There are several methods for determining that a metal is starting to become fatigued:

Visual inspection. Detection of cracks or other deformations.

Noise analysis. Damaged metal makes a specific rattling noise.
Ultrasonic and X-ray inspection. ...
Fluorescent dyes. ...
Magnetic powders.

Liquid Penetrate Inspection:

Dye penetrant inspection (DP), also called liquid penetrate inspection (LPI) or penetrant testing
(PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to check surface-breaking defects
in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be applied to all non-
ferrous materials and ferrous materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-particle
inspection is often used instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting,
forging and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new
products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

Principles
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry
surface-breaking discontinuities. The penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed and a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so that
an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet
or white light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

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Inspection steps
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:

1. Pre-cleaning:
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could either
keep penetrant out of a defect or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods may
include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapour degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal of
this step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of
contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small discontinuities in the
part, and an etching bath is recommended as a post-blasting treatment.

2. Application of Penetrant:
The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is usually a
brilliant coloured mobile fluid with high wetting capability. The penetrant is allowed "dwell time"
to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the
penetrant being used, the material being tested and the size of flaws sought. As expected, smaller
flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible nature, one must be careful not
to apply solvent-based penetrant to a surface which is to be inspected with a water- washable
developer.

3. Excess Penetrant Removal:

The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by the
type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or
hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest
sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water
spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on
the test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If excess penetrant
is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may leave a background in the developed
area that can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false indications
severely hindering the ability to do a proper inspection. Also, the removal of excessive penetrant
is done towards one direction either vertically or horizontally as the case may be.

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4. Application of Developer:
After excess penetrant has been removed, a white developer is applied to the sample. Several
developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water-
suspendable, and water-soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one
can't use water-soluble or -suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by
inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the
sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are applied
with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray
cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two.
Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.

The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out can indicate the location, orientation and
possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and characterizing defects from
the indications found may require some training and/or experience [the indication size is not the
actual size of the defect].

5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical)
for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts
per centimetre squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles)
for fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after 10- to
30-minute development time, and is dependent on the penetrant and developer used. This time
delay allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication
formation when using visible dye. It is also good practice to observe indications as they form
because the characteristics of the bleed out are a significant part of interpretation characterization
of flaws.

6. Post Cleaning:
The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if post-
inspection coating processes are scheduled.

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 Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages include the
detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a smooth clean
surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being developed. Conducting the test
on rough surfaces, such as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to remove any excessive
penetrant and could result in false indications. Water-washable penetrant should be considered
here if no other option is available. Also, on certain surfaces, a great enough colour contrast cannot
be achieved or the dye will stain the workpiece.

Limited training is required for the operator — although experience is quite valuable. Proper
cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed and any defects
present are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test
sensitivity, so acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be necessary.
Penetrant inspection can only be applied on non-porous materials

Radiographic Testing
Radiographic Testing (RT or X-ray or Gamma ray) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) method that
examines the volume of a specimen. Radiography (X-ray) uses X-rays and gamma-rays to produce
a radiograph of a specimen, showing any changes in thickness, defects (internal and external), and
assembly details to ensure optimum quality in your operation.

RT usually is suitable for testing welded joints that can be accessed from both sides, with the
exception of double-wall signal image techniques used on some pipe. Although this is a slow and
expensive NDT method, it is a dependable way to detect porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in
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weld interiors.
RT makes use of X-rays or gamma rays. X-rays are produced by an X-ray tube, and gamma rays
are produced by a radioactive isotope.

WATER COOLED X-RAY TUBE

 K - cathode (electron source)

 A - anode (target electrons)
 C - cooling Water
 UH - heating voltage
 UA - accelerating voltage
 X - X-radiation (X-rays)

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The method is based on the same principle as medical radiography in a hospital. A piece of
radiographic film is placed on the remote side of the material under inspection and radiation is
then transmitted through from one side of the material to the remote side where the radiographic
film is placed.

The radiographic film detects the radiation and measures the various quantities of radiation
received over the entire surface of the film. This film is then processed under dark room conditions
and the various degrees of radiation received by the film are imaged by the display of different
degrees of black and white, this is termed the film density and is viewed on a special light emitting
device.

Discontinuities in the material affect the amount of radiation being received by the film through
that particular plane of the material. Qualified inspectors can interpret the resultant images and
record the location and type of defect present in the material. Radiography can be used on most
materials and product forms, e.g. welds, castings, composites etc.

Radiographic testing provides a permanent record in the form of a radiograph and provides a highly
sensitive image of the internal structure of the material.

The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on its thickness and density. Energy not
absorbed by the object causes exposure of the radiographic film. These areas will be dark when
the film is developed. Areas of the film exposed to less energy remain lighter. Therefore, areas of
the object where the thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as porosity or cracks,

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will appear as dark outlines on the film. Inclusions of low density, such as slag, will appear as dark
areas on the film, while inclusions of high density, such as tungsten, will appear as light areas.

All discontinuities are detected by viewing the weld shape and variations in the density of the
processed film. This permanent film record of weld quality is relatively easy to interpret if
personnel are properly trained. Only qualified personnel should conduct radiography and
radiographic interpretation because false readings can be expensive and can interfere seriously
with productivity, and because invisible X-ray and gamma radiation can be hazardous.

Limitations:
High risk of radiation hazard.
Can be sensitive to defect orientation and could miss planar flaws.
Has limited ability to detect fine cracks.
Access is required to both sides of the object.
Thickness limitation of the materials can be penetrated.
Skilled radiographic interpretation is required.

Advantages:
There are many advantages to radiography, including:
Inspection capability for many types of material with varying density.
Ability to inspect assembled components.
Minimal surface preparation required.
Determination of crack growth.
Detection of both surface and subsurface defects.
Permanent record of the inspection.

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection (often abbreviated MT or MPI) is a nondestructive inspection method
that provides detection of linear flaws located at or near the surface of ferromagnetic materials. It
is viewed primarily as a surface examination method.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a very effective method for location of surface breaking and
slight sub-surface defects such as cracking, pores, cold lap, lack of sidewall fusion in welds etc in
magnetic materials.

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There are many different techniques. The most versatile technique is using a 110v AC hand held
electromagnetic yoke magnet, a white strippable paint as contrast background and a magnetic "ink"
composed of iron powder particles in a liquid carrier base.

The area is magnetised with the yoke magnet. In the event of a surface or slightly sub surface
defect being present, the lines of magnetic force will deform around the defect.

The magnetic ink is applied and the iron powder particles will bridge the gap caused by the defect
and give a visible indication against the white contrast background.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) provides very good defect resolution and is used extensively
on:
Welded fabrications in magnetic material, Castings, Locating fatigue cracks in items subject to
cyclical stress

Fig: Schematic of flux lines flowing past both a perpendicular and parallel defect, and
flux leakage occurring around the perpendicular flaw.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION IS PERFORMED IN FOUR STEPS:

Induce a magnetic field in the specimen
Apply magnetic particles to the specimen's surface
View the surface, looking for particle groupings that are caused by defects
Demagnetize and clean the specimen

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ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
Can find both surface and near sub-surface defects
Some inspection formats are extremely portable and low cost
Rapid inspection with immediate results
Indications are visible to the inspector directly on the specimen surface
Can detect defects that have been smeared over
Can inspect parts with irregular shapes (external splines, crankshafts, connecting rods, etc.)

LIMITATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

The specimen must be ferromagnetic (e.g. steel, cast iron)
Paint thicker than about 0.005" must be removed before inspection
Post cleaning and post demagnetization is often necessary
Maximum depth sensitivity is typically quoted as 0.100" (deeper under perfect conditions)
Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important

Eddy-current testing
ECT principle
In its most basic form — the single-element ECT probe — a coil of conductive wire is excited
with an alternating electrical current. This wire coil produces an alternating magnetic field around
itself. The magnetic field oscillates at the same frequency as the current running through the coil.
When the coil approaches a conductive material, currents opposite to the ones in the coil are
induced in the material — eddy currents.

Variations in the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the test object, and the
presence of defects causes a change in eddy current and a corresponding change in phase and
amplitude that can be detected by measuring the impedance changes in the coil, which is a telltale
sign of the presence of defects. This is the basis of standard (pancake coil) ECT. NDT kits can be
used in the eddy current testing process.

ECT has a very wide range of applications. Since ECT is electrical in nature, it is limited to
conductive material. There are also physical limits to generating eddy currents and depth of
penetration (skin depth).

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Applications
The two major applications of eddy current testing are surface inspection and tubing inspections.
Surface inspection is used extensively in the aerospace industry, but also in the petrochemical
industry. The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks. Surface inspection can be
performed both on ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.

Tubing inspection is generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing and is known as conventional

eddy current testing. Conventional ECT is used for inspecting steam generator tubing in nuclear
plants and heat exchangers tubing in power and petrochemical industries. The technique is very
sensitive to detect and size pits. Wall loss or corrosion can be detected but sizing is not accurate.

A variation of conventional ECT for partially magnetic materials is full saturation ECT. In this
technique, permeability variations are suppressed by applying a magnetic field. The saturation
probes contain conventional eddy current coils and magnets. This inspection is used on partially
ferromagnetic materials such as nickel alloys, duplex alloys, and thin-ferromagnetic materials such
as ferritic chromium molybdenum stainless steel. The application of a saturation eddy current
technique depends on the permeability of the material, tube thickness, and diameter.

A method used for carbon steel tubing is remote field eddy current testing. This method is sensitive
to general wall loss and not sensitive to small pits and cracks.
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ECT on surfaces
When it comes to surface applications, the performance of any given inspection technique depends
greatly on the specific conditions — mostly the types of materials and defects, but also surface
conditions, etc. However, in most situations, the following are true:

Effective on coatings/paint: yes

Computerized record keeping: partial
3D/Advanced imaging: none
User dependence: high
Speed: low
Post-inspection analysis: none
Requires chemicals/consumables: no
Other applications
ECT is also useful in making electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements, among
others.

Other eddy current testing techniques

To circumvent some of the shortcomings of conventional ECT, other eddy current testing
techniques were developed with various successes.

Eddy current array

Eddy current array (ECA) and conventional ECT share the same basic working principles. ECA
technology provides the ability to electronically drive an array of coils ( multiple coils) arranged
in specific pattern called a topology that generates a sensitivity profile suited to the target defects.
Data acquisition is achieved by multiplexing the coils in a special pattern to avoid mutual
inductance between the individual coils. The benefits of ECA are:

Faster inspections
Wider coverage
Less operator dependence — array probes yield more consistent results compared to manual
raster scans
Better detection capabilities
Easier analysis because of simpler scan patterns
Improved positioning and sizing because of encoded data

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Array probes can easily be designed to be flexible or shaped to specifications, making hard-to-
reach areas easier to inspect
ECA technology provides a remarkably powerful tool and saves significant time during
inspections. ECA inspection in carbon steel welds is regulated by ASTM standard E3052.