LEARNING Highlights 5.1 Concept and Nature of Learning 5.2. Theories of Leaming 5.3 Classical Conditioning 5.4 Operant Conditioning 55 Cognitive Leaming 5.6 Social Learning 5.7 Shaping Behaviour 5.8 Strategies of Reinforcement 5.9 Schedules of Reinforcement ee---———— —-- - -—- — - - —- - - - - Learning is any permanent change in the behaviour of a person that occurs as a result of experience. It is accompanied by acquisition of knowledge, skills and expertise which are relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any learning. If reinforcement does not accompany the practice, the behaviour will eventually disappear Many psychologists have contributed to the theory of learning that provides a basis for changing types of behaviour that are unacceptable and maintaining those that are acceptable. When individuals engage in various types of dysfunctional behaviour (late for work, disobeying order, poor performance), the manager will attempt to make them leam functional or acceptable behaviour. Learning theory can also wide guidelines for conditioning the employees. This chapter is aimed at explaining learning theories ries of reinforcement. AND NATURE OF LEARNING ig fined learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a inforced practice. Ironically, it can be said that change in behaviour indicatesB sorts oF orator! ny i uote W. McGehee, that learning has taken place and that learning is a change in Darna 6, "Len, has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, responds as a result of exp) a manner dite from the way he formerly behaved” DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experiencg | or reinforced practice.” —BR. Hilgrag “Learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, responds as a result of experience ina manner different from the way he formerly behaved.” —W.McGehee “Learning is any permanent change in the behaviour of a person that occurs as a result of experience.” — S.P. Robbins Learning is change in behaviour of a person through education and training, practice ani experience. It is an enduring change accompanied by acquisition of knowledge, skills and expertie which are relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any Teaming, If reinforcement does not accompany the practice or experiences, the temporary change is behaviour will eventually disappear. It is reinforcement which makes learning or change in behaviow enduring by strengthening and intensifying certain aspects of an individual's behaviour. Features of Learning The process of learning involves the following implications: © Learning involves a change, in behaviour of a person. It may be good or bad from organisation's Point of view. For example, bad habits, prejudice, stereotypes and work restrictions may be leat by an individual. (@ Change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive Changes caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations are not covered in learning (#) Change in behaviour should occur as a result of experience, practice, or training. The change may not be evident until a situation arises in which the new behaviour can occur. () The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does not accompany the practice or experience, the behaviour will eventually disappear. () Learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual’s thought process or attitudes, not accompanied by behaviour, is no learning. Principles of Learning Learning is said to have occurred when people demonstrate a difference in behaviour or ability to perform a task, The following principles are important for the development of any training programme: 1. Trainee must be motivated to learn, An employee must see a purpose in learning the information Presented and have a clear understanding of what is presented. If ese two fuetors are considered, there will be a greater chance of satisfaction, A good trainee perceives an opportunity of real satisfaction, A good trainee perceives an opportunity of real satisfaction from training.Learning 2, Information must be meaningful, The training material must relate to the purpose of the training programme or it will stop being a motivator, Further, the material must be presented in a sequential manner, from the simple to the more complex, Further training should provide variety to prevent boredom and fatigue. Materials can be presented through case studies, lectures, films, discussions, or simulated ‘computer games. 3. Learning must be reinforced. In organisations, both positive and negative reinforcements should be used. If behaviour is undesirable, the negative reinforcement such as denial of a pay raise, promotion, or transfer can be effective. However, during the orientation and training period, positive reinforcement is mere effective than negative reinforcement. According to Behaviour Modification Model developed by B.F. Skinner, the more a desired activity or new knowledge is repeated and rewarded with verbal praise, physical rewards, or income, the more it will be remembered and become a part of a person’s behaviour. 4. Organisation of material. The trainer must remember that well organised material will help the trainees to remember the things taught to him, Presenting an overview of the material in a logical order will help the employee understand everything. Further, the sequence can affect ho well the person can remember the material presented. The training section may prepare the training material to be used for different jobs with the help of line supervisors. A complete outline of the whole course should be made with the main topics included under each heading. The training material should be distributed among the trainees well in advance so that they may come prepared in the lecture class and may be able to understand the operations quickly and may remove their doubts by asking questions from the instructor. 5, Feedback on learning. People like to know much they have learnt or how well they are doing. The sooner employees know the results of a quiz or test, the sooner they can assess their progress. The sooner employees receive positive feedback from the trainer, the less time they will waste in learning. Self-graded tests and programmed learning kits provide the necessary feedback to person on his progress on a particular subject. The principle of feedback does not necessarily mean frequent testing, but the more immediate the feedback on learning the more motivating it is likely to be. 5.2 THEORIES OF LEARNING There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new patterns of behaviour as shown in Fig. 5.1. These are (@ Classical Conditioning. The classical behaviourists, particularly Pavlov and Watson, attributed learning to the connection between stimulus and response. (Stimulus —> Response). Operant Cognitive ‘Conditioning Processes Ros LEARNING S—Stimulus R=Response FIG. 5.1. Types of Learning.purists sv f described the role of process. (Response —> Stimulus). Operant behaviour sur in contrast (0 reflexive or unlearned behaviour 11 that learning is achieved by thinking about the processes within the individual nitive theorists fe ents and individual goals. The rpreting information make the individual learn new between ev eceiving, preserving and inte Dehaviour. Social Learning. It is an integrative theory of lea observation and direct experience. Modelling, techniques of social learning. Cognition implies the process of acquiring kn represent what they know about themselves and the externa through cognitive processes like perceiving, imagining, ‘understanding a person’s cognitive system, it is possible to pres about an individual’s cognitive system, the better we are abl 5.3. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical conditioning deals with rhe association of one event with another desired event resulting in a desired behaviour or learning. It is a type of conditioning where an individual responds to some “tamulus that would invariably produce such a response. Learning through classical conditioning was first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a famed Nobel Prize winning physiologist, at the turn of the 20th century ning which explains that people learn through symbolish and self-control are the important owledge. Individuals have cognitive systems that environment. These systems are developed thinking, remembering, reasoning, etc. By dict his behaviour. The more we understand to predict his behaviour. 4. Before Conditioning ‘Unconditioned Unconditioned ‘Stimulus | J ~—Response (Meat) (Salivation) [7 Conditionea "No Stimulus | _{ Response (Bell) 2. During Conditioning Unconditioned Unconditioned | Sia Response | | Conditioned Fi i IG. 5.2. Stages in Classical Conditioning.Learning ~ Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog to study th Felation between the dog's salivation and the ringing of @ bell, A simple surgical procedure helped him to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by the dog. When Pavlov presented a piece of meat to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salivation, He termed the food an unconditioned stimulus (food automatically caused salivation) and the salivation an unconditioned response, When the dog saw the meat, it salivated. During the second stage, Pavlov merely tang a bell (neutral stimulus), the dog did not salivate. Pavlov subsequently introduced thes sound of the bell each time the meat was given to the dog. Thus, meat and the ringing of the bell were linked together. The dog eventually learnt to salivate in response to the ringing of the bell even when there was no meat, Pavlov conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus. Thorndike called this the “law of exercise” which states that behaviour can be learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a response. ‘The meat was an unconditioned stimulus (US). It invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way, ie,, noticeable increase in salivation. This reaction is called the unconditioned response (UR). The ell was an artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus (CS). It was originally neutral. But when the bell ‘was paired with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually produced a respnse. After conditioning, the dog started salivating in response to the ringing of the bell alone. In other words, conditioned stimulus (CS) led to conditioned response (CR). Thus, under classical conditioning, learning is a conditioned response which involves building up ‘an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Using the paired stimuli, one compelling and the other one neutral, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned stimulus. This happens quite often in organisational settings. Ina case, there was a cleanliness drive in a hospital to prepare for inspection by the top officials of the health ministry. Here the nurses and other staff showed great attention to their duties. This practice continued for a considerable period. Eventually, nurses and other staff showed their utmost attention to duties, whenever the cleanliness drive was carried out in the hospital even though it was not linked with the inspection by the health ministry official Classical conditioning represents only a very small part of total human learning. So it has a limited value in the study of Organisational Behaviour. In the words of S.P. Robbins, “Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific or particular way. Itis elicited in response to @ specific, identifiable event and as such it explains simple and reflexible behaviours. But behaviour of people in organisations is emitted rather than elicited, and it is voluntary rather than reflexive”. The learning of complex behaviours can be better understood by looking at operant conditioning, 5.4 OPERANT CONDITIONING gq 3615 Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effect. Operant conditioning is based on the work ‘of BF. Skinner who advocated that individuals emit responses that are rewarded and will not emit responses that are either not rewarded or are punished. Operant conditioing is voluntary or learned behaviour and it is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequence. In contrast, respondent behaviour is an involuntary or unlearned response to an environment stimulus. Operant conditioning is based on the premise that behaviour is a function of its consequences. People learn to behave to get something they desire or to avoid something they do not like. Behaviour is if the consequences are favourable and it is not likely to be repeated if the it is not likely to be repeated if the Bag unfavourable. NEE KSBt~~ Essentials of Organisational Behaviour Thus, the relationship between behaviour and consequences is the essence of operant conditioning ‘The term ‘operant’ indicates that the organism operates on its environment to generate consequences ‘The relationship between consequences and response summarises quite concisely a basie learning process that occurs overtime, in which a person changes his behaviour based on his past experience The various strategies of reinforcement are discussed later in this chapter. Reinforcement strengthens a behaviour and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated. This is the essence of operant conditioning. Its advocates point out that evidence abounds throughout human history that we all adhere to its tenets. We do learn from touching 4 hot stove, and we understand electric shock rather well after we stick a finger ina light socket. Whether or not we agree with the concept of. ‘operant conditioning, we cannot avoid it. Parents reward children for good behaviour and admonish BEES inappropriate behaviour, In education, we invoke the law of effect by awarding grades for various works and how we are caught up in it, we gain insight about how and why people behave as they do. Thus, we learn to recognize environmental stimuli and probable responses, thereby improving our ability to predict behaviour. foning is a powerful tool for managing people in organisations, Most behaviours im organisations are learned, controlled and altered by the consequences, i-2., operant behaviours, Management can use the operant conditioning process successfully to control and influence the behaviour of employees by manipulating the reward system. If a manager wants to influence behaviour, he must also be able to manipulate the consequences. Thus, it can be concluded that the behavioural consequences that are rewarding increase the rate of response, while the aversive consequences decrease the rate of Operant conditic response. Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning of difference between the svo types of conditioning are given below : a specific stimulus, such as food, is used to elicit a specific response The response is elicited. In operant conditioning, the response is not elicited by controlled stimulation but rather is spontaneously emitted by the subject. The stimulus situation serves as A cue in operant conditioning. It does not elicit the response but serves as a cue for a person'0 ‘emit the response, The critical aspect of operant conditioning is what happens as a consequence of the response. Moreover, responses are variable in types and degrees as against fixed respon under classical conditioning. (ii) The emphasis in classical conditioning is upon involuntary responses, while the emphasis" operant conditioning is upon voluntary responses. The points (i Inclassical conditioning, (ifi) During the classical conditioning process, the uncondtioned stimulus, serving as a reward, * presented everytime. Thus, stimulus leads to response (S > R). But in operant conditioning, th reward is presented only if the organism given the right response. The organism must oper on the environment in order to receive a reward. The response or behaviour is instrumental obtaining the reward (R > S). (iv) Under classical conditioning, reinforcement is not received by choice of the individual. BU! * case of operant conditioning, the individual's response is instrumental in securing reinforce by operating on the environment. : 5.5 COGNITIVE LEARNING Cognitive learning is learning achieved by thinki , yy thinking about th Pe ante and individual's goals and expecianeaaeeene te perc ee reiaiomste am 26$$ motivation theones é<4! * aRan Se explaining “why” people decide to do things. They do so by examining how people come to view various work activities as perceived opportunities to satisfy needs, pursue desired rewards, and eliminate felt inequities. Cognition refers to an individual's ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understandings, ete,, about himself and his environment. Cognitive theory of learning assumes that the organism learns the meaning of various objects and events and learned responses depend upon the meaning assigned to stimuli, Cognitive theorists argue that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory, which preserves and organises information about the various events that occur in a learning situation. When a test is conducted to determine how much has been learned, the subject must encode the test stimulus and scan it against his memory to determine an appropriate action. Response of the subject will depend upon the cognitive structure retrieved from memory. The cognitive theory recognises the role of an organism in receiving, memorizing, retrieving and interpreting the stimulus and reacting to it. The cognitive explanation of learning differs the stimulus and reacting to it, The cognitive explanation of learning differs from classical conditioning (Stimulus —> Response learning) and operant conditioning (Response — Stimulus learning). According to Tolman, cognitive approach could be termed as Stimulus -> Stimulus approach i.e., one stimulus leads to another. The cognitive theory has forced the behaviourists to develop more complex explanations of behaviour and urged upon the need to consider cognitions as having at least a possible mediating role between the stimulus environment and the behaviour. Many motivation theories centre around the cognitive approach. Expectations, attributions and locus of control, and goal setting (which are in the forefront of modern work-motivation) are all cognitive concepts and represent the purposefulness of organisational behaviour. 5.6 SOCIAL LEARNING Social learning is learning achieved through the reciprocal interactions between people, behaviour. and their environment, Social learning theory integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognises the importance of consequences as determinants of behaviour. It also emphasises that people acquire new behaviours by observing and imitating others in the social setting. Learning is not a case of environmental determinism (classical and operant views) or of individual determinism (the cognitive view). Rather, it is a blending of both. Thus, social learning theory emphasises the interactive nature of cognitive, behavioural and environmental determinants of human behaviour. People learn through observation and direct experience. Social learning theory is a behavioural theory. It draws heavily from the classical and operant conditioning concepts and even goes beyond that, Besides antecedent stimuli and contingent consequences, social learning can also take place via (i) modelling or vicarious learning; (ii) symbolism, and (iii) self-control. In fact, we are all influenced by models such as parents and other family members, teachers, etc. from our childhood. Modelling. Through vicarious learning or modelling, people acquire behaviours by directly observing and imitating others. When the “model” such as the manager or a co-worker, demonstrates desirable behaviours, it can have major impact on a person’s work efforts. Many patterns of behaviour are learned by watching the behaviour of models such as parents, teachers, superiors, film stars, ete. The influence of models is central to the social learning viewpoint. The following processes determine the influence that a model will have on an individual: 1. Attentional Process. People only learn from a model when they recognise and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to tbe most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly appearing, lich we think are important, or we sce as similar to us.Essentials of Organisational Beha, =O LY Ww wi vidual remem Process, A model's influence will depend oa ell the indi ers iy 2. Retention Process. : annie model’s ction, even after the model is no longer readily avai Wee. a ania seen a new : 4 i s. After a person has s : 3. Motor Reproduction Proces: i 's that the individ model, the watching must be converted into doing. This process demonstrate: ual cay perform the modelled activities : 4. Reinforcement Process. \ndiviuals will be motivated to exhibit the modelled behavour if positiyg |. Rein 88, rT e attention, | incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviours that are reinforced will be given mor leaneg better and performed more often. 5.7 SHAPING BEHAVIOUR amangers are concerned with making the subordinates learn those behaviours : ten a Macon get moulds individuals by guiding their learning that are most beneficial to the organisation. When a mana im graduated steps, he is shaping behaviour. systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves the Ifan employee who has been chronically a half-hour late for iger can reinforce this behaviour so that it comes more A manager can shape behaviour by individual closer to the desired response. work comes in only twenty minutes late, the mana, close to the desired behaviour to be at work on time. The Law of Effect The operant conditioning or learning approach to behaviour is based on the law of effect Propounded by Thorndike. The law states that the behaviour that has rewarding consequence is likely to be repeated whereas, behaviour that leads to a negative consequence tends not to be repeated. in reinforcement strategies can be employed by managers to inffuence the behaviour of employees, viz. (Positive reinforcement, (ii) negative reinforcement, (iii) extinction, and (iv) punishment. These are discussed below : 1. Positive Reinforcement. This strategy entails the use of Tewards that stimulate desired behaviour and strengthen the probability of repeating such behaviour in the future. Positive reinforces bringAig rrino NS) = pleasure but have a variety of meanings for individuals such as money, promotion, and praise. Money is considered secondary because it is used to purchase primary reinforcers (food) ot as a proxy for status (also a primary reinforcer), Effective reinforcers must meet two conditions : First, the reward should be contingent upon the type of performance. Second, the reward should be matched with the needs of the worker. Because positive reinforcers differ among individuals, managers must either develop a reward system that is appropriate for all the members of their workgroup or tailor their rewards to suit each individual. 2. Negative Reinforcement or Avoidance Learning. Negative reinforcement takes place when individuals learn to avoid or escape from unpleasant consequences. Much lawful behaviour in our society is based on avoidance learning. For example, people learn to drive carefully to avoid accidents. In the workplace, avoidance learning usually occurs when peers or supervisors criticise an individual’s actions. Negative reinforcement relies on avoidance of punishment or the threat of punishment rather than the offering of a reward. For instance, we learn to watch for traffic when crossing streets, and we learn to bundle up on cold days to avoid accidents and to protect ourselves from cold. However, punishment or threat of punishment is not implied in any of these actions. In work environments, training, safety warnings, orientation sessions and counselling help alert employees against negative consequences of undesirable behaviour. When coupled with positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviour, the effect can be extremely beneficial 3. Extinction. It is an effective method of controlling undesirable behaviour. It refers to non- reinforcement. It is based on the principle that if a response is not reinforced, it will eventually disappear. The absence of all forms of reinforcement is used to remove or extinguish undesirable behaviour. A disruptive employee who, for example, picks fights and who is apparently punished by the supervisor may continue the disruptions because of the attention they bring. By ignoring or isolating the disruptive employee, attention is withheld and possibly also the motivation for fighting. 4, Punishment, Through punishment, managers try to correct improper behaviour of subordinates by providing negative consequences. Giving harsh criticism, docking pay, denying privileges, demoting, and reducing an individual’s freedom to do his or her job are common forms of punishment in the workplace. Punishment is the historic method of reducing or eliminating undesirable behaviour. Sometimes, punishment frustrates the punished and leads to antagonism towards the punishing agent. As a result the effectiveness of the punishing agent diminishes over time. Because of the possible dangers of punishment, it should be administered properly. The following points may be noted in this regard: ( The specific undesired behaviour, not the person, should be punished. If it is directed at the person, punishment will receive revenge. (ii) The punishment should be enough to extinguish the undesired behaviour. Underpunishment may not deter the behaviour, overpunishment may produce undesirable results. (iii) Punishment should be administered privately. By administering the punishment in front of others, ii ished in the sense that he is also put out of face. 1 the undesirable behaviour. It is more effective when applied. sle behaviour is produced. Further, punishment should everyEl 510 Essentials of Organisational Behaviour he person to select a desirable (9) Punishment is effective in modifying behaviour if it forces behaviour that is reinforced, If this is not done, the undesirable behaviour tends to reappear causing fear and anxiety in the person being punished. (vi) Punishment must be administered carefully so that it does not become a reward for undesirable behaviour Although most ethical criticisms of behaviour modification techniques focus on punishment, Skinner and other behaviourists advocate the use of positive reinforcement rather than punishment to change behaviour. Punishment, by definition, only tells the individual what should not be done rather than what should be done. Thus, one mistake may be followed by a new one as the individual seeks to find, by trial error, behaviour that will not be punished, In addition, punishment causes resentment, which is usually counterproductive in the work environment. For most organisation members who are mature and willing to be productive, positive reinforcement (combined with extinction, if necessary) is more effective and humane. TABLE 5.1. Reinforement Theory at a Glance To Encourage Desirable Behaviour (® Positive Reinforcement. Increasing the frequency of or strengthening a desirable behaviour by making it ¢ontingent with the occurrence of a desirable consequence. Example ~ A manager nods to express approval to a subordinate who pacifies an annoyed customer. (ii) Negative Reinforcement or Avoidance. Increasing the frequency of or strengthening a desirabl behaviour by making it contingent with the removal of an undesirable consequence. Example— A manager who has been regularly nagging a worker about his performance, sto nagging when the production quota is met, To Discourage Undesirable Behaviour (iii) Extinction, Decreasing the frequency of or weakening an undesirable behaviour by removi desirable consequences previously contingent with its occurrence. Example — A disruptive employee is isolated or ignored so that his behaviour does not receive the attention of fellow employees (ii) Punishment. Decreasing the frequency of or weakening an undesirable behaviour by making it contingent with the occurrence of an undesirable consequence, Example — A manager deducts an employee's pay when he reports late for work. * 5.9 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement does not always follow a particular response. For example, studying hard for exams sometimes yields high grades and sometimes, it does not. Similarly, taking a client out to dinner at an expensive restaurant and plying with excellent wine may help in closing an important deal, but not always. Also, keeping on top of one’s work and getting it done on time sometimes results in praise and recognition; at other times, it may be ignored, In many cases, the occurrence or absence of reinforcement following a given form of behaviour seems to be quite random. In others, it is governed by definite rules. These rules are known as schedules of reinforcement and exert powerful effects upon behaviour,Learning TS] _ The influence of such schedules was stu and his associates. The key questions in such rese subjects perform various responses under differ responding vary from one schedule to another ? | schedules have been examined. The simplest, of reward — continuous reinforcement. Besides this, the occurrence of reward is governed by a single type exist, which are discussed below. d systematically for several decades by B.F. Skinner arch have been these : How quickly and how often do rent schedules of reinforcement? Do such rates of In order to answer these questions, a large number of ‘ourse, is one in which every response is followed by a however, the most basic schedules are ones in which tule. Four distinct schedules of reinforcement of this Interval Ratio Fixed Fixed Interval Ratio Variable Variable Variable Interval Ratio FIG. 5.2. Schedules of Reinforcement. ( Fixed Interval Schedule. This schedule demands that a fixed amount of time has to elapse before a reinforcement is administered. In many organisations, monetary reinforcement comes at the end of a period of time. Most workers are paid hourly, weekly or monthly for the time spent on their jobs. This method offers the least motivation for hardwork among workers because pay is tied to time interval rather than actual performance. The occurrence of reinforcement depends largely on the passage of time. (ii) Variable Interval Schedule. The availability of reinforcement is also controlled mainly by the passage of time in a variable interval schedule. In some cases, reinforcement can be obtained after a short period has passed. In others, a much longer interval must elapse before it again becomes available. As a result of such uncertainty, variable-interval schedules of reinforcement generally yield moderate and steady rates of response. Suppose the plant manager visits the production shop at 11 a.m. each day (fixed interval), performance tends to be high just prior to his visit and thereafter it declines. Under variable interval schedule, the manager visits at randomly selected time intervals and no one knows for sure when the manager will be around. As a result, performance tends to be higher and there would be less fluctuations than under the fixed interval schedule. (iii) Fixed Ratio Schedule. In a fixed ratio schedule, rewards are showered after a fixed or constant number of responses. For example, piece rate incentive plan is a fixed ratio schedule. It tends to produce high rate of response which is both vigorous and steady. Workers try to produce as many pieces as possible in order to pocket the monetary tewards. Therefore, the response level here is significantly higher than that obtained under an interval schedule. ‘able Ratio Schedule. When the reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual, he be reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule. Salespersons on commission represent of individuals on such a reinforcement schedule. On some occasions, they may make ‘only two calls on potential customers. On other occasions, they might need to makebee OE 2 Essentials of Organisational Behaviour twenty or more calls to secure a sale. The reward, then, is variable in relation to the number of successful calls the salesperson makes. in (OB Mod) Application of Reinforcement Theory in Behaviour Modifica The consicious application of operant conditioning is called Behaviour Modification. Extended to management, it is called Organisational Behaviour Modification (OB Mod). When thinking of OB Mod, most researchers focus on positive reinforcement as rewards that influence behaviour and strengthen the future probabilities of desirable behaviour. Milestone OB Mod research was conducted during the early 1970s at Emery Air Freight when the firm took pioneering steps to apply operant conditioning in motivating changes in performance, Emery used positive reinforcers for a three year period to improve customer service, freight delivery systems, scheduling, and other personal services. The firm saved a huge amount while improving performance in its experimental work groups by impressive margins. There are a large number of applications of the learning theory and OB Mod. The reinforcement theory could be used in disciplining the troublemakers, designing mentoring programmes for new employees and developing employee training programmes. Social learning theory can also play a great role in designing training programmes. Review Questions ] 41. “Learning leads to change in human behaviour.” Comment. 2. What is law of effect? When should punishment be used by the managers? 3. “Classical conditioning is passive". Elaborate. 4, “Behaviour is a function of its consequences.” Do you agree? Why? 5. Explain the concept of learning and briefly examine the various theories of learning. 6. Briefly discuss various schedules of reinforcement. 7. Discuss the nature of learning. How does classical conditioning help in learning the desire behaviour? 8. What is operant conditioning? How is it different from classical conditioning? 9. What strategies are employed under operant conditioning to modify the behaviou subordinates? Discuss with the help of suitable examples 10. What is meant by reinforcement? What types of reinforces could be employed by the mani to make the employees learn new behaviours. 11. “Reinforcement theory of learning is at the root of behaviour modification.” Examint statement. 12. Explain with examples the concepts of cognitive and social learning. What is the relevanct social learning in modern organisations? 43. How would you convince someone, Who believes OB Mod is manipulative that it is an ethic technique for human resource management? 11. Write short notes on the following: (a) Classical conditioning (6) Lawofeffect (c) Positive reinforcement.Learning Case stupy The employees of Blue Diamond Company faced a cloudy future. The company which manufactures paper egg cartons, was encountering stiff competition from several firms producing styrofoam containers. In addition, the economic recession was biting into profits and employees were generally jittery about their jobs. Relations between management and labour were strained. In order to improve internal working, the Chief Executive devised a system of productivity incentive called the 100 Club. Under this programme, employees were allocated points for above-average performance. Any employee who worked a full year without having an industrial accident was awarded twenty points. 100% attendance was worth twenty-five points, and so on. Every year, on the programme's anniversary date, the points would be added up, and a record would be maintained. Upon reaching 100 points, the worker received a nylon jacket emblazoned with the company logo and a patch signifying membership of the 100 Club. Each of the plant's 325 employees eventually earned a jacket. Those who continued to accumulate points above 100 received additional gifts. For example, with 500 points, employees could choose such items as a blender, a wall clock, ora pine cribbage board. Even though none of these was beyond the purchasing power of the workers, the response was impressive. After two years, productivity at the plant was up 16.5 per cent and quality-related errors were down 40 per cent. Workers’ grievances had decreased 72 per cent and lost time due to industrial accidents was reduced by 43.7 per cent. Beyond these improvements, relations between labour and management had never been better. Labour leaders credited the 100 Club with keeping the company afloat and fostering a new atmosphere of cooperation. Questions 4, Identify the problem in the above case. 2. What reinforcers did the company use and what were the results? 3. What kind of reinforcement schedule did the company use? Give its merits and demerits. REFERENCES 4. Hilgard, E.R., Introduction to Psychology, New Delhi, Oxford & IBH, 1975, p, 186. 2. McGehee, W., “Are We using What We Know About Training? ~ Learning Theory and Training. Personne! Psychology, Spring 1958, p.2. Warren, Howard C, (ed.), Dictionary of Psychology, New York, Houghton Miffin, 1934, p. 151 Robbins , S.P,, Organisational Behaviour, New Delhi, Prentice-Hall, 1996, p. 111 Luthans, Fred, Organisational Behaviour, New York, McGraw-Hill, 2013, p. 292, The Work of the Digestive Glands (trans. W.H. Thompson), London, Chales Griffin, 1902. it, p. 112 ingencies of Reinforcement, East Norwalk, C.T., Appleton-Century-Crafts, 1971Essentials of Organisational Behayio,, 10. 11, alee 13. - 14, 15. 16. ay 18. 19. 20. 2a; 22. Luthans, Fred Op. cit., p. 296. 4 i A . , i | Behaviour, Academ) Davis, Tim, R.V. and Luthans, Fred, A Social Learning Approach to Organizational a Management Review, April 1980, pp. 281-90. F Schnake, Mel! E., Vicarious erent in a Work Setting, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 71, No, 2 1986, pp. 343-345 Robbins, S.P., op. cit., p. 133 Thorndike, E.L.. Animal intelligence, New York, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1911. Luthans, Fred, Organizational Behaviour, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989, p. 312. Ferster, C.B. and Skinner, B.F, Schedules of Reinforcement. New York, Appleton, 1957. Honig, W.K., and Staddon, J.E.R (Eds), Handbook of Operant Behaviour. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice. Hall, 1977. Luthans, Fred and Kreitner, Robert, The Management of Bahvioural Contingencies, Personnel, 51, No.4 July-Aug. 1974, pp. 7-16. Robbins, Stephen P., op. cit., p. 251. Schermerhora, Hunt and Osborn, Managing Organisational Behaviour, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1988, p. 138. Skinner, B.F., Contingencies of Reinforcement, East Norwalk, C.T., Appleton-Century-Crafts, 1971. Fred L. Fry, Operant Conditioning in Organisational Setting : Of Mice or Men, Personnel, July-Aug. 1974, pp. 17-24. KAK