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Fonio and Bambara Groundnut Value Chains in Mali: Issues, Needs, and
Opportunities for Their Sustainable Promotion

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 sustainability

Article
Fonio and Bambara Groundnut Value Chains in Mali:
Issues, Needs, and Opportunities for Their
Sustainable Promotion
Charlie Mbosso 1 , Basile Boulay 1 , Stefano Padulosi 1, *, Gennifer Meldrum 1 ,
Youssoufa Mohamadou 2 , Aminata Berthe Niang 2 , Harouna Coulibaly 2 , Yara Koreissi 2 and
Amadou Sidibé 2
1 Bioversity International, Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a, Maccarese, 00054 Rome, Italy;
[email protected] (C.M.); [email protected] (B.B.); [email protected] (G.M.)
2 Institut d’Economie Rurale, Rue Mohamed V Bamako, BP 258 Bamako, Mali;
[email protected] (Y.M.); [email protected] (A.B.N.); [email protected] (H.C.);
[email protected] (Y.K.); [email protected] (A.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 22 April 2020; Accepted: 5 June 2020; Published: 11 June 2020


Abstract: As the effects of climate change are severely straining West African agricultural systems,
the adoption of more incisive interventions in support of sustainable development agendas
for the region is highly critical and cannot be further delayed by governments. Neglected and
underutilized species (NUS) are one important ally in pursuing resilience in both production and food
systems because of their promising traits in terms of nutrition, adaptation to local agroecosystems,
and economic potential for local populations. Focusing on fonio, a gluten-free traditional cereal,
and Bambara groundnut, a protein-rich leguminous crop, we investigate issues in their production,
commercialization, and consumption in southern Mali. The aim was to assess needs and opportunities
for improving their value chains and increasing their use and societal benefits. Using a Rapid Market
Appraisal method, we surveyed traders, producers, processors, and consumers of target crops in
2017 and 2018. Our findings indicate that while both crops are consumed and praised by local
populations, critical bottlenecks inhibit their wider socioeconomic potential. Lack of access to inputs
and equipment and presence of sand in the commercialized product are important issues for fonio,
whereas the Bambara groundnut value chain suffers from poor processing facilities and lack of market
promotion. Policy recommendations to tackle the identified bottlenecks are proposed.

Keywords: Mali; sustainable agriculture; fonio; Bambara groundnut; underutilized crops

1. Introduction
Research on the effect of climate change in agriculture in West Africa shows that crop mixes will
need to adapt in the coming years, as the effects will have a direct impact on livelihoods. A study
by Traore et al. [1] shows that cotton growing in the Sikasso region is likely to be adversely affected
by rising temperatures in Mali and changes in rainfall patterns. Looking at sorghum and millet in
West Africa, Sultan et al. [2] evaluated the effects of 35 possible climate scenarios on yields and found
negative impacts in 31 cases. In this context, rural populations reliant on rain-fed agriculture are likely
to be hit the hardest [3]. In Mali, the agricultural sector will experience continued soil fertility depletion
and water stress, especially in dry areas [4]. Production challenges faced by smallholder farmers in
Mali are likely to be heightened as the effects of climate change amplify in the region, possibly with an
additional burden in terms of increased malnutrition and reduced food security [5]. The former could

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766; doi:10.3390/su12114766 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 2 of 19

severely increase and disproportionately affect children, together with rising anemia and stunting
rates [6].
In this context, the current research focus on a few main cereal crops in agricultural policies seems
misguided. On the other hand, marginal crops can become a building block of future strategies while
also contributing to the Sustainable Development Goals [7]. From an agronomic perspective, yields
of major crops are expected to decrease in West-African countries, no matter the climatic scenario
considered [8]. A shift of attention away from major crops and towards lesser-known and documented
minor crops could prove a key ingredient in the development of sustainable agricultural agendas [9,10].
Minor crops deserve attention for at least four reasons: (i) They tend to be very nutritious, (ii) they
require few inputs and are often indigenous to African regions, (iii) they maintain unique genetic
diversity, and (iv) they contribute to household income [7]. Furthermore, as women are mostly
responsible for the farming and/or processing of subsistence crops in the African context, improved
utilization of minor crops could enhance women’s access to supply chains and income-earning
opportunities [11], as well as improving nutritional outcomes at the household level [12]. In the
literature, minor crops are often referred to as underutilized, marginal, and ‘neglected and underutilized
species’ (NUS).
In this study, we focus on two such crops grown in Mali: Fonio (Digitaria exilis (Kippist) Stapf)
and Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.). Fonio is one of the most ancient indigenous
West African cereals and is a major part of the diet in some communities in Mali [13–15]. It is an
excellent source of protein that is rich in the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine,
which are deficient in rice, maize, and sorghum [16], and their concentrations are slightly higher
than those defined for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) protein reference [17]. It is also
rich in micronutrients, including iron and zinc, and therefore has the potential to improve intakes of
these nutrients in deficient populations. The food composition table of Mali indicates fonio as the
cereal with the second-highest iron content (8.5 mg/100 g dry matter) after sorghum (11 mg/100 g
dry matter) [18]. Furthermore, fonio has a low glycemic index, and it may serve as an alternative
grain for people with gluten intolerance [16]. Bambara groundnut is a legume crop native to Africa,
commonly grown for its seeds by subsistence farmers [19]. In certain regions, its importance as a
leguminous crop is only matched by groundnut and cowpea [20]. Bambara groundnut is rich in
proteins, with content varying between 14 and 24 g per 100 g, and is also rich in carbohydrates, with
28 to 40 g per 100 g [21]. The crop also provides fatty acids and minerals: A 100 g portion serving of
Bambara groundnut fulfils more than half the recommended daily allowance for potassium intake for
children and adults and covers the entire recommended daily allowance for magnesium and zinc [22].
Praised for its agronomic properties, Bambara groundnut is relatively drought-tolerant and requires
minimal chemical inputs. Furthermore, it acts as a natural nitrogen fixer and can therefore enhance the
yields of non-nitrogen-fixing crops when properly intercropped [23]. Bambara groundnut cultivation
relies on landraces, which are highly suited to local agro-ecologies [24].
Despite their excellent nutritional profiles, hardiness and versatility in use, the cultivation and
trade of both fonio and Bambara groundnut remain below their potential throughout sub-Saharan
Africa. The situation is slowly changing for fonio, however. Regarded for a long time as a minor crop
without economic potential [25], it is attracting renewed interest in urban areas of West Africa for its
organoleptic and nutritional qualities [26,27]. Recently, the crop has been listed as a priority crop for
West Africa [28]. The pace of change is slower for Bambara groundnut, despite efforts at increasing
the visibility of the crop over the past years, such as being branded as one of the FAO’s “traditional
crops”. Both these crops could help address key challenges faced by the Malian agricultural sector.
For example, the nitrogen-fixing properties of Bambara groundnut can help maintain soil fertility,
and its low water requirements can be an advantage in dry or drought-prone areas. Fonio thrives in
the semi-arid lands of the Sahel thanks to its low water requirements, an extensive root system that
helps the plant to draw water from deep underground, and its fast maturation. Fonio has long been
considered a strategic food for rural West Africans, being the first crop to be harvested in the “hungry
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 3 of 19

season”, which is a time of critical shortage before other staples, like sorghum or maize, are ready for
harvest [29]. It is able to grow in poor soils without the use of fertilizers and, hence, is typically planted
later in crop rotation cycles, after maize or sorghum.
Among the factors explaining why fonio and Bambara groundnut remain underutilized, weak
value chains are a key issue. For fonio, several studies point towards the lack of appropriate technology
for harvesting, threshing, and processing [15,30]. For Bambara groundnut, trade is often confined
to the immediate village boundaries, with little commercialization or processing involved [31,32],
and negative traditional beliefs are associated with the crop in parts of Africa (e.g., [33] for Malawi).
However, few studies have specifically examined issues of marketing for Bambara groundnut [19,34,35]
and little information is available on its value chain in Mali. Similarly, for fonio, most of the studies
looking at Mali only focus on specific actors along the value chain in a specific location (e.g., [15] or [36]
for urban consumers of fonio in Bamako). In this study, we aimed to broaden understanding of factors
limiting the use of these crops in Mali by assessing barriers along their value chains.
Using a Rapid Market Appraisal method, data were collected from producers, traders,
and consumers in 2017 and 2018 in three areas of southern Mali. Focus groups and individual interviews
were conducted to identify the obstacles faced by actors in rural and urban areas. By focusing on
several levels of the value chains, we identify the most salient constraints to greater production and
commercialization of these crops and propose policy recommendations that help in mitigating them.
We paid attention in order to capture the gender dimension involved in the farming, processing,
and selling of the two target crops to assess opportunities for value chain development to contribute to
women’s empowerment. Our results show that the value chains for both crops suffer from important
bottlenecks, even though the chain for fonio is more commercially developed than for Bambara
groundnut, and the value chain in the case of fonio includes exports, mainly to Senegal and France,
albeit in very low volumes. For the former, weak demand, presence of sand in the final products,
and lack of capital for processing and marketing are key issues. For the latter, weak demand, lack of
processing units, and lack of promotion prevail.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study Sites

As for most sub-Saharan African countries, the economy of Mali crucially relies on the agricultural
sector. After a decline observed in the mid-1990s, the contribution of the agriculture, forestry,
and fishing sector to GDP started to increase again from the mid-2000s, reaching 38.5% of GDP in 2018,
and employing an estimated 65% of the population according to the World Bank’s World Development
Indicators. In terms of agricultural profile, the main food crops produced in Mali are cereal crops,
especially rice, sorghum, millet, and maize [37]. The production of fonio, also a cereal, is negligible
at the national scale when compared to these major crops. While the total estimated production of
maize in Mali in 2015 was 2,276,000 tons, the estimated fonio production barely reached 20,000 tons.
Similarly, in the case of Bambara groundnut, its production was much less than that of other competing
leguminous crops, such as groundnuts. In 2015, the total estimated production of the former amounted
to less than 7% of the latter, at 27,691 tons for Bambara groundnut against 421,924 for groundnut [38].
The Malian agricultural sector remains fragile and subject to many threats, the most important of
which is climate change, at least in the medium to long term. Poor technological development, lack
of irrigation schemes/facilities, and poor storage capacity have been identified as key constraints to
the sustainable development of the sector, to which more macroeconomic aspects, such as price and
exchange rate volatility, need to be further added [39,40].
This study focused on three areas in Mali that were selected to represent different situations for
the use and commercialization of fonio and Bambara groundnut (Figure 1).

1. Bamako: Situated in the central south of Mali, Bamako is the capital city, home to approximately
10% of the national population (pop. 2,009,109, Population Census 2009). Bamako is the biggest
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 4 of 19

Sustainability
urban 2020, 12, xin Mali and, therefore, constituted an important ‘barometer’ to assess the commercial
center 4 of 19

integration of marginal crops.

2. Cercle de San and Tominian in the Ségou region, with San as a main urban center (pop. 68,078,
2. Cercle de San and Tominian in the Ségou region, with San as a main urban center (pop. 68,078,
Population Census 2009). Agriculture is the predominant sector in the Ségou region. The study
Population Census 2009). Agriculture is the predominant sector in the Ségou region. The study
area was within the north Sudano-Sahelian production zone (sensu [39]), where cropping systems
area was within the north Sudano-Sahelian production zone (sensu [39]), where cropping systems
are based on pearl millet and sorghum complemented by peanut. Among the different regions of
are based on pearl millet and sorghum complemented by peanut. Among the different regions
Mali, the greatest production of fonio and Bambara groundnut has been recorded in Ségou, which
of Mali, the greatest production of fonio and Bambara groundnut has been recorded in Ségou,
accounted for 52% and 50% of national production of these crops, respectively, in 2015 [38]. The
which accounted for 52% and 50% of national production of these crops, respectively, in 2015 [38].
area around San and Tominian was targeted by the study because it is known as a major
The area around San and Tominian was targeted by the study because it is known as a major
production area for fonio [40].
production area for fonio [40].
3. Cercle de Koutiala and Cercle de Sikasso in the Sikasso region, with Koutiala and Sikasso as the
3. Cercle de Koutiala and Cercle de Sikasso in the Sikasso region, with Koutiala and Sikasso as the
main urban centers (respective pop. 137,919 and 225,753, Population Census 2009). Among the
main urban centers (respective pop. 137,919 and 225,753, Population Census 2009). Among the
regions of Mali, Sikasso is an important contributor to the national agricultural output, and it
regions of Mali, Sikasso is an important contributor to the national agricultural output, and it
benefits from above-average soil fertility. The region is the biggest cereal producer of the country,
benefits from above-average soil fertility. The region is the biggest cereal producer of the country,
often considered Mali’s ‘granary’. In 2015, it produced 29% of the national cereal production and
often considered Mali’s ‘granary’. In 2015, it produced 29% of the national cereal production and
67% of maize production [38]. The cropping systems in these areas are dominated by rainfed cotton
67% of maize production [38]. The cropping systems in these areas are dominated by rainfed
and maize grown with mineral fertilizer and organic manure, while tubers, vegetables, and fruits
cotton and maize grown with mineral fertilizer and organic manure, while tubers, vegetables,
are produced in lowland areas [39,41]. The Sikasso region accounted for 8% of fonio and 7% of
and fruits are produced in lowland areas [39,41]. The Sikasso region accounted for 8% of fonio
Bambara groundnut production in Mali in 2015 [38]. However, in the focal areas of this study,
and 7% of Bambara groundnut production in Mali in 2015 [38]. However, in the focal areas of this
traditional grain crops have been largely displaced with the expansion of cotton and maize
study, traditional grain crops have been largely displaced with the expansion of cotton and maize
production [42–44].
production [42–44].

Figure 1. Location of study sites: (a) Map of surveyed markets and retailers in Bamako; (b) map
Figure 1. Location of study sites: (a) Map of surveyed markets and retailers in Bamako; (b) map of
of surveyed markets (blue triangles) and villages (open circles) in the Sikasso and Ségou regions;
surveyed markets (blue triangles) and villages (open circles) in the Sikasso and Ségou regions; (c)
(c) location of study areas within Mali; (d) location of Mali within the continent of Africa.
location of study areas within Mali; (d) location of Mali within the continent of Africa.

2.2 Rapid Market Assessment

Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 5 of 19

2.2. Rapid Market Assessment

A rapid value chain assessment of fonio and Bambara groundnut was conducted in the study
areas through semi-structured interviews and focus groups with traders, producers, and consumers
complemented by direct observations. The overall aim was to understand the current state of
marketing and bottlenecks in the value chains. Fonio and Bambara groundnut have different agronomic,
socio-cultural, and economic dynamics. For each actor along the value chain (trader, producer,
consumer), we sought to elicit key information regarding the current level of use of target crops, as well
as perceptions on factors hindering their wider popularization. Topics explored in these interviews are
listed in Table 1. Interview guidelines are provided in Supplementary File 1. All subjects gave their
informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study.

Table 1. Topics explored in surveys at trader, producer, and consumer levels during the rapid
market assessment.

Level Topics Explored

• Crop profile from a commercial point of view

Trader level • Processing methods
• Different forms and specificities under which the crop is sold
• Strengths and weaknesses of trading the products

• General perception of the crop among producers

Producer level • Production trends, gender dynamics in production, genetic diversity
• Strengths and weaknesses of producing the crop

• General perception of the crop among consumers

Consumer level • Patterns of consumption and preparation, including cultural significance of the crop in the diet
• Perceived benefits and drawbacks of consumption

2.2.1. Trader Surveys

Nineteen markets in the three focal areas (6 in Bamako, 8 in Ségou, and 5 in Sikasso) were visited
in May 2017 to assess the status of fonio and Bambara groundnut marketing and to interview traders
of both crops. In the Ségou and Sikasso regions, the markets visited were located in the focal district
centers (San and Tominian in Ségou; Koutiala and Sikasso in the Sikasso region) and in more rural
areas. In Bamako, the markets were selected with the advice of l’Observatoire Du Marché Agricole (OMA)
to reflect the diversity of neighborhoods found in Bamako. At least one of the focal crops was being
marketed in each of the selected markets.
Convenience sampling was followed in the surveys, aiming to cover 3-5 traders of specific products
in each market. The final sample depended on traders’ presence, willingness, and availability to
participate. The market surveys were led by two female researchers from Bioversity International and
Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER), who were complemented by male workers from local non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), who helped with surveying and translating questions in local languages.
Upon arrival in the markets, the survey team identified fonio and Bambara groundnut traders, and a
selection of these actors were invited to take part in semi-structured interviews. In a few markets,
the team was assisted by the head of local traders, who directed the surveyors to traders dealing
with the target crops. Overall, 83 fonio traders and 45 Bambara groundnut traders were interviewed
concerning five fonio products and three Bambara groundnut products, which were identified to be
the primary products marketed for these crops. The frequency and characteristics of the surveyed
traders roughly reflected upon the traders’ and products’ presence in the markets. However, because
the sampling was convenience-based, it cannot be considered a strictly representative sample.
A complementary survey of markets in Bamako was carried out in 2018. The aim was to explore
in depth the state of fonio and Bambara groundnut marketing in different types of outlets in the six
administrative communes of the city. Each commune encapsulates several neighborhoods. Five types
of outlets that represented the variety of commercial structures in the capital city were targeted [45]:
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 6 of 19

(1) Supermarkets, which are modern and commercial outlets selling fresh and processed food items;
(2) grocery stores, which are small self-service stores; (3) neighborhood markets, typically small
open-air outlets in which individual sellers supply fresh produce to the local population; (4) central
markets, which tend to supply individual traders from neighborhood markets; and (5) processing units,
which sell their products largely to market retailers and restaurants, and are entirely run and operated
by women. A male researcher from IER visited at least one supermarket and 3–6 of each other type of
outlet in the six communes of Bamako in 2018. For the supermarkets, grocery stores, and processing
units, we typically interviewed one person. In the central and neighborhood markets, we aimed to
survey 3-5 traders for specific products. In total, 254 traders were interviewed from 6 grocery stores,
7 supermarkets, 16 neighborhood markets, 3 central markets, and 31 processing companies.

2.2.2. Producer Surveys

Fonio and Bambara groundnut producers were surveyed in eight villages in 2017, four in the
Ségou region and four in the Sikasso region. The villages selected for the survey had at least a few
households involved in production and sale of the focal crops. The willingness of community members
to participate in the study was an important criterion guiding the selection of villages. The team
selected villages that held good rapport and trust with the researchers’ affiliated organizations.
Safety and accessibility by road were additional factors that guided site selection. Three of the four
villages in each region were part of a project promoting value chain development of fonio and Bambara
groundnut. This study was part of the initial investigations to gain insight into the existing status and
constraints for using these crops, and the findings were intended to inform the development of project
interventions. Figure 1 shows the different villages covered by the producer surveys in the target areas.
As the site selection was deliberate, the results can only be considered to reflect the situation in the
specific villages, although some aspects are likely to be common to other sites in southern Mali.
In each village, producers of fonio and Bambara groundnut were invited to participate in focus
group discussions. Local farmer leaders supported the selection of participants, which aimed to include
six to ten knowledgeable producers of each crop with an equal gender split. Final participation depended
on producers’ availability and interest. Across the eight sites, a total 179 producers participated in
the discussions, of which 56% were women. The focus groups were held in May 2017 and led by a
researcher from Bioversity International, with support from translators and IER staff. Following a
semi-structured interview approach, the discussions explored how fonio and Bambara groundnut
were considered by farmers, cultivation practices, variety characteristics, and input requirements,
especially the labor intensity of the different steps in the production process. Strengths and weaknesses
of growing the crops were assessed, together with their general contributions to local livelihoods.
Following the focus groups, a subset of the participants was invited to take part in individual surveys
that were designed to gain further insights into the production and consumption patterns of the target
crops. A total of 25 fonio producers (16% women) and 31 Bambara groundnut producers (29% women)
were interviewed individually. The target of an even gender split could not be achieved with the
individual surveys because fonio was almost exclusively farmed by men in the focal sites, and women
were less free to attend meetings with researchers and NGO workers, requiring permission from their
heads of household.

2.2.3. Consumer Surveys

The focus groups and individual surveys with producers in 2017 included questions regarding
preferences and perceptions with respect to consuming fonio and Bambara groundnut. This approach
was made in acknowledging the villagers as both producers and consumers of the crops. In addition,
during the 2018 data collection carried out in Bamako, we surveyed 72 consumers of fonio, aiming at a
balanced sampling across the six communes and the focus fonio products. We randomly selected three
neighborhoods in each commune to survey and six consumers within each neighborhood.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 7 of 19

2.2.4. Analysis
The analysis of the information collected in the surveys focused on identifying common and
unique issues raised in interviews within and across levels of value chain actors following a qualitative
approach. Summary statistics (means and percentages) were calculated to highlight the prevalence of
themes raised by the respondents and to establish average conditions in the value chains as a point of
reference. All calculations were made using Microsoft Excel and SPSS.

3. Results

3.1. Trader Surveys

3.1.1. Fonio and Bambara Groundnut Products Traded

Six fonio products were found to be traded in the surveyed markets in 2017: Paddy fonio, whitened
fonio, washed and dried fonio, precooked fonio, and djouka fonio. Table 2 provides a summary of
each product. In 2018, a total of 43 brands of fonio products were identified in the markets, 33 of which
were producing both djouka and precooked fonio, seven of which produced fonio djouka, and three
of which produced precooked fonio (Table S1). No brands as such were identified for paddy fonio
because the product involves much less processing, it is not packaged, and it is typically sold by the
weight in neighborhood markets. Three brands were particularly represented for precooked and
djouka fonio: ‘Djouka précuit’, ‘fonio précuit’, and ‘jumeaux prestation’. Although these brands were
found in all types of outlets, products from the ‘djouka précuit’ and ‘fonio précuit’ brands were mostly
found in neighborhood markets, while products from ‘jumeaux prestation’ tended to be represented
equally in neighborhood markets and grocery stores.

Table 2. Fonio and Bambara groundnut products traded.

Crop/Product Description Level of Processing

Fonio
Threshed and winnowed fonio as the first step of
Paddy Basic
fonio processing
Hulled fonio that receives extra processing to remove the
Whitened Basic
bran (pericarp and germ).
Whitened fonio that has received additional washing and is
Washed and dried Intermediary
subsequently dried
Steamed, washed, and dried fonio, subsequently dried
Precooked
and packaged
Precooked fonio mixed with steamed and crushed
Djouka
groundnuts and potash, subsequently dried and packaged
Bambara groundnut
Grains Dried Bambara groundnut grains (seeds) Basic
Roasted Roasted Bambara groundnut nuts following harvest season Basic
Boiled Fresh nuts boiled after harvest Basic

As shown in Table 2, a lower diversity of products was marketed for Bambara groundnut than
for fonio, which were: Bambara groundnut grains, roasted Bambara groundnut, and boiled Bambara
groundnut. All of these products involved little processing. Bambara groundnut grains were sold as
dried products that could be preserved for several months after harvest. Roasted Bambara groundnut
was processed at home by women, who then resold it to traders. Boiled Bambara groundnut was
primarily sold when the pods were fresh.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 8 of 19

3.1.2. Trader Characteristics

In 2017, eight traders were interviewed regarding paddy fonio, seven regarding washed and
dried fonio, 45 regarding whitened fonio, 11 regarding precooked fonio, 12 regarding djouka fonio,
18 regarding Bambara groundnut seeds, 26 regarding roasted Bambara groundnut, and one regarding
boiled Bambara groundnut. The survey was completed approximately six months following the harvest
season, when boiled Bambara groundnut is not typically available, which limited our opportunity
to survey traders about this product. In 2018, an additional 41 traders in Bamako were interviewed
regarding whitened fonio, along with 116 for precooked fonio, and 97 for djouka fonio.
The traders included retailers (selling mainly to individual customers in small amounts),
semi-wholesalers (selling larger amounts to individual consumers and small businesses),
and wholesalers (selling large amounts in bulk, usually to retailers or larger businesses) (Table 3).
The majority of fonio traders interviewed in 2017 were retailers (59%), almost a third were
semi-wholesalers (30%), and a minority were wholesalers (7%). In 2018, the distribution of retailers,
semi-wholesalers, and wholesalers interviewed in Bamako was similar. More wholesalers and
semi-wholesalers were interviewed regarding more highly processed products (djouka and precooked
fonio), while more retailers were interviewed regarding products with more limited processing (paddy
fonio and whitened fonio). Most (91%) of the Bambara groundnut traders surveyed were retailers,
and just a handful were semi-wholesalers (9%). No wholesaler of Bambara groundnut products was
identified in the survey. Most traders (78%) owned their business.

Table 3. Number of traders surveyed by type (and percent women) by crop in the two survey years.

Year Crop Retailers Semi-Wholesalers Wholesalers

2017 Fonio 49 (53%) 25 (72%) 9 (44%)
Bambara groundnut 41 (85%) 4 (100%) 0 (0%)
2018 Fonio 208 (78%) 37 (5%) 9 (33%)

A considerable involvement of women in trading of both crops was recorded. This was the case
for Bambara groundnut in general, for which 87% of traders interviewed were women. Precooked and
djouka fonio especially were marketed largely by women. Many of these fonio products were processed
by women themselves, especially in Bamako, where women processing groups were targeted.

3.1.3. Trends and Features of Fonio and Bambara Groundnut Trading

All of the traders of fonio and Bambara groundnut interviewed in Bamako in 2017 sourced their
product from collectors, who act as intermediaries between producers and traders. The majority
of traders in the Ségou and Sikasso regions likewise sourced fonio and Bambara groundnut from
collectors (61% of fonio traders; 50% Bambara groundnut). Others in Ségou and Sikasso obtained fonio
and Bambara groundnut from local producers (fonio 14%; Bambara groundnut 23%), their own farm
(11% fonio; 13% Bambara groundnut), or, in the case of fonio, from a processing group (14%).
The interviews with traders in 2017 revealed that the period of abundance for paddy and whitened
fonio runs from September to December. However, traders were able to stock up enough produce to
sell all year round. During the period of abundance, paddy fonio was sold on markets at an average
price of 225 FCFA (FCFA is the West African CFA Franc with ISO 4217 code XOF, for which the
exchange rate in January 2020 was 1 euro for 654 FCFA.) per kg, while whitened fonio was sold at
an average price of 441 FCFA per kg. The higher price reflected the heavier amount of processing
involved in generating whitened fonio. During the scarcity period, the average selling price of paddy
fonio rose by 59% to 358 FCFA per kg, and that of whitened fonio increased by 29% to 569 FCFA per kg.
The reported selling prices of second-level processed fonio products during the abundance period
were much higher for washed and dried, precooked, and djouka fonio at 786, 1055, and 1379 FCFA
per kg, respectively. Interestingly, the prices of these more intensively processed fonio products were
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 9 of 19

not reported to rise substantially during the scarcity season. The period of abundance for Bambara
groundnut also ran from September to December. The average selling price for Bambara groundnut
seeds during abundance was 487 FCFA per kg in our sample, while that of roasted Bambara groundnut
averaged 637 FCFA per kg, which was consistent with the slightly higher level of processing involved
in the latter. During the scarcity period, prices rose by 9% to 533 FCFA per kg for the grains, and by
18% to 752 FCFA per kg for the roasted grains.
The surveys in Bamako in 2018 revealed that the average sales of whitened fonio for traders in
the previous year (2017) amounted to 3100 kg, while sales of precooked and djouka fonio amounted
to 7103 and 2750 kg, respectively. Some traders were engaged in exporting fonio products, but the
volume of sales represented less than 3% of the total volumes traded across all traders interviewed.
In terms of destinations, most of the exported fonio went to Senegal and France to cater for diaspora
markets. Both countries imported precooked and djouka fonio. Processing companies, which sold their
products to surrounding markets in Bamako, processed an average of 1020 and 783 kg of precooked and
djouka fonio per week, respectively. These processing groups needed to source substantial volumes of
groundnut to produce djouka fonio. Part of the produce from the processing units was sold outside
Bamako to other regions of the country.
The main constraints to marketing paddy fonio reported in 2017 were the slow pace of trade
(60% of respondents), low capital (20%), and the presence of sand in the product (20%). For whitened
fonio, major constraints were the lack of customers (62%), lack of financial/technical means (27%),
issues with suppliers (8%), and low capital (3%). For all three second-level processed fonio products
(washed and dried, precooked, and djouka), lack of processing material and presence of sand were the
most important constraints. These results were consistent with those from the 2018 surveys. In terms
of bottlenecks and constraints to marketing, 31% of traders surveyed in Bamako in 2018 reported
no constraints. However, 19% of them mentioned the weak demand for products outside festive
periods (Christmas, Tabaski, Ramadan), 25% reported marketing problems due to unstable prices,
9% reported quality issues with the fonio they process (for example, the presence of sand), and 7% of
traders complained that supply was not always available. Respondents in processing companies listed
lack of equipment and capital as major constraints (44% and 24%, respectively) towards greater fonio
processing and commercialization. A secondary but nonetheless important constraint for processing
units was lack of space to carry out activities for 13% of respondents. Concerning Bambara groundnut,
50% of roasted Bambara groundnut sellers surveyed in 2017 cited low capital as the main constraint
related to marketing, followed by lack of buyers/consumers (46%) and high buying price of grains (4%).

3.2. Producer Surveys

3.2.1. Production Overview

Focus group participants explained that fonio was cultivated in monoculture. Land preparation
started in May, with sowing in June and harvesting in September. After plowing, fonio was broadcast
sown. The seed was obtained either from saved seed, purchase in the market, or exchange with another
producer, and was not subjected to any prior treatment. Maintenance of the crop involved manual
weeding. Harvesting was done by mowing with a sickle in the direction of lodging. During mowing,
one hand held a tuft of fonio stalks and the other hand cut it with the help of the sickle a few centimeters
from the ground. The stems were gathered into bundles and tied with bark. Most of the tasks involved
in cultivation of fonio (soil preparation, sowing, pest control, harvesting, and drying) were carried out
by men. Women were involved in weeding, and they had the primary role in processing (winnowing,
de-hulling, and removing sand). It was emphasized in both the focus groups and individual surveys
that fonio production was very labor intensive. Harvesting and weeding were the most tedious tasks
according to 64% and 34% of respondents in the individual surveys, respectively.
The focus groups appreciated the hardiness of fonio, stating that “plots that do not succeed
with other crops succeed with fonio”, and that it is “not demanding in terms of inputs”. At the
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 10 of 19

same time, availability of fixed inputs (tools, machinery, seeds, rainfall) also came up as a bottleneck
in the interviews. Difficulties in accessing improved seeds were raised in four villages (Finkoloni,
Somo, Chocolomba, and N’Goutjina), and lack of equipment (especially threshing machines) was
mentioned in all eight villages surveyed. In three villages (Kiby, Siramana, and Chicolomba), farmers
explained that lack of training was an important barrier towards improved production. Beyond factors
hindering cultivation as such, harvest and post-harvest losses were also important factors negatively
affecting production. Some losses were caused by climatic conditions (lack of rainfall especially), or by
pests, such as striga (Striga sp.), and were therefore hard to avoid. However, other losses were the
direct outcome of farming patterns. In Chicolomba, farmers explained that fonio and cotton harvests
coincided. Because cotton was a key cash crop in the region, its harvest took priority over that of
fonio, thus causing fonio losses. However, land availability was not considered a constraint to fonio
production. In six out of the eight villages in the study area, farmers mentioned land availability as a
factor acting in favor of fonio cultivation, together with availability of working tools and labor.
Bambara groundnut had a similar planting and harvesting schedule to that of fonio. It was
cultivated in very small areas. While soil preparation and transportation were men’s tasks, shelling,
winnowing, and sorting were women’s tasks. Furthermore, women tended to be more involved in
weeding than men. In contrast to the other sites, in Siramana, Bambara groundnut cultivation was a
predominantly woman-led activity. During cultivation, it suffered from important losses due to pest
and disease attacks. Post-harvest losses were also frequent, with grains being eaten by insects due to
lack of proper storage units. Climate constraints were also named in four villages, especially insufficient
rains, and also too much rain during the harvest period. In terms of factors positively affecting adoption
and growing, producers mentioned availability of land, seeds, and labor. Seed availability was noted
as a strength in three sites in Ségou and one site in Sikasso, while lack of information on improved
seeds was named in two sites in the Sikasso region. The results pointed out the importance of Bambara
groundnut production and sales for women, as it constituted an independent source of income.

3.2.2. Producers’ Marketing

Fonio was often produced with the aim of carrying first-step processing within the household.
Producers marketing fonio did so via one of three channels. The first one consisted of selling directly
to consumers within village boundaries; the second to collectors, who would then sell the product to
traders in markets; and the third channel consisted of selling raw produce to hulling mills, typically via a
cooperative or farmer group. Such mills could be found in San and Somo, for example. After processing,
the mills would sell the transformed fonio to traders and especially wholesalers. Perceptions of the
market for fonio were mixed in the different communities. Producers in three communities in Sikasso
considered that there was no specific or local market, and there was generally low demand for fonio
products. Producers in the Ségou region explained that the market is unstable, sometimes passing
from 1000 to 250 FCFA per kg. Washed and dried fonio generally had a better price and market
than unprocessed fonio. Some producers mentioned specifically growing improved varieties of
fonio that yield bigger grains, as this helped them get a higher price. As mentioned earlier, fonio
production was usually taken care of by men, whereas its processing was mainly a women’s activity.
Participants explained that women specialized in fonio processing rather than production because
they were not landowners, and because many tasks involved in its farming were difficult to carry
for women.
The marketing of Bambara groundnut was an activity only conducted by women in the study
communities. This crop was typically sold within village boundaries in small volumes. Processed at
home, it was mostly sold roasted and sometimes boiled. In a few instances, some women in Somo
and N’Goutjina explained that they also had informal contacts with traders to sell their produce.
Respondents in Siramana, Chicolomba, and Somo considered that there was “no good market”,
“no market with a good price”, and “no specific market” for Bambara groundnut. By contrast, the crop
was considered to have a good market by producers in N’Goutjina. Female participants in the focus
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 11 of 19

groups complained about a lack of processing facilities for Bambara groundnut, pointing to a key gap
in the existing value chain. This gap went hand in hand with a general lack of information on the crop
regarding its marketing potential. In that respect, the gap between fonio and Bambara groundnut
was important.

3.3. Consumer Surveys

3.3.1. Rural Consumer Perceptions

Consumer perceptions were assessed during the focus groups and individual surveys with
producers in the Ségou and Sikasso regions in 2017. Fonio is used to prevent hunger in the family before
other cereals are in maturity. Fonio also had ceremonial values, being used in marriage and to make
sacrifices. Respondents mentioned that “when you eat fonio, you stay long without being hungry”.
Digesting fonio was considered easier than digesting rice, and it was recognized to be a good food for
diabetics. Fonio was cooked in several forms: Foyo, tô, and lafri (like riz gras). Participants mentioned
that their parents and grandparents did not know pre-cooked and djouka fonio, and in Finkoloni,
women did not know how to process these forms. For ease of consumption, it was important that
grains were clean of impurities, especially sand, and well dried. Participants explained that best
practices entailed drying the crop over a day indoors and covering it with a cloth to limit contamination
with sand as much as possible.
Similarly to fonio, the possibility of consuming Bambara groundnut as a backup food (‘aliment de
secours’) was important. Producers described it as an early crop that helps in difficult times when there
is no food. It was also used as a snack that “supplements the food cereals between morning and noon
and noon and evening”. There was an awareness of the nutritional properties of the crop. For example,
participants said it “plays the role of meat in the body” and that “children who eat it do not get sick of
malnutrition”. Bambara groundnut was made into croquettes, galettes (grilled flatbreads mixed with
okra powder), and tô (crushed seeds mixed with millet or sorghum flour and water).

3.3.2. Urban Consumer Perceptions

In the 2018 Bamako surveys, the vast majority of fonio consumers surveyed were women working
as traders on the markets or as housewives. Similarly to the results in the rural areas, respondents
praised the popularity of the crop during traditional and religious events. For example, several
respondents mentioned that precooked fonio is consumed during the Tabaski festival, while one
respondent highlighted consumption of djouka fonio during the Christmas season. Precooked fonio
was typically bought in stores, while most whitened and djouka fonio was bought in markets.
A recurrent complaint among respondents was that prices for all fonio products were unreasonably
high. Their price fluctuated around the year with seasonal availability (precooked fonio was less
available during the rainy season, for example), but also due to the presence of traditional festivals,
which increased its selling price. Issues related to cooking difficulty and the presence of sand or
small stones in all fonio products were also routinely reported by consumers. Among popular fonio
dishes were foyo, typically preferred by consumers of whitened and precooked fonio, and red djouka,
preferred by consumers of djouka fonio. Praised for its nutritional content and the ease with which it
is digested, most respondents reported a willingness to consume more fonio should their constraints
be lessened.

4. Discussion
Our interviews with traders, producers, processors, and consumers point to a series of constraints
that limit the consolidation of fonio and Bambara groundnut value chains. Table 4 summarizes the
issues for different actors of the value chains. Assessing the constraints along the different stages
of a value chain helps understand why these minor crops remain so, despite their nutritional and
economic potential [46]. The development of functional value chains is important to consolidate resilient
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 12 of 19

agricultural alternatives while providing local populations with nutritious foods [47]. Neglected and
underutilized species tend to have bottlenecks across their value chains, including agronomic constraints
(low yields, poor access to seeds, etc.), commercialization constraints (poor value chain organization,
high transaction costs), and weak consumer demand as a result of low awareness, negative perceptions
of the crop, or difficult processing, among other factors [46,48]. These bottlenecks can reduce interest
in growing and using species, while other crops compete for time, land, and space in local diets and
use practices. As Table 4 shows, the value chains of both fonio and Bambara groundnut faced barriers
along their value chains that limited their further integration into the Malian food system.

Table 4. Summary of issues in the value chains for fonio and Bambara groundnut detected in the
surveys with actors at different levels.

Value Chain Actor Fonio Bambara Groundnut

• Paddy fonio: Slow trade, low capital,

presence of sand
• Whitened fonio: Lack of customers, • Roasted Bambara: Low capital,
Traders and issues with suppliers, low capital lack of customers, high buying
processors • Second-level processed fonio: Lack of price for grains
processing material, presence of sand
• Processing units: Lack of equipment,
lack of capital

• Difficulties in accessing improved seeds • Lack of processing facilities

• Lack of machinery, especially • General lack of promotion and
threshing machine interest in the crop seen as
Producers • Lack of formal farming training ‘petty’ trade
• Harvest coincides with cotton • Climate constraints (not enough
• Recurrent pests and diseases rain, too much at harvest time)
• Insufficient rain
• High prices in Bamako • High price of roasted Bambara
Consumers • Presence of sand and/or stones in • Poor quality of
the product transformed product

4.1. Overview of Bottlenecks

The lack of a reliable market stood out as a limitation that demotivated farmers to produce fonio
and Bambara groundnut commercially and traders to deal with these crops. Farmers sold their harvests
within their villages to local consumers, as well as to collectors and mills, but they complained about a
lack of a consistent market and good prices. For traders, low consumer demand stood out as a primary
constraint for commercialization of fonio and Bambara groundnut, as captured by observations of
a “low pace of trade” and “lack of customers”. The consumer interviews confirmed observations
of low demand that were raised by traders and farmers. Both crops were used mainly as accessory
foods under specific circumstances and were not regular staples of diets year-round. Rural consumers
relied on these crops for food security in the lean season because of their early maturation, which is a
role that has been well documented for fonio [49]. Bambara groundnut was used as a snack to hold
over the appetites of rural consumers between meals. Fonio additionally held important ceremonial
roles for both rural and urban consumers, which traders observed to concentrate demand in a few
periods. Fonio was generally held in high esteem by consumers, as is common through several
areas of West Africa, where it is appreciated as a superior crop or a diversification product in urban
areas [15]. However, the quality of the processed products, which can often contain sand, reduced
their desirability. High prices were also a barrier for greater use of fonio by consumers. In this sense,
our results are consistent with prior research that has stressed the detrimental effects of high prices on
sustained consumption in urban Mali [27] and in the West African region [15]. Bambara groundnut did
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 13 of 19

not hold the same positive esteem as fonio, and it was mainly seen as a backup crop for food security.
Subsistence crops can carry a stigma as food of the poor, which poses a barrier to their full integration
in food systems, as has been observed, for example, for African leafy vegetables [50], and this may be a
factor holding Bambara groundnut from wider integration in the Malian food system.
For fonio, a clear difference emerged between products with low processing (paddy and whitened
fonio) and those with more advanced processing and packaging (precooked and djouka fonio).
Producers described the market for more advanced fonio products to be more reliable and with better
prices compared to that for paddy fonio. This was consistent with our results from the trader surveys,
which revealed more stable pricing of advanced fonio products over the year as compared to products
with lower levels of processing. Some women in the rural areas were engaged in processing fonio
as an income source, but the scale of commercial fonio processing in the villages was not substantial.
Producers across the sites complained of missing threshing machines and other processing equipment.
Most of the threshing was still done manually by beating the straw, which is a very labor-intensive
activity that often yields poor results in terms of product quality [30,51]. A lack of processing equipment
has been observed elsewhere as a barrier for fonio commercialization at the levels of producers and
processors (e.g., [30] for Togo). Mills in district centers in the Ségou and Sikasso regions were involved
in processing fonio, and numerous women’s processing groups in Bamako were active in sourcing
paddy fonio to process it for sale in grocery stores, supermarkets, and other markets. Lack of capital
was a general complaint by processing groups and retailers of fonio. These issues connected back
to consumer demand, as the presence of sand in the fonio products can be seen as a side effect of
inappropriate technology and low capital. This also translates into complaints regarding the high price
of the product, which requires a large investment of time, drudgery, or capital to process.
Lack of capital was an equally important constraint for traders of Bambara groundnut, together
with poor product quality. Here too, our results largely reflected findings from other studies:
The literature on Bambara groundnut stresses the lack of functional value chains for the crop, resulting
in irregular markets (see, for example, [32] for Ghana, or [19] for an African overview). One aspect we
saw in our results that was more specific to Bambara groundnut was the lack of systematic promotion
of the crop, which hindered its production and processing by farmers. Bambara groundnut is often
considered a women’s crop [33], and its marketing is confined to the margin of households’ main
agricultural strategies [31]. In the Ghanaian context, the crop is also found to be grown more by females
than males [34]. Because the latter have little interest in expanding production and commercialization
of the crop, it remains largely invisible in terms of promotion and advertisement. As such, male
farmers and traders are rarely interested in expanding its cultivation and sales. Even though Bambara
groundnut is popular as a snack food and was praised for its nutritional properties by producers and
consumers, its widespread lack of promotion reduces its visibility. A good example was the absence
of Bambara groundnut dishes in restaurants and supermarkets in the study sites, as was anecdotally
noted by the research team. Product diversification for Bambara groundnut was also very limited
despite the versatility of processing that is possible for this crop, especially by grinding it into flour [52].
Biological issues, such as long cooking time, may still constitute an important problem in this regard.
The required energy to transform Bambara groundnut within the household is often too high to make
processing a viable activity [31,34].
There were a few agronomic constraints mentioned in the producer interviews that contribute
to the limited production of Bambara groundnut and fonio. Low rainfall reduces yields of both
crops. In this sense, although fonio and Bambara groundnut are generally hardy with respect to
local conditions, they are not immune to climate change. For example, drought was a factor that
contributed to abandonment of this crop by producers in savannah areas of Ghana and Nigeria [34,53].
Storage pests were a major issue for producers of Bambara groundnut, which agrees with observations
of this crop in northwestern Nigeria [54]. A poor availability of seed—especially seed of improved
varieties—was mentioned for both crops in both regions. This complaint is not surprising given that
no improved varieties for Bambara groundnut have been released in Mali. By comparison, several
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 14 of 19

improved varieties of fonio have been released in Mali, but they are not always accessible to farmers,
and they tend not to perform reliably better than local varieties [55].
Given the popularity of fonio in the region, its importance in traditional events, and consumers’
willingness to consume more of it, the crop can be considered underutilized in the sense that its
commercial potential is not realized. The underutilized status of Bambara groundnut is equally clear,
if not more. Product transformation is very limited, and roasted seeds are the main product available.
Processing is carried out within producers’ households, and trade is confined to local areas due to
the lack of promotion of the crop. Strengthening the value chains of these crops therefore requires
targeted interventions to alleviate these specific bottlenecks. However, both bottlenecks and policy
recommendations need to be analyzed with gender lenses, as there are clear gender patterns observed
in the cultivation, processing, and marketing of the target crops.

4.2. Policy Recommendations

To assess the policy interventions required to mainstream fonio and Bambara groundnut,
the framework developed in [56] is a useful benchmark. Concerned with how to improve marketing
of marginal crops in a way that directly benefits the poor, the authors argue that three conditions
are necessary (though not necessarily sufficient) for successful commercialization of underutilized
species. First, demand needs to expand and stay sustained over time. To this end, marketing and
promotional campaigns, advertising, and information dissemination are important. Second, efficiency
along the value chains needs to be increased to bring consumers a product of quality for a reasonable
price. This involves, for example, the organization of farmer groups or cooperatives that help reduce
intermediaries’ bargaining power, and the development of processing units. Both these interventions
can be addressed through local and national policies. They also entail better communication between
different actors of the value chain, as well as decent infrastructure and transport networks to minimize
transaction costs. Finally, a situation in which production soars and subsequently depletes prices must
be avoided, as it would discourage farmers from continuing to produce marginal crops. One possible
way to avoid this is to promote quality-rewarding mechanisms; for example, by specifying necessary
quality attributes that a product must have in order to be commercialized through certification labels.
The development of certification and labeling systems to support the marketing of NUS products by
local communities is a policy intervention that has been poorly explored insofar at both the national and
international levels. Simple and inexpensive certification mechanisms linked to on-farm conservation
of NUS diversity and to resilience and nutritional benefits arising from their greater use should be more
decisively taken up by governments and agencies concerned for the wellbeing of local populations [57].
Additional national policy measures that could be explored to strengthen the value chains of NUS in
Mali include the introduction of these nutritious foods in public procurement schemes (e.g., school meal
programs), as was done recently in Guatemala [58], or the establishment of multi-stakeholder platforms
involving all value chain actors, as was done successfully in the case of amaranth in Bolivia [59].

4.2.1. Gender Dynamics in Processing and Trading

Even though the value chains for fonio and Bambara groundnut products are quite distinct,
several barriers to improved trading are common to female traders marketing both crops. Future value
chain interventions should aim at retaining women in the trade of marginal crops while simultaneously
helping them overcome the disproportionate barriers they are facing (access to capital, credit, processing
units, etc.).
While efforts should target increased visibility of the crop and the creation of processing units
outside the household in the case of Bambara groundnut, interventions for fonio would require instead
the strengthening of already existing processing structures. This involves securing availability of credit
and provisioning of processing materials to these groups on a perennial basis. Investing in second-level
processing technologies is also important for traders because processed products are less subject to
price variations than raw or barely processed ones. During our surveys with traders in 2017 in the
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 15 of 19

Ségou, Sikasso, and Bamako regions, respondents explained that the price of paddy and whitened
fonio varied extensively between the abundance and scarcity seasons, whereas prices for washed
and dried, precooked, and djouka fonio did not substantially rise in the scarcity season. Therefore,
policy interventions focusing on local development should ensure that the necessary technologies for
second-level processing are available to women’s processing groups who supply traders with fonio
(as well as restaurants). Given that traders of processed fonio also tend to be females, this would
strengthen women’s position along the value chain. Creating well-functioning formal markets is a key
condition for the consumption of traditional crops to consolidate and flourish, as shown by [60] in the
South African context.
A further possible issue in the case of fonio could arise as the value chain consolidates: Fonio trade
is currently managed by women, who also retain the income earned from this trade. A potential threat
lies in a gender-reversal phenomenon if fonio consolidates as a cash crop and heads of households,
who also own the land, embrace its production as a new source of income at the expense of women
and their autonomy. This possibility is less immediate for Bambara groundnut given its more marginal
status, but it exists in principle too, as stressed in [33].

4.2.2. Visibility and Knowledge of the Crops

At the trader level, lack of customers was often mentioned as a barrier towards greater
commercialization. Demand is usually high during traditional events or festivals, but is not sustained
throughout the year. Agricultural extension policies to stimulate demand through enhanced knowledge
and awareness of the crops’ benefits would be a useful first step towards achieving this goal. This is
the case for both fonio and Bambara groundnut, but the latter suffers from a lack of status and
the social stigma of being an ‘inferior food’ (a condition common to many underutilized crops),
which further hinders its trade; efforts are thus required to mainstream the crop through advertisement
campaigns, promotion of its nutritional properties, dissemination of recipes, and providing appropriate
incentives for traders to promote it. There is evidence that crop promotion influences producers’
adoption. For example, the authors of [61] document the case of adoption of annual legumes (including
Bambara groundnut) among maize-growing farmers in central Malawi following promotion campaigns
conducted between 1998 and 2004. The issue of visibility for Bambara groundnut is linked to its gender
dynamics too, as already explained.

4.2.3. Access to Inputs and Machinery

For fonio producers, a key lever to increase production is to ensure a better access to quality seeds
at an affordable price and to enhance access to technologies that can facilitate harvest and post-harvest
treatment of fonio. In particular, the unavailability of threshing machines proved to be a key bottleneck
for producers. Pilot schemes have been launched to test the efficacy of threshing and dehusking
machines in West Africa [62]. Efforts in this direction should be pursued to assist producers in the
development of modern technologies for fonio.

4.2.4. More Resilient Cropping Patterns

Although established cropping patterns are hard to change in the short term, efforts by
policymakers in Mali should be made to create more space and opportunities for NUS, such as
fonio or Bambara groundnut, and to rebalance crop mixes away from environmentally damaging crops,
such as cotton. For instance, currently, in Mali, only cotton, maize, and rice benefit from government
subsidies, in spite of the fact that Bambara groundnut is able to enrich the soil by fixing atmospheric
nitrogen, and both this crop and fonio can grow on low fertile soils, do not suffer from major insect
and disease problems, and can generate revenues for poor farmers in areas where cotton cultivation is
no longer feasible.
Land availability was not mentioned as a constraint in the case of Bambara groundnut. Interestingly,
producers mentioned that labor availability was not an issue either, contrary to fonio. Given the
Sustainability 2020, 12, 4766 16 of 19

availability of land, labor, and improved seeds for Bambara groundnut, it is therefore expected that
production could easily expand if the processing and commercial features of the crop were developed
at higher levels along the value chain, and the right incentives were set up for producers through an
enabling policy environment.

5. Conclusions
The value chains of fonio and Bambara groundnut in Mali suffer from important bottlenecks,
hindering further commercial integration in the case of fonio and the creation of decent marketing
opportunities in the case of Bambara groundnut. Among the main bottlenecks for fonio are the lack of
demand outside traditional events, presence of sand in the product, and limited access to capital to
expand processing and marketing activities. In the case of Bambara groundnut, limited visibility of the
crop, lack of processing units, and lack of demand are the most important constraints. Despite these
bottlenecks, both crops are important for local livelihoods and are well suited to the environment in
which they are grown, where they can perform better than other more popular crops because of their
hardiness to local climate conditions. With increasing awareness of the impact of climate change on
agricultural output in Western Africa and its effects on livelihoods, embracing agricultural strategies
that push these crops to the forefront is of crucial importance.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/11/4766/s1,

Table S1: Fonio brands from 2018 Bamako market surveys, Supplementary File 1. Interview guidelines.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.M., S.P., G.M., and B.B.; Methodology, C.M., G.M., Y.M., A.S.,
and S.P.; Validation, A.S., Y.K., A.B.N., and H.C.; Formal Analysis, C.M. and Y.M.; Investigation, C.M., Y.M.,
A.B.N., and H.C.; Resources, S.P. and A.S.; Data Curation, C.M. and Y.M.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation,
B.B. and C.M.; Writing—Review and Editing, G.M., S.P., and A.S.; Visualization, C.M. and G.M.; Supervision, S.P.
and A.S.; Project Administration, A.S., G.M., and S.P.; Funding Acquisition, S.P. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was carried out in the framework of an international effort “Linking Agrobiodiversity Value
Chains, Climate Adaptation, and Nutrition: Empowering the Poor to Manage Risk” (Grant No. 2000000978),
funded by the European Union and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the CGIAR
Research Programs on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) and Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food
Security (CCAFS).
Acknowledgments: We are most grateful for the time and active participation of the traders, processors, producers,
and consumers surveyed. The support of translators and local facilitators from Centre d’Appui à l’Autopromotion
pour le Développement (CAAD) and Aide au Sahel et à l’Enfance Malienne (ASEM) was essential to the success of
the study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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