363–4, 368–9 313, 318, 328, 358, 364, 449f, 453
authenticity 330 groups 315, 316, 316 (RB), 317
checklists 170 (RA), 197, 199, 208–9, 219–20, 286 learning objectives 313
closed-ended 329 minimal intrusion strategies 184–5
engagement 363 scaffolding 317–18
hands up and 331, 363 speaking 313–15
hot-seating 335 reprimands 156, 168
ICT 464 (CS) self-esteem and 168
inventories 164, 165 (RA) Republic of Ireland 137
multiple choice 386 values 7f
open-ended 195, 329–30 resilience 11 (RB), 110
taxonomy 329 respect 7f
see also consultation responsibility 81, 82
risk 107 (RB), 291 (RB), 296
racism 161, 413 boredom and motivation 57, 58f
reading 335–6, 337, 338–9, 340, 341 (CS), 342 (RA) role play 335
engagement 337–8 routine practice 75, 150–1, 152 (RA), 153 (RA), 185
gender 304 (CS), 338 class groups 417–18
home–school relationships 460 (CS)
ICT 304 (CS) safety 150, 164
knowledge 306, 336–7, 339 health and 212
materials 304–5 (CS), 305–6, 341 (CS), 343 (RA) recording 286
multimodal texts 340 Salamanca Statement 410
needs 466 (CS) SATs 391f
observation 343 (RA) scaffolding 41, 94f, 100, 101, 149, 211f, 212, 219, 303, 315,
oral storytelling 334–5, 341 (CS) 317–18, 326, 328, 332, 343, 362, 449f, 452 (CS), 463
prior learning 311–12 (CS), 312 active engagement 104
uniqueness in 337 intelligence 100
writing and 342, 343 (RA) modelling 318
realism 139 schemes of work 274–6, 276 (RA), 278, 370
reciprocal teaching 223 learning objectives 275

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548 Index

unpredictability 276 ZPD 41, 317

school cultures 55, 55, 86, 129, 130, 130, 166, 216, 449f, 457, social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD) 434 (CS),
464 (CS) 435f
feedback 464 (CS) knowledge and 434 (CS)
Lesson Study 464 (CS) social factors 26f, 54, 57, 60f, 63, 76, 102, 132, 133, 133 (RB),
questions 464 (CS) 142, 143, 176, 176, 206, 220, 226, 238, 247, 273, 347,
school effectiveness 111, 133 387, 436, 448f, 451, 455, 482–3
school improvement 399, 400, 400f bias 161–2
school policy statements 271 communities 111, 133, 142, 164, 207–8, 273, 455, 479–80
school portfolios 404f economic factors and 44, 176, 220, 239f, 478
schools 175, 360, 457 emotional factors and 100, 163–4, 166
rules and routines 151 equality of opportunities 96, 99, 131f, 131–2
sciences 341 (CS) gender 161, 207, 304 (CS), 338, 413–14, 419
assessment 394 generational factors 132
cognition 99 genetic factors and 46
collaboration 85 home 176
knowledge 260 identity and 4, 94f, 95, 124, 211f, 234, 411
scientific and caring professions 82 ideologies and 125–8
Scotland 136–7, 475–6 moral issues 474
AfL 359, 360f needs and 416, 434 (CS), 435f
assessment 392, 394 political factors and 106
culture 479 preconceptions and 129, 235
curricula 246, 246f, 251, 252f, 253, 389, 451 see also collaboration; cultures; relationships
devolution and 128, 129, 130 social justice 480 see also individual terms
evidence-informed practice 72 software 216, 217, 219 (RA), 399, 462 (CS), 464 (CS)
needs 426–7 negotiation and 462 (CS)
values 7f spatial issues 134, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 213 (RA),
vocational and academic learning 258 214, 221, 277
seating groups 223 classroom plans 212, 212 (RA)
SEBD (social, emotional and behavioural difficulties) 434 (CS), resources 210, 213–14 (RA), 214
435f safety 212
knowledge and 434 (CS) seating groups 223
Section 28 414 speaking 101, 182, 313–15, 317, 326, 327, 328, 328 (RA),
selection 126–7, 256–7 331–4, 334 (RA), 354, 362–3, 371 (RB), 462 (CS)
self-assessment 367, 368 (RA), 371 (RB), 465 audiences and 341 (CS), 346
self-confidence 167, 178, 181, 226, 460 (CS) chaining 346
self-esteem 167, 168, 169, 389–90, 456 (CS) creative talk 334–5
self-knowledge 139 exploratory talk 334
SEN (special educational needs) 227, 425, 429f, 435f grammar 347
achievement and 425, 458 (CS) ICT 212, 462 (CS)
political factors 425–6 informal 326
sexism 161, 413–14 intonation and vocal skills 162, 182, 346
sexuality 414 modelling 333
situated learning 54 oral storytelling 334–5, 341 (CS)
skills 98, 162, 181–2, 240, 245, 246, 246f recording 327–8 (RA)
knowledge and 43f, 109, 238, 245, 336–7, 434 (CS), 453 scaffolding 100, 101, 212, 219, 315, 328, 332, 362, 449f,
life and work 27–8, 239f, 257, 258, 381, 397, 467, 478–9 463
see also expertise visibility and 101
smartphones 220 vocabulary 347
social capital 412 writing and 346–7, 384–5
social class 412 see also questions and answers
cultural and social capital 412 special educational needs (SEN) 227, 425, 429f, 435f
economic factors 412 achievement and 425, 458 (CS)
preconceptions and 161 political factors 425–6
social cognition 40, 41–2, 42 (RA), 42f, 43f, 463 special measures 136
engagement 40–1 Special Schools 468–9
scaffolding 463 specialisms in curricula 5

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 Index 549

spelling 384–5 time 213, 451, 474, 475

staffrooms 129 accountability 135
standards 74f, 74–5 achievement 396–7
grade inflation and 393, 393f adult and working life 467
status and style 19 age 25–6, 38–9, 45, 224, 415, 416
storytelling assessment 393, 394, 396, 401
oral 334–5, 341 (CS) autonomy 135
reading 338 curricula 213
stress 389 economic factors 478
style and status 19 engagement 213, 214–15, 215 (RA)
summative assessment see assessment evaporated 213
supple learning minds 247, 248f, 249 expertise 445
switch signals 187–8 feedback 365
flow of sessions 191–5, 192 (RA), 193 (RA), 194 (RA), 196
tablets 220 (RA)
talk see speaking generational factors 132
talk partners 363 global factors 124
targets 398 hours of work 12, 140
consultation 456 (CS) ideologies 126–7
learning objectives 275, 280, 286, 313, 360, 361, 362, 369, individual work 225
451 lifelong learning 96, 97 (RA)
TAs (teaching assistants) 226–7 long-term curricula planning 271–4
achievement and 227 medium-term curricula planning 274–8, 276 (RA)
needs and 227 pacing 189–90
task groups 222 pausing 195
teachers 10, 28–9, 110, 115f, 134, 138–9, 155, 156f, 444, 446, pedagogy 318
457, 477, 490 political factors 77
activism and 485 questions 331, 364
control and 156, 183, 221, 281 short-term curricula planning 279f, 279–81, 282–90, 283f,
dilemmas 69–71, 70f, 71 (RA) 284f, 285 (RA), 287 (RA)
employees 140 spatial issues 213, 213–14 (RA), 214
expectations and 52, 161, 161, 167, 180, 180, 284, 358, 390, standards 74f, 75
449f, 457 timetabling 271
frameworks 281 timetabling 271
judgement by 82–3, 282 Tomlinson Report 257
knowledge 82, 84f trade unions 475, 475f, 476, 486
perspectives on pupils 22, 23, 23 (RA), 161 traffic lights and smiley faces 368–9
pupils’ perspectives on 15, 15 (RA), 155 transfer of schools 397
self-perception 160 assessment 397
self-regulation 137 home–school relationships 454 (CS)
stages 10 materials 454 (CS)
teaching 68, 75, 76, 76–7, 88, 88, 162, 199, 225, 293, 312, 370, out-of-school learning 107 (RB)
444, 449f, 465, 468, 483 transition of classes 193, 193 (RA), 397
teaching assistants (TAs) 226–7 assessment 397
achievement and 227 trust 7f, 85, 477
needs and 227 empowerment 177–8
teaching to the test 388 (RA), 388–9
stress 389 underperforming schools 136, 381
technology 207, 210, 217, 217 (RB) unions 475, 475f, 476, 486
economic factors and 27 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 410, 481, 484
multimodal texts 340 unpredictability 194–5, 276, 386, 386f
see also ICT crises 195, 196 (RA)
technology cultures 55
TEL (technology-enhanced learning) 217, 217 (RB) valued knowledge 98
tests and exams 49, 251, 257, 385, 392–3, 395 values 7f, 7–9, 8 (RA), 237–8, 240 (RA), 247, 355, 453
achievement 251, 393, 393f comparative study 126
three two one rule 191 (RA) emotional factors 10

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550 Index

engagement and 357 whole-class work 221–2, 225

equality of opportunities 96 engagement and 222
moral issues and 237, 475 speaking 314–15
political factors 95 whole-school strategies
relationships 7f assessment 456 (CS)
respect 7f discipline 181 (RA)
trust 7f Lesson Study 297
visibility 100–1, 296–7, 361, 366 wholeheartedness 81–2
visual images 340 withitness 189
displays 208–9 work–life balance 140
see also ICT writing 341 (CS), 342, 343–5
vocabulary 347, 425–6 assessment 384–5
vocal skills and intonation 162, 182, 346 audiences 346
vocational learning 257, 258 creative 319–20 (CS), 320–1, 460 (CS)
political factors 258 grammar 346–7
knowledge 344
Wales 137, 476 materials 343 (RA)
assessment 392 multimodal texts 344
culture 479 needs 466 (CS)
curricula 251, 252f, 253, 389, 451 observation 343 (RA)
devolution and 128, 129–30 oral storytelling 334–5, 341 (CS)
evidence-informed practice 72 reading and 342, 343 (RA)
inclusion 422 scaffolding 343
needs 426 speaking and 346–7, 384–5
values 7f vocabulary 347
warranted practice 29, 29, 80, 111, 116, 116, 127, 137, 308, 313,
449f, 455 ZPD (zone of proximal development) 41
whiteboards 212, 216, 218, 286, 304 (CS) groups 317
groups 218 scaffolding 41, 317

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
Readings for
Reflective
Teaching in
Schools:
Contents list

PART 1: BECOMING A REFLECTIVE PROFESSIONAL

1. Identity. Who are we, and what do we stand for?
1.1 Qing Gu Being a teacher in times of change
1.2 Andrew Pollard and Ann Filer Being a learner though years of schooling
1.3 Jean Rudduck and Julia Flutter How pupils want to learn
1.4 Mandy Swann, Alison Peacock, Susan Learning without limits
Hart and Mary Jane Drummond
1.5 Phil Jones Assumptions about children and young
people
1.6 Leon Feinstein, John Vorhaus and The wider benefits of learning
Ricardo Sabates

2. Learning. How can we understand learner development?

2.1 Burrhus Skinner The science of learning and the art of
teaching
2.2 Jean Piaget The genetic approach to the psychology of
thought
2.3 Lev Vygotsky Mind in society and the ZPD
2.4 Gordon Wells Learning, development and schooling
2.5 The Royal Society Neuroscience and education
2.6 Carol Dweck Motivational processes affecting learning
2.7 Robert Fisher Why thinking should be taught
2.8 Mary James Learning how to learn
552 Readings for Reflective

2.9 Guy Claxton Learning and the development of resilience

2.10 Alan Thomas and Harriet Pattison Informal Learning

3. Reflection. How can we develop the quality of our teaching?

3.1 John Dewey Thinking and reflective experience
3.2 Donald Schön Reflection-in-action
3.3 Lawrence Stenhouse The teacher as researcher
3.4 Richard Pring Action research and the development of
practice
3.5 James Calderhead Competence and the complexities of
teaching
3.6 Ruth Heilbronn Practical judgement and evidence-informed
practice
3.7 Heather and Phil Hodkinson Learning in communities of practice

4. Principles. What are the foundations of effective teaching and learning?

4.1 John Bransford, Ann Brown and Brain, mind and experience: a US review
Rodney Cocking
4.2 David Hogan, Phillip Towndrow, A tale of two pedagogies: teaching and
Dennis Kwek, Ridzuan Rahim, learning in Singapore
Melvin Chan and Serena Luo
4.3 Pasi Sahlberg What the world can learn from educational
change in Finland
4.4 Hanna Dumont, David Istance and The nature of learning: an OECD stocktake
Francisco Benavides
4.5 Naomi Rowe, Anne Wilkin and ‘Good teaching’: a UK review
Rebekah Wilson
4.6 John Hattie Visible learning: a global synthesis

PART 2: CREATING CONDITIONS FOR LEARNING

5. Contexts. What is, and what might be?
5.1 C. Wright Mills The sociological imagination
5.2 Andy Green and Jan Janmaat Regimes of social cohesion
5.3 Stephen Ball Schooling, social class and privilege
5.4 Department for Children, Schools Disadvantage and low attainment
and Families
5.5 General Teaching Council for Accountability in teaching
England

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 Readings for Reflective 553

6. Relationships. How are we getting on together?

6.1 Philip Jackson Life in classrooms
6.2 Mary Helen Immordino-Yang and We feel, therefore we learn.
Antonio Damasio
6.3 Andrew Pollard Teachers, pupils and the working consensus
6.4 Roland Chaplain Classroom rules, routines and rituals
6.5 Caroline Gipps and Barbara Teacher expectations and pupil achievement
MacGilchrist
6.6 Dennis Lawrence What is self-esteem?

7. Engagement. How are we managing behaviour?

7.1 Walter Doyle Learning the classroom environment
7.2 Chris Watkins The big picture on behaviour
7.3 Tom Bennett Virtues of great teachers: justice, courage,
patience, wisdom and compassion
7.4 Sue Cowley Ten strategies for managing behaviour
7.5 Jacob Kounin Discipline and group management in
classrooms
7.6 Frank Merrett and Kevin Wheldall Positive teaching in the classroom

8. Spaces. How are we creating environments for learning?

8.1 Urie Bronfenbrenner Environments as contexts for development
8.2 John Bransford, Ann Brown and Designs for learning environments
Rodney Cocking

8.3 David Clegg and Shirley Billington Classroom layout, resources and display
8.4 David Berliner Instructional time – and where it goes
8.5 Anthony Edwards Environment, affordance and new
technology
8.6 Guther Kress The profound shift of digital literacies
8.7 Daniel Muijs and David Reynolds Direct and interactive whole-class
instruction

PART 3: TEACHING FOR LEARNING

9. Curriculum. What is to be taught and learned?
9.1 Brian Male and Mick Waters Designing the school curriculum
9.2 Michael Young Powerful knowledge
9.3 John Wilson Teaching a subject

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554 Readings for Reflective

9.4 Central Advisory Committee on Aspects of children’s learning

Education
9.5 Jerome Bruner The spiral curriculum
9.6 Lorna Unwin Vocational education matters
9.7 Lee Shulman A perspective on teacher knowledge

10. Planning. How are we implementing the curriculum?

10.1 Her Majesty’s Inspectors Characteristics of the curriculum
10.2 Partnership Management Board of Implementing a Revised Curriculum
Northern Ireland
10.3 Rosie Turner-Bissett Constructing an integrated curriculum
10.4 Louise Thomas An area-based curriculum
10.5 Welsh Assembly Government Skills for 3 to 19-year-olds
10.6 Anthony Haynes Progression and differentiation
10.7 Teaching and Learning in 2020 Review Personalised pedagogies for the future
Group

11. Pedagogy. How can we develop effective strategies?

11.1 Jerome Bruner Folk pedagogy
11.2 The General Teaching Council for What is pedagogy and why is it important?
England
11.3 Brian Simon Why no pedagogy in England?
11.4 Roland Tharp and Ronald Gallimore Teaching as the assistance of performance
11.5 Max van Manen Student experience of pedagogy
11.6 Neil Mercer and Karen Littleton Talking and thinking together

12. Communication. How does use of language support learning?

12.1 Martin Nystrand Engaging students, through taking them
seriously
12.2 Elizabeth Perrot Using questions in classroom discussion
12.3 Robin Alexander The nature of pedagogic repertoire
12.4 Colin Harrison Why is reading so important?
12.5 Myra Barrs and Valerie Cork The development of literacy through
reading, listening, discussing and writing
12.6 Carl Bereiter and Marlene From ‘knowledge telling’ to ‘knowledge
Scardamalia transforming’.
12.7 Adrian Blackledge Language, culture and story in the bilingual
school

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13. Assessment. How can assessment enhance learning?

13.1 Wynne Harlen, Caroline Gipps, Assessment purposes and principles
Patricia Broadfoot and Desmond
Nuttall
13.2 Assessment Reform Group Assessment for learning
13.3 David Spendlove Feedback and learning
13.4 Yolande Muschamp Pupil self-assessment
13.5 Sue Swaffield Authentic assessment for learning
13.6 Gordon Stobart Creating learner identities through
assessment

PART 4: REFLECTING ON CONSEQUENCES

14. Outcomes. How do we monitor student learning achievements?
14.1 Patricia Broadfoot Assessment: Why, who, what, when and
how?
14.2 Scottish Government Principles of assessment in the Curriculum
for Excellence
14.3 Graham Butt Target setting in schools
14.4 Ofsted Using data to improve school performance
14.5 Warwick Mansell, Mary James and The reliability, validity and impact of
the Assessment Reform Group assessment
14.6 Linda Sturman Making best use of international
comparison
14.7 Ann Filer and Andrew Pollard The myth of objective assessment

15. Inclusion. How are we enabling learning opportunities?

15.1 Robin Richardson Principles for equality and diversity
15.2 Andrew Pollard Social differentiation in schools
15.3 Gary Thomas and Andrew Loxley Difference or diversity?
15.4 Sue Hallam Ability grouping in schools
15.5 Barrie Thorne How to promote cooperative classroom
relationships
15.6 Ruth Kershner Learning in inclusive classrooms

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556 Readings for Reflective

PART 5: DEEPENING UNDERSTANDING

16. Expertise. Conceptual tools for career-long fascination?
16.1 Pat Collarbone Contemporary change and professional
development
16.2 Andy Hargreaves Contemporary change and professional
inertia
16.3 Tony Eaude The development of teacher expertise
16.4 Dylan Wiliam Improving teacher expertise
16.5 John Hattie Mind frames for visible learning
16.6 Helen Timperley, Aaron Wilson, Teacher professional learning and
Heather Barrar and Irene Fung development

17. Professionalism. How does reflective teaching contribute to society?

17.1 Margaret Archer Thinking about education systems
17.2 Ian Menter, Moira Hulme, Dely Eliot Teacher education and professionalism
and Jon Lewin
17.3 General Teaching Council for Teaching: the reflective profession
Northern Ireland
17.4 Pasi Sahlberg, John Furlong and Combining research and practice in
Pamela Munn teaching
17.5 Sally Power The imaginative professional
17.6 Council of Europe Teaching and learning about human rights
in schools
17.7 Richard Bowe and Stephen Ball, Three contexts of policy making
with Ann Gold

reflectiveteaching.co.uk
The reflective
teaching series

This book is one of the Reflective Teaching Series – applying principles of reflective
practice in early years, schools, further, higher and adult education.
The Reflective Teaching Series supports improvements in outcomes for learners through:
●● The development of high quality, principled expertise in teaching;
●● Partnership between those involved in the academic study and the practice of
education.
With adaptions for early years, schools, further, higher and adult education, the series
endorses the aspirations of the Teaching Councils of Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland
and the Republic of Ireland. As they put it:

We view teaching as a complex profession which requires high standards of competence,

professional skills and commitment. We consider that high quality teaching is necessary
to deliver high standards of learning for our students. We believe that quality teaching is
achieved when teachers commit themselves to lifelong learning and ongoing reflection on
their professional practice; when they have excellent knowledge of the curriculum which
they are expected to teach; when they have deep and detailed understanding of how
pupils learn; and when they have the confidence to apply and vary their pedagogical skills
to meet the needs of learners in different and sometimes challenging contexts.
We require that teachers are suitably qualified, both academically and professionally, and
that they have appropriate values and a commitment to maintaining and improving their
professional practice as they progress throughout their careers. (Joint Statement, April 2013)

The series is supported by a website, reflectiveteaching.co.uk. For each book, this site is
being developed to offer a range of resources including reflective activities, research
briefings, advice on further reading and additional chapters. The site also offers generic
resources such as a compendium of educational terms, links to other useful websites, and
a conceptual framework for ‘Deepening Expertise’. The latter will also showcase some of
the UK’s best educational research.
The series is coordinated through meetings of the volume and series editors: Paul
Ashwin, Jennifer Colwell, Maggie Gregson, Yvonne Hillier, Amy Pollard and Andrew
558 The reflective teaching series

Pollard. Each volume has an editorial team of contributors whose collective expertise and
experience enable research and practice to be reviewed and applied in relation to early
years, school, further, adult, vocational and higher education.

The Pollard Partnership

The series is the first product of the Pollard Partnership, a collaboration between Andrew
and Amy Pollard to enable the long-term development of this series and to maximise the
beneficial use of research and evidence on public life, policymaking and professional
practice.
In the long term, we may undertake activities in a range of policy areas. This initiative
focuses on education – building on Andrew’s longstanding publishing record, research
and professional engagement. In this arena, we seek to support teacher professionals in
deepening their expertise and in developing policy contexts in which evidence-informed
judgement can flourish.
In relation to education and when appropriate, Amy will act as custodian of Andrew’s
literary legacy. As Andrew’s daughter, she is in a unique position to safeguard the value
commitment of his work – and will engage with education professionals and associations
as appropriate to ensure that future outputs, including reflectiveteaching.co.uk, are under-
pinned by the necessary expertise.

Amy Pollard specialises in the application of social science to policy and practice and
has worked on education projects at Demos (demos.co.uk), the Overseas Development
Institute (odi.org.uk) and Anthropology Matters (anthropologymatters.com). She is
currently Deputy Director of Involve (involve.org.uk), the public engagement charity. With
a PhD in social anthropology, she has worked in charities, think tanks, government and
international agencies for over ten years. She was co-founder and chair of Beyond 2015
(beyond2015.org), a major civil society campaign bringing together over 400 civil society
groups from more than 80 countries.

Andrew Pollard taught in schools for ten years before entering teacher education
and developing a career in educational research. His research interests include
learner perspectives, teaching-learning processes, the role of curriculum, pedagogy
and assessment, and the development of evidence-informed classroom practice. He
has been a Professor of Education at the universities of Bristol, Cambridge, London
and West of England. He was Director of the ESRC Teaching and Learning Research
Programme (tlrp.org), the UK Strategic Forum for Research in Education (sfre.ac.uk) and
of ESCalate (escalate.ac.uk), the Education Subject Centre of the UK’s Higher Education
Academy. He is Chairman of William Pollard & Co. Ltd. (pollardsprint.co.uk), a print and
communications company, founded in 1781.

reflectiveteaching.co.uk