Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and
the IEEE 802 reference model. Its primary function is to provide reliable communication over
the physical layer, which deals with the transmission and reception of raw data bits over a
physical medium.
Key functions and responsibilities of the Data Link Layer include:
1.Framing: Dividing the stream of bits received from the network layer into frames. Each frame
has a header and a trailer, which contain control information, error checking, and
synchronization bits.
2.Addressing: Adding source and destination MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to the
frame header. MAC addresses are used for local delivery on the same network segment.
3.Error Detection and Correction: Checking for errors in the received frames and, if possible,
correcting them. This is essential for ensuring the integrity of the transmitted data.
4. Flow Control: Managing the flow of data between sender and receiver to prevent congestion.
Flow control mechanisms prevent fast senders from overwhelming slow receivers.
5. Access Control: Controlling access to the physical medium to avoid data collisions in shared
networks. This is particularly relevant in Ethernet networks, where the CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) protocol is used.
 The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub-layers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC): This sub-layer is responsible for flow control,
error checking, and framing. It ensures that the data link layer is
independent of the underlying network technologies.
• Media Access Control (MAC): This sub-layer is responsible for
addressing and access control. It deals with issues such as how devices on
the same network segment share the channel.
• Common protocols associated with the Data Link Layer include Ethernet
for wired networks and Wi-Fi for wireless networks. Additionally, Point-
to-Point Protocol (PPP) is often used for point-to-point communication
over serial links.
•
PPP: The Point-to-Point Protocol
PPP, or Point-to-Point Protocol, is a data link layer (Layer 2) protocol commonly used in computer networking to establish a direct
connection between two nodes. It's often used for connecting a computer to the Internet via a dial-up or broadband connection. PPP
provides a standard way to encapsulate and transmit multi-protocol datagrams over point-to-point links.
• Here are some key features and aspects of PPP:
1. Encapsulation: PPP encapsulates data frames from the network layer (Layer 3) for transmission over a physical medium. It supports
multiple network layer protocols, such as IP (Internet Protocol), IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange), and others. The ability to
support multiple protocols makes PPP versatile.
2. Authentication: PPP supports various authentication methods to verify the identity of the connecting devices. Common
authentication protocols used with PPP include PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) and CHAP (Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol). These mechanisms help ensure that only authorized users can establish a connection.
3. Error Detection: PPP includes a robust error detection mechanism to identify and discard corrupted frames. This is essential for
maintaining the integrity of data transmission.
4. Link Control Protocol (LCP): LCP is responsible for establishing, configuring, and testing the data link connection. It sets up and
negotiates options such as authentication, compression, and IP address assignment.
5. Network Control Protocol (NCP): NCP is responsible for establishing and configuring different network layer protocols. For
example, IP is one of the protocols that can be negotiated and configured using NCP.
6. Multilink PPP (MLPPP): MLPPP allows the bundling of multiple physical links into a single logical link. This helps in load
balancing and increases the overall bandwidth for data transmission.
7. Support for Asynchronous and Synchronous Links: PPP can be used over both asynchronous and synchronous connections,
making it versatile for various types of point-to-point links.
8. Dynamic IP Address Assignment: PPP can dynamically assign IP addresses to devices using protocols like IPCP (Internet Protocol
Control Protocol).
 Ethernet standard
• An Ethernet standard describes the properties, functions, and implementation
of a specific media type. There are various types of media. A media type can
provide different speeds of transmission on different types of implementation.
An Ethernet standard specifies a specific implementation of a particular media
type.
• IEEE 802.3, 802.5, FDDI, 802.6.
• IEEE ( Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
• FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
• Ethernet is a widely used standard for computer networking that defines the physical and data link layers of the OSI model.
The most common Ethernet standard today is based on the IEEE 802.3 standard. Here are some key aspects of Ethernet
standards:
• Ethernet is a standard for wired local area network (LAN) technology. It defines a set of rules for how devices in a network communicate
with each other. Ethernet is most commonly used to connect computers and network devices within a local area, such as a home, office, or
campus.

1. IEEE 802.3 Standard:

1. The IEEE 802.3 standard defines the Ethernet protocol and is maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE).
2. It specifies the characteristics of the physical layer (e.g., cables, connectors) and the data link layer (e.g., framing, addressing) for wired
Ethernet networks.
2. Data Rates:
1. Ethernet standards support various data rates, and each standard typically represents a specific speed. Common speeds include 10 Mbps
(Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps, 25 Gbps, 40 Gbps, and 100 Gbps.
3. Physical Media:
1. Ethernet can operate over different types of physical media, including twisted-pair copper cables (such as Cat 5 and Cat 6), fiber-optic
cables, and coaxial cables.
4. Ethernet Frame Format:
1. Ethernet frames are the units of data that are transmitted over the network. The frame format includes fields for source and destination
MAC (Media Access Control) addresses, type/length, payload (actual data), and a frame check sequence for error detection.
5. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):
1. Traditional Ethernet (10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX) used CSMA/CD as a medium access control method to handle collisions in shared
media environments. However, modern Ethernet standards like Gigabit Ethernet and beyond typically use full-duplex communication,
eliminating the need for CSMA/CD.
6. Evolution of Ethernet:
1. Ethernet has evolved over the years to support higher data rates and improved technologies. For example,
the evolution from 10 Mbps (Ethernet) to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), and
beyond.
7. Power over Ethernet (PoE):
1. Ethernet standards also include specifications for Power over Ethernet, allowing devices to receive power
over the same Ethernet cable used for data