ENGINE CONSTRUCTION (2)

THE CRANKSHAFT

Function:

The function of the crankshaft is to convert the reciprocating piston motion into a rotary motion, i.e. to
convert the piston downward thrust into a turning motion or torque which can be used to drive the road
wheels. The crankshaft also drives the camshaft and supports the flywheel and indirectly drives the
electrical generator and distributor, the lubricating oil pump, and the water pump and air cooling system
fan.

Operating conditions:

The maximum crankshaft speed is usually between 4000 and 6000 revolution per minute. Each power
stroke may produce a load on the crankshaft of about two tones, the main and big-end journals
operating under pressures. The lubricating oil temperature, i.e. bearing temperature is usually between
50°C and 110°C.

Construction:

The crankshaft is probably the most highly stressed vehicle part and it must be made very stiff and
tough to resist the very large bending and twisting forces imposed upon it. Most crankshafts are one-
piece units but the crankshafts of some motor-cycle and aircraft engines are built-up assemblies. The
crankshaft shape is related to the number and the cylinders arrangement but usually consists of a
number of main journals which all rotate about the same axis or centre line. Crankpins are arranged
between these main journals at the same distances from the centre line and are connected to the journals
by webs. The crankpins are arranged so as to counterbalance each other across the shaft axis and
weights may be fitted to the webs to counterbalance the crank-pins weights and the connecting rods
big-ends. The big-ends are attached to each crankpin. The crank-webs are drilled to direct high pressure
lubricating oil from the main journals to the crankpins, thus cooling the bearings as well as reducing
friction and wear. Special oil-sealing arrangements must be made to prevent the escape of this oil from
each crankshaft end.

Whip:

A rotating shaft has a tendency at high speeds for its centre to be deflected by centrifugal force. This
deflection is called ‘whip’ and it’s reduced either by making the shaft stiffer and heavier or by using
more supporting main bearings.
Throw:

The distance between the crankshaft centre and the crankpin centre is termed the shaft ‘throw’. The
throw is equal to half the piston stroke.

Materials:

Crankshaft may be forgings of a high-grade alloy steel or castings of a special cast iron form. In both
cases the wearing surfaces must be hardened to resist wear, the heat treatment used being dependent
upon the material. The steel shaft usually contains nickel, chromium, molybdenum and occasionally
aluminum. The cast-iron shaft has the alloys molybdenum and copper or molybdenum and chromium
and is much cheaper, lighter in weight and more wear resistant than the steel shaft and needs less
machining.

Firing orders:

The petrol and air mixture should be so distributed between the cylinders that the same mass of mixture
is induced into every cylinder. In practice, the even distribution is not obtained because the changes in
direction and mixture velocity, as it flows through the manifold, make less mass of mixture available to
some cylinders. The mixture strength also varies between cylinders for the same reasons. The induction
strokes of a multi-cylinder engine do not take place in numerical order but in a special sequence which
is used to reduce the number of direction and velocity changes in the mixture flow. In this way the
cylinders are able to induce approximately the same masses of mixture, i.e. the mixture distribution is
made more even. The particular sequence used depends upon the number and cylinder arrangement and
upon the crankshaft shape. The induction strokes are usually arranged to occur alternatively between
the front and rear engine halves. These sequences are called firing orders and in some of them two
cylinders in one half of the engine may fire in succession. This prevents the unwinding of the
crankshaft between power strokes and so reduces the effect of torsion vibration upon the shaft. The
arrangement of the cam pairs around the circumference of the camshaft determines the firing order
from a practical view point.
Fig 1: Four-cylinder crankshaft: (a) three-bearing; (b) five-bearing.

Crankshaft types

Four cylinders:

The most commonly used crankshaft type is that with four cylinders in line. Three or five main
bearings are employed and the crank throws are all in the same plane. Pistons one and four will be at
top dead centre together, although on different strokes, while pistons two and three will be at bottom
dead centre. The firing intervals are equal at 180º, but the torque fluctuates because one power stroke is
dying away as the next is building up. The distributor cam will have four lobes. The firing order will be
1,3,4,2 or 1,2,4,3.

Six cylinders

In line:
The crankshaft torque may be increased by the use of six instead of four cylinders. Engines with this
arrangement are longer, heavier, more complicated and more expensive than the four-cylinder types,
but they have much better balance and can accelerate much faster. They can also operate at lower
speeds in top gear. The torque is also more even because the intervals between the power strokes are
reduced to 120° and are equal. The shaft has six crankpins and either four or seven main journals. The
crankpins are arranged in parallel pairs, the two centre pins being 120º from numbers 1 and 6 in the
opposite direction. The distributor cam will have six lobes and the firing order will be either 1,5,3,6,2,4
or 1,4,2,6,3,5.

Vee six:

In this type, two sets of three cylinders are staggered and arranged over the crankshaft to form 60° vee.
The shaft has six crankpins arranged around it at 60º intervals. The firing intervals are 120° and the
firing order is 1, 4, 2, 6, 3and 5.

Fig 2: Six-cylinder crankshafts: above, in-line; below, vee.

Eight cylinders

In-line:
These are sometimes also called straight eights. They have more power, better acceleration and a
smoother torque than the six-cylinder types. Several different crankshaft arrangements can be used,
each with about six alternative firing orders. In one arrangement the shaft resembles two flat-four
crankshafts set end with their planes at right angles. The firing order most often used is 1, 5,2,6,4,8,3,7.
An alternative crankshaft is more complicated, but is used because it avoids the longitudinal engine
rocking. This is called the split-four shaft because it resembles a four-throw shaft cut in half and each
half added to the ends of a second four-throw shaft turned through a right angle. The firing order is 1,
6,2,5,8,3,7,4. In both shaft arrangements, the firing interval is 90º. Although the in-line six and eight-
cylinder engines have a very smooth torque and are well balanced, they are rather long. Apart from the
considerations of mass and room available, long engines suffer from:

1) The shaft length makes it more liable to suffer from torsion vibration at normal running speeds.
2) The length and inlet shape manifold make it almost impossible for the cylinder to induce the
same mixture mass, i.e. mixture distribution is poor.
3) Because of the above, the overall mixture strength must be made excessively rich to avoid
starvation of the weaker cylinders. This, combined with less efficient cylinder heads cooling,
makes fuel consumption unnecessarily high.

To some extent these difficulties can be overcome by the use of torsion vibration dampers and multi-
carburetor or fuel injection systems, but these all add to the complication and expense of producing and
maintaining the engine. For some or all of these reasons, the straight eight has been replaced by the vee
eight.

Vee eight:

These are much shorter and have less than in-line types. Two banks of four cylinders are arranged at
90° above a three-bearing, four-throw crankshaft. The throws are 90º apart. Two connecting rods are
attached to each crankpin, the big-ends rotating side by side. The left bank is numbered 1 to 4 and right
bank 5 to 8. Numbers 1 and 5 connecting rods are attached to number 1 crankpin followed by 2 and 6,
3and 1 and 4 and 8. The firing interval is 90° and the distributor has two four-lobed cams. The firing
order is 1, 5,4,8,6,3,7,2.

Crankshaft vibration

When the engine crankshaft is rotating at high speed, it is liable to vibrate with varying intensity. This
vibration has two main causes; the first is the action upon the shaft of unbalanced forces, the second is
the torsion/twisting power strokes effect upon the shaft.
Out-of-balance forces:

These are produced by any, or a combination of:

1) The fact that the crankshaft and flywheel assembly is not ‘statically balanced’.
2) The fact that the crankshaft and flywheel are not ‘dynamically balanced’.
3) The fact that the pistons masses and connecting rods are not balanced while in motion, i.e. the
reciprocating masses are not balanced.

For balancing purposes the reciprocating masses are taken to be those of the piston, the gudgeon pin,
and the upper third of the connecting rod. The rotating masses are taken to be those of the crankpin, the
big-end, and the lower two-thirds of the connecting rod.

Static balance:

In practice, the crankshaft vibration is reduced, as far as is economically possible, by the careful
balancing of the crankshaft and flywheel. This may be done by fitting balance weights to the crank-
webs, by removing metal from the crank-webs or by arranging the crankpins on opposite shaft sides.
When the main journals are supported by parallel and accurately leveled knife edges, the crankshaft
should remain in any given position and have no tendency to rotate. Under these conditions, the
crankshaft is said to be statically balanced, i.e. balanced when stationary.

Dynamic balance:

When the crankshaft of a multi-cylinder engine is rotating, it tends to rock from side to side, the motion
being more violent at certain speeds. This is because the crankpins cannot be arranged exactly opposite
each other and side thrust are produced which act alternatively in opposite directions. This rocking or
pitching effect can be reduced by removing metal from certain crank-webs parts, the positions and
metal masses to be removed being found by the special machine use in which the crankshaft is rotated
at various speeds. When this operation has been completed the crankshaft is said to be dynamically
balanced i.e. balanced while rotating.

Reciprocating mass balance:

Both the static and dynamic shaft balancing are not too difficult to obtain because only simple rotating
masses are involved. When the piston and connecting rods are assembled to the crankpins i.e. the
reciprocating masses are added, the exact balancing of the complete assembly is a much more difficult
task and in some arrangements may even be impossible. It’s a crankshaft feature, piston and
connecting-rod assembly that during the first crankshaft half revolution from top dead centre the piston
moves down the cylinder at a greater speed than it does in the second half-revolution, due to the oblique
connecting rod angles. The result of this is that the piston moves more than half its stroke in the 1 st 90º
of crankshaft rotation. In a four-cylinder, in-line engine, the two pistons which are moving down from
top dead centre move faster than the two moving up to dead centre and the forces resulting from these
movements do not counterbalance each other’s effect upon the crankshaft. The result of this lack of
balance is that the crankshaft is caused to vibrate in a direction parallel with the cylinders.

Torsion vibrations:

The torque or turning crankshaft motion is derived from the power strokes, each of which forces a
crankpin to rotate about the main journals centre and so tends to twist the shaft i.e. subjects it to torsion
stress. Although the power strokes may occur at equal angels of crankshaft rotation, the torque
produced by them alternates between a high and a low value. The greater the power strokes number
which occur in each 720° of crankshaft rotation, the higher the torque average value and more the
torque i.e. the more powerful and even the torque. The torque alternation and of corresponding torsion
loads may cause the shaft to vibrate about its own centre line. The vibration is sometimes referred to
shaft ‘wind up’, the shaft alternatively winding up and releasing as it rotates. In addition to the torsion
vibration, the rotating shaft also has its own natural frequency or vibration. At certain rotation speeds,
critical speeds, the frequencies of these two vibrations may coincide and produce an excessive
vibration called ‘resonance’. The shaft vibration may then be so vibrant that the shaft will be fractured.
If the crankshaft is long and the crank-webs are heavy, the resonance frequency vibrations will occur
within the normal crankshaft speed range. This must be avoided by careful attention to the crankshaft
assembly design and by the fitting of a suitable torsion vibration damper.

The crankshaft damper

Several different designs of crankshaft torsion vibration damper are in use but they operate in a way as
to allow the crankshaft to offer a greater resistance to torsion loads. This has the effect of increasing the
natural shaft frequency so as resonance vibration can only occur at speeds beyond those normal for the
shaft. The damper is a small flywheel which can also rotate in relation to the shaft when torque
variations occur.
Fig 3: Types of damper: Left CV or friction; right, bonded rubber.

Construction:

One damper type consists of a hub which is keyed to the forward crankshaft end and so always rotates
with it. A heavy metal disc, called inertia member, is arranged that it will only rotate with the hub
when the hub itself is rotating under an even torque i.e. at a constant velocity. The inertia member is
usually friction driven by the hub through spring-loaded friction linings or through a thick fluid or
through a bonded rubber ring or pads.

Operation:

When the torsion vibrations frequencies from the power stroke coincide with the natural crankshaft
frequencies to produce resonance frequencies, the crankshaft vibrates about its own centre line-or
winds up and releases. This results in the damper hub accelerating and slowing down as it rotates. Due
to its large mass, the inertia member cannot quickly follow these velocity changes and it therefore
continues to rotate smoothly. In so doing, it overcomes the friction between itself and the hub and
absorbs the resonance vibration energy, so bringing the vibrations frequency below the level which may
result in damage to the crankshaft. The fan-belt drive pulley is often combined with the damper and this
result in a much smoother torque transmission to the water pump and dynamo. Use of the damper
reduces crankshaft failure or distortion chance and also provides a smoother torque at the camshaft.

Note:

It’s important to note that these units are designed to operate with one particular crankshaft assembly
design. They are not interchangeable between different crankshaft designs and are not adjustable except
where the engine manufacturer issues detailed procedure together with loading details to be used.

THE MAIN BEARINGS

The crankshaft is supported in the crankcase by three, five or seven main bearing in which the main
journals rotate. The bearing may be thick or thin walled and are split, plain types.

Thick-wall type:

Each bearing consists of a pair of phosphor-bronze backs or shells which are lined to a thickness of
about three millimeters with white metal. When used with steel, the metal has a low frictional
resistance. The white metal consists of about 88% tin, 4% copper and 8% antimony and has a low
melting point. Should the bearing lubrication fail, the resulting temperature bearing rise and journal will
melt the white metal and the noise that results will warn the driver to stop - so reducing the chance of
damaging the crankshaft. These bearings are machined to size and given a good finish but generally
require hand scraping to obtain the correct bedding-in after fitting to the crankcase webs. The big-end
bearings of the connecting rods are similar in this respect. This bearing type was quite successful for
many years, but as bearing loads and running speeds have increased, are still being increased, these
bearings have been replaced by the thin-wall types. This is because the white metal tends to be beaten
out by the shock loads, so breaking up the surface and causing the bearing to fail long before it is worn
out. A further point is that the thin-wall bearings are much simpler and cheaper to replace.
Fig 4: Main bearings: (a) thick wall; (b) thin wall.

Thin-wall type:

These bearings consist of a pair of thin steel shells lined to a depth of about 0.13mm with white metal. The
shallow depth of the anti-friction metal improves the fatigue bearings resistance and these types are said to
have four times the life of the thick-wall bearings. The shells are formed very accurately and have very fine
surface finishes. No hand fitting work is required and none should ever be attempted. The bearings must be
properly fitted into their recesses and located by the small lugs or projections pressed from the steel backs.
These prevent the shells from being turned or moved along the journal during installation. It is most
important that both the shells backs and their recesses in the webs and bearing caps be perfectly clean when
fitting the shells, as only friction prevents their rotation in service. (Interference fit under correct torque
load.) Many bearings now in use are lined with lead-bronze. This metal is much harder and stronger in
compression, than white metal and although it is more expensive, it has about three times as long a life
when used in these bearings. Sometimes only the half bearing under the greater load is lined with lead-
bronze, the other half being lined with white metal i.e. the lower half of the main bearing and the upper half
of the big-end bearing are lead-bronze. This is to both save expense and reduce the total friction in the
bearing, lead-bronze having more frictional resistance than white metal. Lead-bronze consists of about 70%
copper, 28% lead and 2% tin. Another metal used for heavy-duty bearings is copper-lead. This contains
more lead and less copper than the lead-bronze, together with a small percentage of tin or silver and is a
softer metal. White metal is used for the main and big-end bearings of most petrol engines, copper-lead
being used for the more expensive high-performance engines. Lead-bronze is used in the compression-
ignition engines where bearing pressures are higher and more sustained. The best materials combination for
long-life bearings is a hardened steel shaft in a lead-bronze shall which has been coated with a thin film of
lead and indium, the film preventing corrosion and reducing journal scoring.

Clearances:

The running clearance between the main journals and their bearings is about 0.02mm for each 25mm of
bearing diameter. Because of their higher frictional resistance, the harder bearing metals require slightly
larger clearance to reduce the chance of seizure to the journals when the journals expand under heat. The
end crankshaft float in the crankcase must be limited to between 0.1mm and 0.25mm. End float is
controlled by thrust faces on both centre sides main bearing or by a similar arrangement at the rear main
bearing.

Torque loading:

The main bearing caps must be tightened down correctly to avoid bearings distortion or shells looseness,
either of which will result in bearing failure. The nuts must be tightened by means of a torque wrench, the
loadings being between 54N m and 270N m.

Note:

Always refer to the manufacturers’ manuals for fitting instruction. Never guess or rely on memory.

THE CONNECTING ROD

Function:

The connecting rod is used to transfer thrust in either direction between the piston and the crankpin.

Construction:

The connecting rod is usually about twice as long as the engine stroke and is subjected to forces which
try to bend, stretch and compress it. It’s usually of H-shaped cross-section to resist these forces and is
either an alloy-steel forging or an aluminum-alloy forging of equivalent strength but lighter in weight.
The small rod end carries the gudgeon pin in either a phosphor-bronze bush or in a clamped eye. The
large, big-end, bearing is split to allow it to be fitted to the crankpin, thin-wall white metal or copper-
lead bearing shells being used. In some engines, the split of the bearing is oblique to make the
withdrawal of the rod up the cylinder bore possible. Clearance is about the same as for the main
bearings.
Fig 5: Connecting rods.

The lubrication of the big-end bearing is very important and is usually arranged by feeding high-
pressure oil, through a duct or drilling in the crankshaft, from a main journal to the crankpin. In some
connecting rods, a small hole is drilled through the upper shell and rod so that it lines up with the main
feed crankpin hole once each revolution. This results in a small oil jet being sprayed out to lubricate the
cylinder wall. It’s most important the hole, where used, be fitted towards the thrust cylinder side. The
correct torque loadings must be used when tightening down the bearing cap nuts.

CRANKCASE OIL SEALING

Because the crankshaft ends pass through the front and rear crankcase walls and the main bearings are
supplied by oil under high pressure, it’s necessary to use some oil form sealing to prevent engine oil
leakage. At the forward crankshaft end, a felt ring is often fitted into the timing case to fit closely
around the crankshaft pulley. An alternative method is sometimes used where the timing case is made
in two parts, the felt ring being replaced by two semicircular strips of graphite-impregnated wick
materials. Spring-loaded seals are also used. In all arrangements, most oil escaping from the bearing is
prevented from reaching the seal itself by oil thrower ring. This is a saucer-shaped steel disc with a
sharp edge; as oil reaches it the oil is thrown from the disc and shaft, to fall back into the sump.
Fig 6: Crankshaft oil sealing.

At the rear crankshaft end, the oil must be prevented from entering the clutch housing. One method is
to use an oil-thrower ring which in this case is crankshaft part, being a knife-edged circular projection
positioned outside the bearing. Oil thrown from the knife edge is returned to the sump through a pipe or
duct in the bearing cap. An alternative method is to machine a shallow square thread half in the shaft
end and half in a special cylindrical housing fitting closely over the shaft and accurately centralized. Oil
escaping from the bearing is wound back into it again or is forced back to a drain into the sump.
Sometimes, combinations of these methods are used.

THE FLYWHEEL

Function:

It’s used to retain some energy given to the crankshaft during the power stroke and then to release the
energy to keep the crankshaft turning during the idle strokes i.e. the flywheel helps to keep the
crankshaft rotating smoothly. The flywheel also forms one driving clutch face assembly and acts as a
gear for the engagement of the starter motor.

Construction:

The flywheel consists of a steel or cast-iron disc with a heavy rim. This mass, at the largest possible
radius, gives the flywheel a large moment of inertia i.e. resistance to changes in velocity, which enables
it to store and release energy as required. The greater the power strokes number during each crankshaft
revolution, the lighter the flywheel can be and the quicker the engine response to the demanded speed
changes. The rear flywheel face is used to mount the clutch assembly and this face is usually hardened
to resist wear. The outer flywheel circumference carries a set or ring of gear teeth which may be
integral with the flywheel or may be a shrink fit. The gear on the shaft end of the starter motor engages
with this ring gear when the motor is energized. It’s essential to the crankshaft balance and flywheel
assembly that both should rotate about the same axis. The flywheel is therefore usually recessed to fit
tightly over a forged flange at the crankshaft end and is held in position by two dowels. The flywheel is
secured to the crankshaft by a set of bolts which must be tightened down to the correct torque loading
and locked by a wire or lock plates.

Fig 7: Flywheel.

If the flywheel circumference is marked to assist in valve or ignition timing operations, either the
dowels or the bolts may be so arranged that it’s impossible to mount the flywheel in the wrong position.

THE POPPET VALVE

Function:

The valve is used to control the gases flow into and out of the cylinders and combustion chambers.
Usually there is one inlet valve and one exhaust valve but engines with two valves of each type have
been used.
Operation conditions:

Inlet valve: -The inlet valve is kept relatively cool by the mixture which flows around it as each fresh
charge is induced and normally operates at about 250ºC.

Exhaust valve: -For very short periods the exhaust valve is subjected to temperatures of over 2000°C
but it normally operates at about 750ºC i.e. at red heat.

Both valves: -both valves must make a good gas-tight seal against pressures at the above temperatures.
They must also resist corrosion and scaling. As they are held down to their seats by strong springs they
must also resist being stretched and must not be distorted by the continual hammering of their heads
upon their seats.

Materials:

These are usually high-tensile alloy steels, a different alloy being used for the exhaust valves. Although
both may be of the same dimension, an inlet must never be used to replace an exhaust valve or failure
will result. In some modern engines, the valves cannot be interchanged by mistake as the inlet valves
have much larger head diameters. The steels used for inlet valves are usually those containing the alloys
nickel, chromium and molybdenum. Steels for exhaust valves include those with the alloys cobalt
chromium and silicon chromium, nickel-chromium austenitic steel all of which resist oxidation and
corrosion and wear.

Construction:

The poppet valve consists of a single piece of alloy steel forged into a shape somewhat resembling that
of a mushroom. The valve head is usually flat on top while its underside is accurately ground to an
angle of either 45° or 30º. This machined surface is known as the valve face and between the face and
the head top is the margin or land. This thickness of metal is used to prevent the burning of the head
edge. The cylindrical valve portion under the head is called the stem and this terminates in the tip.
Valve tips are often made very hard or are separate hardened pieces permanently attached to the stem.
Before the tip is a groove in which collets of the valve’s spring retainer cap are fitted.

Valve assembly:

The valve stem is supported by a cylindrical sleeve called valve guide. Guides are usually made from a
close-grained, chilled cast iron which is very hard and brittle, but some are being made from a very
highly-compressed iron powder. These have a very long service life because they are hard wearing; this
material retains relatively large quantities of lubrication oil. Guides for cylinder heads of aluminum
alloy may be of aluminum bronze. All of these guides are either shrink or interference fits in their
bores. The clearance between the valve stem and the guide should not normally exceed 0.05mm. If the
valve can be rocked sideways in the guide when both are dry, either or both are worn beyond
permissible limits and should be replaced.

The valve is held closed down to its seat by the action of one or two coil springs. When two are used,
one is fitted inside the other, and is wound in the opposite direction to reduce the chance of fouling
should either spring fracture.

The advantages of the double spring arrangement are that:

a) Valve bounce and power loss at high speeds is reduced.

b) The springs have a longer life because their load is shared.
c) The valve is subjected to less side thrust as it is moved in its guide.

The springs enclose the valve, one end of the spring being located on the cylinder head or block casting
and the other by the spring retainer cup. This is attached to the valve stem by two collets. These are
small steel parts which fit into a groove in the valve stem and when so fitted, their outer surfaces form a
conical wedge. The wedge is enclosed by a tapered hole in the spring retainer cup, the spring force
locking the collects tight into the stem groove.
In some engines, the collets and cup are combined and in overhead valve arrangements the collets may
be fitted with a safety device. This takes the form of a spring clip which is fitted into a groove in the
collets-so preventing the valve falling into the cylinder if the spring should break.
Valve seats:

The valve seat may be machined from the cylinder head or block cast iron. Many of the seats are now
coated with a nickel-chromium alloy called ‘Stellite’. This is applied by a gas welding process and
provides a very hard-wearing surface. When refacing becomes necessary, special grinding stones must
be used. Inserted seats may also be used and these, because harder wearing materials can be used, have
a much longer service life than the plain cast-iron seats. These inserts must have the same co-efficient
of expansion as the cylinder material head or block into which they are fitted e.g. a high nickel-chrome
alloy steel forecast iron or nickel-chrome –manganese alloy steel for aluminum alloy. Inserts may be
screwed or shrunk into position or be an interference fit. As an alternative to heating the block or head,
the inserts may be chilled by immersion in liquid oxygen or dry ice-expanding to become a very secure
fit as they return to air temperature.

Valve face and seat angles are either 30° or 45º. The 45° seat is a good all-round one for general service
but inlet valves may be cut at 30º to provide a quicker port opening for the same amount of valve lift.
Inlet valves and ports may be larger to permit easier and quicker charging of the cylinder. The 30°
valves and seats may require servicing at slightly more frequently intervals.

Valve Guides: Valve guides support the valves in the head and prevent the valves from moving in any
direction other than up and down. The inside diameter of a guide is machined to provide a very small
clearance with the valve stem. This close clearance is important for the following reasons:

i. It keeps oil from being drawn into the combustion chamber past the intake valve stem during
the intake stroke, and it keeps oil from leaking out to the exhaust port when the pressure in the
exhaust port is lower than the pressure in the crankcase.
ii. It keeps exhaust gases from leaking into the crankcase area past the exhaust valve stems during
the exhaust stroke.
iii. It keeps the valve face in perfect alignment with the valve seat.

Valve guides can be cast integrally with the head, or they can be removable. Removable or insert
guides are press-fit into the head. Aluminum heads are fitted with insert guides. Guides are made from
materials that provide low friction and can transfer heat well. Cast-iron guides are mixed or coated with
phosphorus and/or chrome. Bronze alloys are also used. These may contain some aluminum, silicon,
nickel, and/or zinc. Removable valve guides usually are press fit into the head.
Figure 3-49. Valve Guides. Figure 3-47. Exhaust Valve Configurations.

THE CAMSHAFT

Function:

The camshaft is used to locate , support and rotate the cams in such a way that each valve is opened at
the correct time, held open for the correct time and is closed at the correct time in relation to the
movement of the pistons.

Construction:

The inlet and exhaust valve cams for each cylinder are paired and their relative positions on the shaft
are such that they form an angle when viewed from the shaft end. This angle determines the opening
and closing times of the valves while the cam shape determines how long each valve is held open. Each
pair of cams therefore determines their cylinder valve timing.
Fig 15: Cams (Aº = valve-open period).

The correct induction sequence (firing order) is obtained by the disposition or arrangement of the pairs
of cams around the shaft i.e. by arranging the pairs at the correct angles to each other.

Fig 16: Cam pair.

The camshaft is a one-piece forging of tough alloy steel or a casting of alloy iron similar to that used
for cast-iron crankshafts. In some compression-ignition engines the cam pairs are made separately and
then secured to the shaft. The shaft must be stiff and usually has three or four journals. These must be
of greater diameter than the cams sweep to enable the camshaft to pass through the journal bearings in
the crankcase webs and walls. In addition to the cams and journals, the camshaft may also have an
eccentric to operate the mechanical petrol pump and a skew gear to drive the lubrication oil pump and
the distributor ignition system unit. All the wearing surfaces must be hardened but the shaft itself must
be tough to resist shock and torsion loads. Although the valves themselves may only weigh a few grams
a force of over 1300N may be required to operate each one at very high speeds.

Position:

The camshaft is generally arranged above, to one side of, and parallel with the crankshaft and rotates in
bearing in the cylinder block. These bearings may be plain holes bored in the cylinder block or
crankcase walls and webs or white metal bushes. The clearance between the journals and the bushes is
between 0.025mm and 0.075mm and they are lubricated by high-pressure oil through ducts in the
crankcase webs which connect to the main oil gallery pipe. The longitudinal movement (end float) of
the shaft is limited by means of a shimmed thrust plate which fits into a groove machined in the
forward end of the front shaft journal. Other arrangements are also used but the important thing is that
float of the shaft end must be limited in both directions. The front journal is also used to support and
locate the camshaft driving gear or chain wheel.

In some high-performance engines the camshaft may be arranged very high up in the cylinder block or
cylinder head top. Single camshafts are usually arranged at the near engine side. Two camshafts may be
used and these may have both inlet and exhaust cams or one shaft may carry all the inlet cams while the
second carries all the exhaust cams. Wherever the camshaft is mounted it must be driven from the
crankshaft. When the engine is operating under the four-stroke cycle the camshaft is driven at half the
crankshaft speed- because each valve is required to operate only once in two revolutions of the
camshaft. This speed reduction is obtained by having twice the number of teeth on the driving gear of
the camshaft than there are on the crankshaft gear. Both gears are keyed to their respective shafts.
Camshafts may be driven by one or more chains, by trains of gears or by a system of gear-driven shafts.
OVERHEAD VALVE GEAR

Push rod operated:

In these arrangements the valves are inverted and are mounted in the cylinder head. The spring and
guide arrangement is similar to that used in the side-valve types but the cam followers or tappets are
usually hollow and have no adjusting screws. A push rod and a rocker arm are fitted between the tappet
and the valve in such a way that the lifting of the tappet cases the valve to be forced down, away from
its seat. The tappet clearance, or valve clearance, is arranged between the valve tip and the rocker arm
tip while the adjusting screw and locknut are fitted to the other rocker arm side.

The adjusting screw is a hardened steel ball which is fitted into a steel cup formed in the upper push rod
end. The push rod may be solid or hollow steel with a hardened spherical lower end. The shaft which
carries the rocker arms is usually hollow and is fed by lubricating oil pressure. The rocker arms may be
steel forgings or impacted, powdered-iron, die-castings. Pressed steel types are also used. Phosphor-
bronze bushes may be fitted. These are lubricated through holes drilled in the rocker shaft. Many rocker
arms are also drilled in such a way that the lubricating oil can be forced through them to lubricate the
adjusting screw ball end and the valve tip. The valve and guide are lubricated by the oil splashed from
the pressure-fed areas. In overhead-valve engines, high oil consumption may be caused by oil mist
being drawn down the inlet valve guides during the induction strokes. This may be reduced by the
fitting of felt or rubber washers around the valve stems.
Overhead camshaft:

In these designs the valves are arranged in one straight line with the camshaft immediately above them.
As push rods and rocker arms are not needed, the number of moving parts is reduced. In some designs,
the tappets and their adjusting devices enclose the valves and double valve springs hare used. The
camshaft is driven from the crankshaft by a vertical shaft, spiral bevel gears being fitted at each end.
Overhead camshaft designs are usually quieter in operation, easier to lubricate and are more efficient
than the push-rod designs. Where the valves are arranged in more than one line, twin shafts are
employed. These may be mounted on the cylinder head or high up in the cylinder block. In the latter
arrangement, push rods and rocker arms are employed. The camshafts are usually chain driven and
more than one chain may be used. In a few engines, the inlet valves are of overhead design and pushrod
operated, while the exhaust valves are side by side. Both are operated from a single camshaft.

Although all of these arrangements are more complicated and expensive to produce and service than the
more common arrangements, this extra cost is justified by their superior performance and economy in
operation. This results mainly from the fact that they permit the use of special shapes of combustion
chamber which produce more power from a given weight of fuel, usually by permitting the use of
higher compression ratios without detonation taking place.

VALVE TIMING - Timing diagrams:

These are used to illustrate the timing of the valves and are usually to be found in the workshop
manuals. They show the direction of rotation of the crankshaft and the points at which the valves are
opened and closed. The valve-open periods are usually heavily marked. Note that two complete
crankshaft revolutions are made in four-stroke engine timing diagrams and that the overlap is larger in
very high-speed engines. When studying timing diagrams note that two complete crankshaft
revolutions are made in four-stroke engines and that the overlap is greater in high-speed engines.
Valve timing relates to the opening and closing points of valves to measured distances of the piston
from top dead centre. However, since piston travel is quite small near each end of the stroke for
comparatively large angular movements of the crankshaft, this method did not guarantee sufficient
accuracy of setting the valve timing in practice, so angular rather than linear values are always quoted.
However, the need for actually verifying the valve timing values of an engine can arise, for example, in
specialist tuning or super tuning of a competition engine where the camshaft(s) has been reground to a
specification different from that issued by the original manufacturer.
When comparing the valve timing diagrams for the petrol engine of medium and high-performance
cars, it will be noticed that with the latter valve periods of opening are extended to greater values of
crankshaft angularity. This is especially true in relation to the later closing of the inlet valve, so that at
high operating speeds the increased lag allows as much pressure energy as possible to be generated in
the cylinder by the incoming air and petrol charge, prior to its further compression by the rising piston.
There will also be an increase in the value of valve overlap for the high-performance engine. This
means, in effect, that at the top dead centre of the piston both inlet and exhaust valves will be unseated
to a greater extent and thereby encourage better breathing of the engine, again at higher operating
speeds. For the medium-performance engine any such increase in the value of valve overlap would be
unrealistic, since it could promote a reverse flow of exhaust gases in to the induction system, especially
with the increase in valve area of four-valve combustion chambers.

Fig. 22: Valve timing diagrams for four-stroke petrol engines: (a) medium (b) high-performance
Fig 23: Timing diagrams.

Timing operations:
The cams shapes will provide the correct movement of the valve, their arrangements around the
camshaft will provide their correct operating sequence, but these movements must be accurately related
to the pistons movements. The relating of camshaft to crankshaft rotation is called the timing of the
valves and it consists of three basic operations:
 Positioning the crankshaft.
 Positioning the camshaft.
 Connecting the two together.
In many engines, the timing gears or sprockets can only be attached to their shafts in one way. These
gears are usually marked and the timing operation consists only of aligning the marks in accordance
with the makers’ instructions.
A rule-of-thumb method which can be used to time most engines of older design makes use of the valve
overlap period to determine the correct camshaft position. The tappet clearances are set correctly and
the disconnected camshaft is rotated by hand until in one pair of valves both are rocking open i.e. the
overlap position is reached. The crankshaft is then rotated until the piston of that cylinder is at top dead
centre. This is usually when the crankshaft pulley key is at top dead centre. This is usually when the
crankshaft pulley key is at top dead centre or bottom dead centre. The two shafts are then connected by
the gears or chains, the pitch of the teeth usually being so large that an error is obvious. The timing of
all the other cylinders must be correct due to the construction of the two shafts. Timing can be done on
any cylinder, but it is usual to time on number one.
In modern high-performance engines the overlap is greater and a more complicated and accurate
method must be used. In some engines the opening or closing position of one valve is marked on the
flywheel. The correct crankshaft position is obtained by means of a dial gauge mounted over the
particular valve which is easy to obtain. The camshaft is rotated till the gauge indicates that the valve is
either on the point of opening or closing and the camshaft is stopped at the exact position. The two
shafts are then connected by the gears or chains. In some engines, the chain sprockets can be fitted in
slightly different positions on the camshaft to assist in obtaining the exact timing. Timing chains have a
tendency to stretch during a period of operation and so become noisy. The resulting slackness also
reduces the accuracy of the original valve timing and many engines are fitted with automatic chain
tensions. These require readjustment or replacement only at long intervals.
The tensions may consist of a spring-loaded steel strip which presses on the slack side of the chain or a
spring-loaded sprocket. Long chains must always have automatic tensions fitted. Where split links are
used in the chain, the closed end of the link retainer must face the direction in which the chain runs.
Some chains have bright links which are fitted into marked teeth on the sprockets to make valve timing
easier and quicker.

Figure 11: Typical valve timing diagram. Fig. Port timing diagram for two-stroke petrol engine
Gears tend to be noisier than chains unless they are made from a special material. They also become
noisier as their teeth and the main crankshaft bearings wear. Gears and chains are usually both
lubricated by a small spray of high-pressure oil supplied from the duct of the forward crankcase web.

Valve clearances:

These are sometimes called tappet clearances and their correct size is important to the efficient engine
operation. In side valve arrangements, the clearance is made between the valve tip and the tappet or
tappet-adjusting screw. In overhead valve arrangements, the clearance is made between the valve tip
and rocker arm foot between the valve tip and a special tappet form used in overhead camshaft engines.
The valve clearance is given to make sure the valve is fully closed by its springs under all operating
temperatures i.e. in spite of the different temperature effects on the valve, cylinder head and cylinder
block. The clearance is set with the help of feeler gauges and varies between different engines. It may
also vary between inlets and exhaust valves in the same engine. Valve clearance must be adjusted under
the conditions specified by the engine manufacturer i.e. when the engine is hot or cold. Excessive
clearances will result in the engine being noisy and extra wear occurs and loss of power will result from
a reduced valve-open period i.e. the valves will open later and close earlier. If the clearances are too
small, the valve will not be fully closed and over a period of operation the valve and seat faces will be
burned. Compression and power will be reduced by the extension of the valve-open period permitting
the gases to escape.

Clearance setting:

When adjusting clearances it’s very important to make sure that the tappet is on the back of its cam i.e.
that the cam is not lifting the tappet. Possibly the easiest way of obtaining the position for tappet and
cam is to work to a sequence; one such method is to add one to the total valves number e.g. a total of
nine for a four cylinder engine. If the clearance of number one valve is to be set, the crankshaft is
rotated till number eight valve is fully open. At this point, number one tappet is on the back of its cam
and its clearance can be set correctly. If number two is next, the crankshaft is rotated till number seven
valve is fully opened, when the clearance of number two can be set. The sequence is repeated, the
numbers of the valve clearance being set and the valve being opened always adding up to nine. As the
cams of each pair selected in this method are 180° apart on the camshaft the mechanic can always be
sure that the tappet of the valve on which he is working is on the cam back.