University of Mumbai

Program: Chemical Engineering

Curriculum Scheme: Rev2019
TE Semester: VI
Subject: Department Optional Course 2 (Piping Engineering) Course Code: CHDO6021
Question Bank

Q1. ------- is used in gas flow control

Option A: Ball valve

Option B: Gate valve
Option C: Globe valve
Option D: Needle valve
Q2. Y type Strainer is used for

Option A: Heating
Option B: Cooling
Option C: To remove dirt
Option D: For a venting
Q3. In globe valves, the flow rate control is determined by _______

Option A: Size of the opening

Option B: Lift of the valve plug
Option C: Pressure difference
Option D: Gravity
Q4. Steam trap is used to remove ------ from flowing fluid

Option A: Dirt
Option B: Condensate
Option C: Solids
Option D: Vapour
Q.5. ASME B --------is process piping code

Option A: 31.1
Option B: 31.2
Option C: 31.3
Option D: 31.4
Q6. Which of the following valve is known as a safety valve _______

Option A: Scour valve

Option B: Pressure Relief valve
Option C: Reflux valve
Option D: Altitude valve
Q7 Which material is used for pipes which are in contact with milk or product?

Option A: Stainless steel

Option B: Copper
Option C: Ceramic
Option D: Plastic
Q8 What are the reasons causing pressure drop in Piping systems?
Option A: Long length of pipe
Option B: Friction
Option C: Type of fluid
Option D: Losses in valves and bends
Q9. ------ support allows directional movement

Option A: Anchor
Option B: Guide
Option C: Hanger
Option D: Saddle
Q10. ASME B -------- is Power piping code

Option A: 31.1
Option B: 31.11
Option C: 31.8
Option D: 31.5
Q11 ------ account expansion in pipe

Option A: Socket joint

Option B: Bellows
Option C: Miter joint
Option D: Union

Q12 A Gate valve------

Option A: has more restriction in a line than a globe valve

Option B: should be operating either fully open or fully closed
Option C: is used to throttle flow
Option D: is used for different applications than a globe valve
Q13 What is roughly a gauge pressure of 195 psi when converted in absolute psi

Option A: 195
Option B: 210
Option C: 235
Option D: 178
Q14. Which valve is used when a straight line of fluid and minimum restriction is required?

Option A: Gate valve

Option B: Lift check valve
Option C: Butterfly valve
Option D: Plug valve
Q15. How much space is kept in between column of pipe rack?

Option A: 3-4 feet

Option B: 0.5-0.6 km
Option C: 5-6 feet
Option D: 50-60 m
Q16. From which size onwards NB of pipe equal to OD of pipe?

Option A: 14inch
Option B: 6 Inch
Option C: 4 Inch
Option D: 8 Inch
Q17 Std length of C.I. Pipe in meters is

Option A: 5
Option B: 5.5
Option C: 4
Option D: 4.5
Q18 What is the function of valves?

Option A: Isolation
Option B: Regulation
Option C: Non Return
Option D: All of above
Q19. Which among the following is not a permanent welding connection?

Option A: Bends
Option B: Reducers
Option C: Sampling device
Option D: Tees
Q20. What are the reasons causing pressure drop in piping systems?

Option A: Long length of pipe

Option B: Type of fluid
Option C: Friction
Option D: All of the abive
 Q21. Which formula is used to calculate head loss in valves?

Option A: k2(v/2g)
Option B: k(v/2g)
Option C: k(v2/2g)
Option D: k3(v2/2g)
Q22. Temporary closure of pipe line by

Option A: Blind Flange

Option B: Valve
Option C: Block
Option D: Welded Flange
Q23. What is the ASME Code followed for design of Piping Systems in process
piping (Refineries & Chemical Industries)?

Option A: B 31.1
Option B: B 31.3
Option C: B 31.5
Option D: B 31.9
Q24. Types of piping engineering diagram---

Option A: Process flow diagram

Option B: Process block diagram
Option C: Piping and instrumentation diagram
Option D: All above
Q25. Pick out wrong statement pertaining to NDT test.

Option A: Radioactive test

Option B: Ultrasonic test
Option C: Dye penetrant test
Option D: Impact test
Q26. Flexibility factor for straight pipe is ----

Option A: zero
Option B: one
Option C: less than one
Option D: greater than one
Q27 Minor energy losses in pipe take place when

Option A: sudden expansion of pipe

Option B: sudden contraction of pipe
Option C: change in direction of fluid
Option D: all above
Q28 Which of the following is used to block the pipe at the end

Option A: Plug
Option B: Reducer
Option C: Union
Option D: coupling
Q29 Calculate area of a pipe if, flow rate is 20 l/min and flow velocity is 5 cm/s.

Option A: 66.66 cm2

Option B: 60 cm2
Option C: 62 cm2
Option D: 64 cm2
Q30 To prevent the product flow in the wrong direction which of the following valve is used?

Option A: Seat valve

Option B: Butterfly valve
Option C: Seat valve and butterfly valve
Option D: Check valve

Subjective Question Bank-Piping Engineering

1. Discuss important factor in selection of material of construction of pipes. Explain With

example?

SOLUTION

Important factor in selection of material of construction of pipes are as follows:

I. MATERIAL BEING TRANSPORTED

i. The type of liquid or gas your pipe system transports plays a significant role in choosing
fluid handling pipe material.
ii. Some pipe materials are better suited for non-corrosive liquids, like oils or standard
wastewater.
iii. More corrosive liquids, like acid or peroxide, require a pipe with an interior that can hold
up to the abrasiveness of these corrosive materials.
iv. Corrosive materials are common in many industrial cleaning solutions, as well as in
chemical manufacturing and handling.
 v. Despite a plastic or metal pipe material’s durability and corrosion resistance, chemicals,
acids and saltwater are much more abrasive than standard water or oil.
vi. Always keep the liquid you are transporting in mind when selecting a pipe material.

II. TEMPERATURE OF LIQUID PASSING THROUGH

i. The next thing to consider is the temperature of the liquid in your fluid handling system.
ii. If you’re transporting high-temperature liquids, you’ll need to be sure your system
consists of high-temperature pipe materials.
iii. Certain types of plastic piping may not be ideal for handling high temperatures, while
others may be designed to handle fluids no matter how hot they are.
iv. Metal pipe materials are typically wise choices for high-temperature liquids, although
some types may become too hot to the touch.
v. If you are handling extremely high or low-temperature fluid — including cryogenic
liquids— make sure your pipe consists of material intended for extreme temperatures.
vi. Otherwise, you risk damaging or corroding your pipes and contaminating the liquids
inside of them.
vii. In some cases, extreme temperatures can break your piping entirely, resulting in
expensive repairs, damaged product and hazardous workplace conditions.
viii. Metal pipe material is usually suitable for extremely hot liquids, although you and your
employees should exercise caution when working with them. Depending on the
temperature, aluminum is often used to transport cryogenic liquids.

III. THE PRESSURE OF THE LIQUID HANDLING PROCESS

i. the pressure of these service fluids is very high, you will need piping material that is
either high-strength, higher thickness or designed to resist high-pressure fluids.
ii. The average pressure that most manufacturing facilities’ piping must be able to handle is
around 150 pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
iii. If your facility is working with liquids of higher pressures than this, you may have to
request a piping material that is specially designed to handle high-pressure fluids.
iv. Various liquids and gases create different pressures inside of your fluid handling pipes.
For example, cryogenic fluids are known for creating very high-pressure environments
during the transfer process.
v. Many external factors can impact this pressure, too, including the temperature and
elevation of your piping.
vi. Some liquids and gases that might require pressure-specific pipe materials include:
 Ammonia
 Chlorine
 Propane
  Carbon dioxide
 Nitrous oxide
 Acetylene
 Butane
 Hydrogen
 Helium
 Neon
 Nitrogen
 Concentrated oxygen

IV. Service Life of the Fluid Handling System

i. One needs reliable and durable piping according to fluid handling system.
ii. A major component of effective piping design and material selection is asking how long
you expect your fluid handling system to last.
iii. If you know you’ll likely have to replace the system in five to 10 years due to another
reason, such as relocation, you don’t need to invest in a very long-lasting piping material.
iv. This may also affect how much money you’re willing to spend on the system, which will,
in turn, impact the type of material you should choose.
v. If, on the other hand, you expect this system to last for 10 or more years, you should
invest in the most durable type of piping material.
vi. For example, temporary worksites or processing plants that do not typically deal in fluid
handling may not need as intricate or durable a system as a permanent plant that transfers
fluids daily. You should also factor in how often your business will use your fluid
handling system. Of course, there are some conditions — such as extremely corrosive
chemicals, hazardous materials or fluids that need temperature regulation — that will
require certain pipe materials, regardless of the desired service life of your system. If no
special circumstances apply to your business, use this information to help you gauge the
amount you should invest in your pipes, as well as that type and quality of material used.

V. Ease of Maintenance

i. Just like flooring, countertops and other solid surfaces, certain types of piping material
are easier to clean than others.
ii. Be realistic about the frequency, as it is can become a very time-consuming task
depending on the size and intricacy of your system.
iii. If you won’t be able to clean it very often, having a low-maintenance piping material
should be a priority for your facility.

VI. Valve and Fitting Sizes

 i. Certain piping materials will only have a few valve and fitting sizes to choose from, so
you may need to eliminate some options based on this factor. Some of the valve and
fitting types you can choose from include:
• Butterfly valves
• Ball valves
• Check valves
• Diaphragm valves
• Rupture pin safety valves
• Knife gate valves
• Solenoid valves
• Slurry valves
• Severe service valves
• Sanitary valves

ii. The types of valve and fittings you choose will depend upon the types of connections
you’ll need to make from pipe to pipe, as well as to connect the pipes to other features of
the fluid handling system.

VII. THE COST OF THE MATERIAL

i. Cost is a significant factor in any business decision. As you consider different pipe
materials, keep in mind the cost of:
 The initial investment in all required parts, including the pipes, valves and pipe fittings
 Whether your chosen material is readily available or needs to be imported
 Routine and emergency maintenance appointments
 Pipe lining materials, if applicable
ii. As with any expense, always consider the return on investment when comparing different
costs.
iii. For example, if a pipe material is best suited for your industry due to its thermal
regulation and durability, but it is more expensive, keep in mind the potential loss you
might face if choosing a cheaper, less viable option. For many industries, not investing in
the right pipe materials can lead to much more costly issues down the road. Always keep
your industry’s non-negotiable needs in mind when examining costs.

2. Explain classification of piping material.

SOLUTION

i. Carbon steel:
 Steel is basically a solution of carbon (C) into iron (Fe). The presences of carbon into the
crystal structure of the iron improve very much the mechanical characteristics of the iron
alone. Carbon steel is a conventional denomination for steel that has almost no other metallic
elements added into it.
Carbon steel material specification ASTM A106 is available in grades A, B and C. These
refer to the tensile strength of the steel, with grade C having the highest strength. Common
practice is to manufacture the pipe as A106 grade B ASTM A53 is also commonly specified
for galvanized or lined pipe or as an alternate to A106.the testing requirement for A53 are
less stringent(rigorous or tight) than for A106. Three types of carbon steel pipe are covered
by A53. These are type E or Electric resistance welded, type F or Furnace-butt welded, and
type S or Seamless. Type E and S are available in grade A and B, comparable to grades A
and B of A106.
ii. Stainless steel:
Austenitic stainless steel pipe commonly referred to as “Stainless Steel” is
virtually non-magnetic. Stainless steel is manufactured in accordance with ASTM A312
when 8” or smaller sizes are needed. There are eighteen different grades, of which type 304L
is the most widely used.
Grade 316L has high resistance to chemical and salt water corrosion and is
best suited for welding. Large sizes (8” and up) of stainless steel pipe are covered by ASTM
A358. Extra light wall thickness (schedule 5S) and light wall thickness (schedule 10S)
stainless steel pipe is covered by ASTM A409

3. List the various non-ferrous materials of construction and their use in piping.

SOLUTION

Non-ferrous materials are most commonly used in the process piping industry. The
main reason is that these materials do not contain iron and has excellent tensile
strength. There are many materials that are suitable to use in this industry:

i. Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Nickel and its alloys are perfect to use in the piping systems in many industries
such as oil and gas, power generation, etc. This material ideal to use in extreme
heat environments because of its resistance property, and it has a passivating oxide
coating on its covering. Nickel-copper, nickel- Molybdenum, and nickel-chromium
are the most common alloys of Nickel. Nickel and its alloys offer resistance against
corrosion and oxidation. This material is suitable to use in applications where
alkalis or storing caustic soda is present. It is generally utilized in seawater and
mild atmospheric applications.
 ii. Plastics

The plastic is widely used in applications where temperatures and pressures are
comparatively moderate. This material is light in weight, easy to manufacture and
install, has low abrasion properties, and works as an electrical and thermic
insulator. The regular plastic material types involve thermosetting and
thermoplastic plastics. Plastic has many excellent features such as minimum
installation and maintenance expenses, sturdy, reliable, extremely chemical-
resistant, and can withstand different temperatures, which depend on the
combination of elements.

iii. Copper and Copper Alloys

Copper and its alloys are mostly preferred in applications where heat and thermal
conductivity are significant criteria. Copper-tin, Copper-zinc, and copper-nickel are
the most common alloys of copper. This non-ferrous material offers good corrosion
resistance, has excellent thermal conductivity, high malleability, and it is suitable
to use in applications like seawater, heat exchangers, boilers, etc.

iv. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Aluminium is used in the process piping industry because of its low weight and
outstanding corrosion resistant abilities. This non-ferrous material is suitable to use
in planes, railway, gas storage containers, cars, etc. Aluminum can be alloyed with
silicon, zinc, manganese, copper, and magnesium. With a maximum thermal
conductivity, suitability with various environmental conditions, and properties like
easy casting, forging, machining, and welding, this material is perfect to use in
many applications.

v. High alloys

The materials which are containing a high amount of Nickel are called high alloys.
Hastelloy has various grades such as Hastelloy B2, including 61% of Nickel and
28% of Molybdenum. These alloys have excellent resistance against diverse
chemical environments at all temperature ranges in the absence of oxidizing factors.

vi. Titanium

Titanium is another widely used non-ferrous material in the process piping industry.
This material is commonly used in construction material. It is strong and of medium
weight. Titanium offers corrosion resistance in oxidizing and moderate reducing
media. With the features like resistance against crevice corrosion and pitting attack
in seawater, Titanium is used in seawater piping applications.
 vii. Thermoplastics

Tetrafluoroethylene/ TFE/ Teflon is the most chemical-resistant plastic which is

used in the piping industry. This thermoplastic is suitable to use in applications
related to alkalis and acids. This material can maintain its qualities up to 260 deg C.
Perfluoroalkoxy/ PFA is another thermoplastic that has good properties like
excellent chemical resistance at a temperature up to 300 degrees.

4. What is cathodic protection of a pipe line?

SOLUTION

Cathodic protection is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it
the cathode of an electrochemical cell. A simple method of protection connects the metal to be
protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal
then corrodes instead of the protected metal. For structures such as long pipelines, where passive
galvanic cathodic protection is not adequate, an external DC electrical power source is used to
provide sufficient current.

Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments.
Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and steel storage tanks such as
home water heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil
well casings; offshore wind farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings
and structures. Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial coating
of zinc on steel parts protects them from rust.

Cathodic protection can, in some cases, prevent stress corrosion cracking.

Advantages of Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection System

 Simple in Installation.

 No External Power Source.

 Very little operation or maintenance requirements.

 No Power Bills.

 Easy to Design.

 No expensive accessories like cables etc.

 Economical for small structures.

Limitations of Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection System

 Low Driving Voltage.

 Poor performance due to passivation.

 Limited Current. Extremely small current available in higher resistivity electrolytes.

 Low life.

Typical Application of Galvanic anode System

 Small Pipelines with good Coating.

 Harbor Facilities, Steel piles, Jetties, etc.

 Vessels, Tanks, etc.

 Plant facilities and Equipment, Seawater intakes, Screens, Condensers, Heat

Exchangers, etc.

5. Name at least five insulation materials. Describe with the help of neat sketch
6. Application of insulation to a pipe.

SOLUTION

The term insulate means to prevent the passage of heat, electricity, or sound by surrounding the
area of concern with a non-conductive material. Thermal insulation prevents the transfer of heat
because it is not a good conductor (non-conductive).

There are many other technical aspects about the performance characteristics of thermal
insulation, however, this post will focus on the purpose, reasons to insulate pipes, and insulation
material selection.

The purpose of pipe insulation is:

 Save energy

 Improve process performance

 Condensation control
  Freeze protection

 Personnel protection

 Attenuate noise

 Reduce emissions

 Maximize the return on investment (ROI)

7. Explain role of insulation & painting in pipe Engineering.

SOLUTION

I. Benefits of Insulation:

Adding a layer of insulation to piping and valve assemblies prevents the detrimental
problems that can occur if water freezes within the pipes. The insulation keeps the water from
turning to ice, expanding, and bursting the pipe, itself, which leads to costly damage. Although
this is the most common reason for using pipe and blanket insulation, there are plenty of reasons
to use these products on pipe and valve systems.

i. Condensation Control

Condensation on the pipe surface can lead to corrosion or rust, a very damaging problem. In
humid and wet environments, pipe insulation can act as a barrier preventing the condensation
from forming on the piping and reacting with the metal.

ii. Energy Savings

When the temperature differential between the pipe (and the pipe’s contents) and the ambient air
is significant, the heat loss and gain from the piping can be considerable. In cold spaces, hot
water in the piping system will lose heat and in hot air, cold water in the pipe heats up. Adding a
layer of insulation will minimize the heat loss, gain cycle and prevent wasting energy to make up
for lost or gained energy.

iii. Safety

In industrial applications piping can be operating at extremely low or high temperatures. There is
potential danger in touching the piping if it is too hot or too cold. Insulation protects workers
against burns from inadvertently coming in contact with the piping. Insulation brings a piping
and valve system into a safe range for workers.

iv. Noise Control

Noise has a sneaky way of traveling through pipework. In commercial buildings, apartment
complexes, and industrial settings, insulating the piping and valves is a valid method to reduce
noise. It acts as an acoustic decoupler by preventing noise transfer when pipes pass through a
fixed structure such as a floor or wall and lowers the noise of the materials moving through the
systems.

Thermal and Acoustic Blanket Insulation from Caylor is the ideal product to keep piping and
valves at their optimal levels of performance while preventing devastating pipe bursts. With an
average reduction of 93% of thermal loss over bare meatal and average sound reduction of 6
dBa, the addition of insulation is the ideal solution to extreme temperatures.

II. Benefits of Painting:

i. High-quality painting of piping, equipment and structures, is essential to prevent
corrosion. It helps ensure the longevity of a constructed installation and low
maintenance costs.
ii. Industrial Equipment can be complex and confusing, with a variety of materials,
from metal to plastic, and a variety of purposes.. heating and cooling, water,
sprinklers, etc. Many of these equipment need to be painted according to strict
color codes and laws.
iii. The different types of materials call for different types of paint, and processes of
application. Performance Painting Contractors offers a wide variety of different
paints, coatings, and more to protect equipment systems.
iv. Implementing corrosion protection for a facility all starts with one important
document.. a paint specifications sheet.
v. Well written paint specifications contain exactly as much detail as they need to
make expectations clear and no more. Industrial coatings are more complex than
they used to be, and paint specifications need to reflect that complexity.

8. Enlist different piping material and its application

SOLUTION

Different Materials Used for Pipe and Tube Pipe may be made from a variety of materials. In
the past, materials have included wood and lead (Latin for lead is plumbum, from which we
get the word plumbing).
Nowadays the manufacturing of pipe uses many different materials including ceramics,
fiberglass, concrete, plastics and metals.
 Concrete and ceramic
 Plastic
 Metals
 special piping materials such as glass or lined pipe
I. Concrete and Ceramic Pipes
Pipes may be made from concrete or ceramic materials. These pipes are usually used
for low pressure applications such as gravity flow or drainage underground. Concrete
pipes usually have a receiving bell or a stepped fitting, with various sealing methods
applied at installation. Ceramic pipes are used for underground drainage which may
be exposed to corrosive chemicals. These types of pipes are relatively inexpensive for
the diameters in question and allow for ease of installation in rough site conditions.
II. Plastic Pipes
Plastic tubing is widely used for its light weight, chemical resistance, noncorrosive
properties, and ease of making connections. Plastic materials include polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), fibre reinforced plastic
(FRP), reinforced polymer mortar (RPMP), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE),
cross-linked high-density polyethylene (PEX), polybutylene (PB), and acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), for example.
III. Metal Pipes
Metallic pipes are commonly made from steel or iron; the metal chemistry and its
finish are peculiar to the use fit and form. Typically metallic piping may be made of
steel or iron, such as unfinished, black (lacquer) steel, carbon steel, stainless steel or
galvanized steel, brass, and ductile iron. Aluminium pipe or tubing may be utilized
where iron is incompatible with the service fluid or where weight is a concern;
aluminium is also used for heat transfer tubing such as in refrigerant systems. Copper
tubing is popular for domestic water (potable) plumbing systems; copper may be used
where heat transfer is desirable (i.e. radiators or heat exchangers). Inconel, chrome
moly, and titanium steel alloys are used for high temperature and pressure piping in
process systems where corrosion resistance is important.
IV. Stainless Steel Pipes
Stainless steel pipe and tubing are used for a variety of reasons: to resist corrosion
and oxidation, to resist high temperatures, for cleanliness and low maintenance costs,
and to maintain the purity of materials which come In contact with stainless. There
are more than 60 grades of stainless steel available. The ability of stainless steel to
resist corrosion is achieved by the addition of a minimum of 12% chromium to the
iron alloy. Additions of other elements affect other properties. The inherent
characteristics of stainless steel permit the design of thin wall piping systems without
fear of early failure due to corrosion. Because of the thinner wall thickness of
stainless steel tube it is not possible to thread tube therefore this was overcome by
fusion welding to join such pipe and tubing. Type 304 stainless is the most widely
used analysis for general corrosive resistant tubing and pipe applications, it is used in
chemical plants, refineries, paper mills, and food processing industries. Type 304 has
a maximum carbon content of .08%. It is not recommended for use in the temperature
range between 400°C and 900°C due to carbide precipitation at the grain boundaries
 which can result in inter-granular corrosion and early failure under certain conditions.
Type 304L. Is the same as 304 except that a 0.03% maximum carbon content is
maintained which precludes carbon precipitation and permits the use of this analysis
in welded assemblies under more severe corrosive conditions. Type 318 is much
more resistant to pitting than other chromium nickel alloys due to the addition of 2%
to 3% molybdenum. it is particularly valuable wherever acids, brines, sulphur water,
seawater or halogen salts are encountered. Type 316 is widely used in the sulphite
paper industry and for manufacturing chemical plant apparatus, photographic
equipment, and plastics. Type 316L, like 304L, is held to a maximum carbon content
of .03%. This permits its use in welded assemblies without the need of final heat
treatment. It is used extensively for pipe assemblies with welded fitting.
9. Explain properties of insulation

SOLUTION

Property 1: In an insulator, the valence electrons are tightly held together. They do not have free
electrons to conduct electricity.

Property 2: The ability of the material to not allow the electric current to pass through it is called
electrical resistance. The resistance of an insulator per unit cross-sectional area per unit length is
called resistivity. Insulators have very high resistivity. For example, insulators like glass have a
resistivity value as high as 1012 Ωm. The resistance of the insulator is considerably reduced in the
presence of moisture and when there is an increase in temperature.

Property 3: Insulators have large dielectric strength. The dielectric strength is the maximum
electric field that the insulator can withstand without undergoing electrical breakdown and
becoming electrically conductive.

Property 4: Good insulators have a high air permeability (the ability of the material to allow air
to flow through its pores) since air itself is an insulator.

10. Write short note on

 Flame Arresters
 Steam Traps
 High –point vent and low point drain

SOLUTION

I. Flame Arresters
i. A flame arrester is a passive device that allows gas to pass through it but stops
the propagation of a flame. Combustion is the exothermic chemical reaction of a
 fuel in the presence of oxygen which results in the release of energy in the form
of heat and light. The reaction zone between burnt and unburnt products is
known as a flame.

ii. In order for combustion to occur and a flame to be present, the reaction requires
three elements: oxygen, ignition and fuel. When a flammable mixture is ignited
the flame will propagate from the ignition source within the volume of the
combustible fuel-air mix. Within pipeline systems this propagation is usually
upstream (known as flashback) against the flow of gas. Most flame arresters fall
into two major categories:

iii. End of line, vent to atmosphere arresters – to prevent an atmospheric fire or

explosion from entering an enclosure.
iv. In-Line – to prevent the propagation of an explosion within a pipeline.
v. Therefore, the main types of flame arresters Elmac supply, to all kinds of
industrial businesses across the world, are: end-of-line deflagration, in-line
deflagration and in-line detonation.
vi. And to put your mind at rest, all our flame arresters meet current ATEX and ISO
legislation and standards. the flame arrester element is made up of a matrix of
channels the walls of which quench the flame as it passes through by removing
heat energy from the reaction. (The quenching mechanism of MESG is the
principal on which flame arrester elements are designed.)
vii. Basically, flame arrester elements are made up from a matrix of channels. The
height and length of these channels is tuned offering the least resistance to gas
flow whilst still quenching a flame.
viii. There are a variety of element designs available in the market today with the
most common being crimped ribbon. The main thing to remember is that the
quench gap of an element will be different to the MESG of the explosion group it
is certified for.

ix. If you’d like us to explain any of this further, please contact us to find out more.
Or if you’d like to carry on reading, please see our guide to deflagration and
detonation flame arresters.

II. Steam Traps

Steam traps are a type of automatic valve that filters out condensate (i.e. condensed steam) and
non-condensable gases such as air without letting steam escape. In industry, steam is used
regularly for heating or as a driving force for mechanical power. Steam traps are used in such
applications to ensure that steam is not wasted. Steam is formed when water vaporizes to form a
gas. In order for the vaporization process to occur, the water molecules must be given enough
energy that the bonds between the molecules (hydrogen bonds, etc.) break. This energy given to
convert a liquid into a gas is called 'latent heat'.

Steam-based heating processes use latent heat and transfer it to a given product. When the work
is done (i.e. steam has given up its latent heat), steam condenses and becomes condensate. In
other words, condensate does not have the ability to do the work that steam does. Heating
efficiency will therefore suffer if condensate is not removed as rapidly as possible, whether in
steam transport piping or in a heat exchanger. It is sometimes believed that the condensate can be
regulated with a regular valve instead of a steam trap by simply adjusting the valve opening
manually to match the amount of condensate generated. Theoretically, this is possible. However,
the range of conditions necessary to achieve this are so limited that in practice it is not a realistic
solution.

The largest problem with manual method is that fluctuations in the quantity of condensate
formed cannot be compensated for. The amount of condensate generated in a given system is not
fixed.

The quantity of condensate formed at start-up differs from that during normal operation.

In the case of steam transport piping, the quantity of condensate formed may differ depending on
outside temperature.

If the device can’t respond to fluctuations in quantity of condensate formed, condensate that
should be discharged will instead collect inside the equipment/pipe resulting in low heat transfer
efficiency and water hammer. The essential property of a steam trap is to be able to distinguish
between steam, condensate and air. Different types of steam traps employ different working
principles and mechanisms to distinguish between steam, condensate and air. When classified
according to these operating principles, each design has advantages and limitations which must
be considered while selecting a steam trap for a specific application.

Steam traps are categorized as follows

• Mechanical Traps
• Thermostatic Traps
• Thermodynamic Traps

III. High –point vent and low point drain

When a piping network is being designed, A tapping connection with valve for isolation and end
blind connection of approximately a total length not more than 300mm is also provided. The
open-end of a tapping connection is on the Topside, It is called a vent, while a tapping
connection with the downside open end is called a drain.

There can be multiple drains and vents in a single piping system. But a high point vent and Low
point drain will be only in one quantity each. The other types of Drain or vent will include
Process Drains and vents too.

These Process Drain and vents are useful for charging a piping system for the first time and for
its maintenance. While High point vent and Low point drain are actually hydro test drain and
Vent that has a purpose during hydro testing of the piping system only.

During filling of water in the pipe, when it is required to evacuate air from the Piping network
HPV needs to keep in open condition. After complete fill-up of water in pipe some amount of
water needs to overflow from High point vent for the hydrotest to get assured of venting of all air
particles.

Generally, Water venting or overflow from HPV is done for 15 minutes or depends on the
complexity of the piping network and total pocket depth of the piping loop. And then closing the
high point vent valve for pressurizing the line.

Since a high point vent is there to release all air in the pipe during the hydro test, Sometimes it is
also referred to as a high point air vent because of its functional nature.

the direct opening of only LPD will create a vacuum in a piping system that may damage and
destruct pipes.

To avoid this disruption, it is mandatory to open a High point vent before opening the Low point
drain. Doing so will release pressure inside the pipe and provide a way to enter the air in the pipe
to maintain the same atmospheric pressure inside the pipe during draining.

11. What are pipe fittings and its types?

SOLUTION

A fitting or adapter is used in pipe systems to connect straight sections of pipe or tube, adapt to
different sizes or shapes, and for other purposes such as regulating (or
measuring) fluid flow. These fittings are used in plumbing to manipulate the conveyance of
water, gas, or liquid waste in domestic or commercial environments, within a system of pipes or
tubes.
 i. Elbows: Used to change the angle or direction of the pipe run. Most commonly in 90
degrees and 45 degree turns. The sweep of the fitting describes how fast a transition or
change in direction is made.
ii. Street Elbows: One end of the pipe fitting has male threads and the other end has female
threads. These are common in galvanized steel and copper pipe. They are convenient
because they do away with the need for a nipple and work well in tight quarters.
iii. Tee Fittings: Shaped like the letter T. Allows for branch lines.
iv. Couplings: Used to join two straight pieces of pipe of the same diameter.
v. Reducers: Used to join pipes of different diameters. Makes a gradual change in diameter.
vi. Bushings: Used to make the diameter of a pipe fitting smaller. They are different from
reducers because they make an abrupt change in diameter and take little space.
vii. Unions: Used to join pieces of pipe where pipes cannot be turned or when a piece of
equipment may have to be removed for maintenance or replacement.
viii. Adaptor Fittings: Used to change the end of a non-threaded pipe to male or female
threads as needed. Most commonly used in copper and plastic plumbing jobs.
ix. Caps: Used to close the end of a dead-end pipe.
x. Plugs: Used to close an ending on a pipe fitting normally used for inspection or cleanout.
xi. Nipples: Short lengths of pipe threaded at both ends.
xii. Wyes: Used primarily to gain inside access to DWV (drain-waste-vent) systems.
xiii. Valves: Devices that control the flow of liquid or gas through or from a pipe.
(Compression valves, ball valves, sleeve-cartridge valves, ceramic disc valves, etc)
xiv. PVC Fittings: Come in a wide variety of configurations and may be glued (S) or threaded
(T)
xv. Copper Tubing Fittings: Use compression fittings. Common fittings are couplings, ells,
and tees.

12. Write short note on ASME 31.1 AND ASME 31.3

SOLUTION

I. B31.1 Power Piping

i. ASME B31.1 Code is typically used for the design and construction of power piping
found in Electric Power Generating Stations, Industrial and Institutional Plants,
Geothermal Heating Systems, and Central & District Heating and Cooling Systems.
The code covers external piping for power boilers and high temperature, high
pressure water boilers in which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure of more than
15 psig and high-temperature water is generated at pressures exceeding 160 psig or
temperatures exceeding 250°F.
ii. B31.1 is intended to be applied to:
• Piping for steam, water, oil, gas, air and other services.
• Metallic and nonmetallic piping.
 • All pressures.
• All temperatures above -29°C (-20°F).
iii. B31.1 does NOT apply to:
• Boilers, pressure vessel heaters and components covered by the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). Note: A boiler needs pipe, both internally and
externally. The internal pipe would come under the rules of Section I and the
external piping would come under B31.1.
• Building heating and distribution steam and condensate systems designed for 15
psig or less.
• Hot water heating systems designed for 30 psig or less.
II. B31.3 Process Piping
i. ASME B31.3 Code is typically used for the design and construction of pressure
piping found in Petroleum Refineries, Chemical, Pharmaceutical, Textile, Paper,
Semiconductor, and Cryogenic Plants and related Processing Plants and Terminals.
ii. B31.3 is intended to be applied to:
• Piping for all fluid services.
• Metallic and nonmetallic piping.
• All pressures.
• All temperatures.
iii. B31.3 does NOT apply to:
• Piping systems designed for pressures at or above 0 but less than 15 psig, provided
they meet certain other requirements including temperature ranges.
• Tubes and pipes internal to a heater enclosure.
• Pressure vessels and certain other equipment and piping.

13. How to minimize Head Losses in pipe? Explain in detail

SOLUTION

In order to design an optimal pumping system, assessment of anticipated system head loss is
required. Excessive head loss will always result in an unnecessary cost burden for operators.
Therefore all available measures to reduce the loss should be undertaken:
i. Keep flow velocity around the optimum value of 1 m/s. Increased velocity in general,
increases head loss. On the other hand, too low velocity increases the sedimentation of
particles and investment costs.
ii. Consider changing old pipes into new. Old pipes can suffer from a deposit of sludge
particles on the inner wall of the pipes which leads to diameter constriction and varying
roughness of the surface, both of which affect head loss. Therefore, it is always
recommended to compare the results from old and new pipes in order to ascertain
whether or not pipe replacement would be a wise investment.
 iii. Keep the pipe length short. The head loss in a pipe is also directly proportional to the
length of pipe. Therefore, keeping the pipe work as straight and short as possible is wise.
iv. The pipe diameter is decisive for system head loss. It is advisable to keep the piping the
same diameter throughout, if at all possible, in order to avoid blockages and maintain the
optimum velocity (i.e. 1 m/s). Remember - using pipes with a diameter that is wider than
the largest anticipated particles does not always prevent a blockage! Large rope-like
solids may build up as a result of the intertwining of fibers and hair caused by rotating
sludge pumps and mixers. The minimum that is recommended is 100mm. When dealing
with unscreened sludge, incorporating grinding equipment into the system should be
considered.
v. 5. Pipe construction material will influence the head loss through the material structure
which affects the relative roughness. The roughness matters only when sludge exhibits
turbulent flow pattern.
vi. 6. Fittings can contribute significantly to the total head loss; often as much as pipe
friction. Therefore the shape, size and the number of fittings should be carefully chosen.
For example, long bends are recommended i.e. bends with a ratio between its curvature
radius and pipe diameter larger or equal to 1.5.
vii. 7. Changes in the sludge rheology may cause a shift from laminar to turbulent regime or
vice versa. This will affect head loss. Other sludge properties such as TS content,
polymers and origin can also affect the rheology.
viii. 8. 'Start-up head' refers to the threshold which has to be overcome to initiate any flow in
the piping system. The start-up head is influenced by sludge rheology via yield stress.
This needs to be considered for TS=>4% in general.

14. Name various types of valves with their application (explain any three types).Explain
with neat diagram the construction, working and application of Globe Valve.

SOLUTION

A. Isolation

1. Gate valve

2. Ball valve

3. Plug valve

4. Piston valve

5. Diaphragm valve

6. Butterfly valve
7. Pinch valve

B. Regulation

1. Globe valve

2. Needle valve

3. Butterfly valve

4. Diaphragm valve.

5. Piston valve

6. Pinch Valve

C. Non – Return

1. Check – valve

D. Special Purpose

1. Multi- Port valve

2. Flush Bottom valve

3. Float valve

4. Foot valve

5. Line blind valve

6. Knife Gate valve

GLOBE VALVE-
Construction & Working of a Globe Valve

A typical large globe valve with flanged ends is illustrated in Fig. C, and a large wye-pattern
globe is illustrated in Fig. A. Globe valves usually have rising stems, and the larger sizes are of
the outside screw-and-yoke construction. Components of the globe valve are similar to those of
the gate valve. This type of valve has seats in a plane parallel or inclined to the line of flow.

Maintenance of globe valves is relatively easy, as the discs and seats are readily refurbished or
replaced. This makes globe valves particularly suitable for services which require frequent valve
maintenance. Where valves are operated manually, the shorter disc travel offers advantages in
saving operator time, especially if the valves are adjusted frequently.

The principal variation in globe-valve design is in the types of discs employed. Plug-type discs
have a long, tapered configuration with a wide bearing surface. This type of seat provides
maximum resistance to the erosive action of the fluid stream. In the composition disc, the disc
has a flat face that is pressed against the seat opening like a cap. This type of seat arrangement is
not as suitable for high differential pressure throttling.

The conventional disc, in contrast to the plug type, provides a thin contact between the taper of
the conventional seat and the face of the disc. This narrow contact area tends to break down hard
deposits that may form on the seats and facilitates pressure-tight closure. This arrangement
allows for good seating and moderate throttling.

In cast-iron globe valves, disc and seat rings are usually made of bronze. In steel-globe valves for
temperature up to 750 F (399 C), the trim is generally made of stainless steel and so provides
resistance to seizing and galling. The mating faces are normally heat-treated to obtain differential
hardness values. Other trim materials, including cobalt-based alloys, are also used.

The seating surface is ground to ensure full-bearing surface contact when the valve is closed. For
lower pressure classes, alignment is maintained by a long disc locknut. For higher pressures, disc
guides are cast into the valve body. The disc turns freely on the stem to prevent galling of the
disc face and seat ring. The stem bears against a hardened thrust plate, eliminating galling of the
stem and disc at the point of contact.

Applications of Globe Valves

The following are some of the typical applications of globe valves:

1. Cooling water systems where flow needs to be regulated

2. Fuel oil system where flow is regulated and leak tightness is of importance.

3. High-point vents and low-point drains when leak tightness and safety are major
considerations.

4. Feed water, chemical feed, condenser air extraction, and extraction drain systems.

5. Boiler vents and drains, main steam vents and drains, and heater drains.

6. Turbine seals and drains.

7. Turbine lube oil system and others.

15. What is NDT? Explain any four methods .Write down its advantages and applications.

SOLUTION

Non-destructive tests do not damage the pipe or tube being tested and so they are frequently
incorporated into the end of the production line. The following give a brief explanation of the
common types of NDT available:
I. Ultrasonic Testing
This test involves ultrasonic sound waves being aimed, via a coupling medium, at the
material to be tested. A proportion is bounced back at the interface but the remainder
enter the material and bounce from the internal surface, to the external surface, where
a transducer converts them into electrical energy. This is then monitored on a cathode
 ray tube where results are compared with those from a calibration standard. Any
deviations from the standard are visible, thus indicating cracks or internal defects.
II. Eddy-Current Testing
This involves inducing eddy currents into the material by exciting a coil which
surmounts two narrow search coils surrounding the material. Any discontinuities in
material are found by comparing the electrical conditions that exist in the two search
coils. The fault signals are amplified and can be shown on a cathode ray tube or as an
audible signal.
III. Hydrostatic Testing
This is used to test the manufactured items under a pressure equivalent to or greater
than pressure to be encountered in service. It involves filling the tube with water,
which cannot be compressed, and increasing the pressure inside the tube to that
specified.
IV. Magnetic Particle Testing
This method of testing is used when trying to detect discontinuities in material of
ferromagnetic structure. The method is based on the principle that an imperfection
will cause a distortion in the magnetic field pattern of a magnetised component. The
imperfection can be revealed by applying magnetic particles to the component during
or after magnetisation.
V. Radiographic (X-Ray) Testing
This is usually used to determine whether a weld is sound. It involves subjecting a
weld or weld area to an X-Ray source with an X-Ray sensitive film plate on the
underside of the weld. The results are shown on the developed film (a
photomicrograph) and interpreted according to specification.
VI. Dye-Penetrant Test
This is used to detect cracks and involves spraying a dye on the area to be tested.
After allowing time for penetration the surplus dye is removed and the area is then
sprayed with a white developer. Any faults are revealed as coloured lines or spots
caused by the developer absorbing the dye seeping from the cracks. If more sensitive
results are required, a fluorescent dye is used and the same process is followed. When
viewed under ultraviolet light any defects show as a highly fluorescent line or spot.

There are four main advantages of non-destructive testing:

i. Safety issues can be identified

Non-destructive testing is used to ascertain whether or not a component is in need of repair, and
whether it is safe to use.

The tests are carried out to ensure product safety, and also to make sure the person carrying out
the work on any machinery or components is safe too.
Most non-destructive tests are harmless to humans, although tests involving radiographics must
be carried out under strict settings. All tests must ensure that products are left completely
undamaged.

Non-destructive testing carried out professionally has the ability to save lives. Particularly if it is
being carried out in industries which rely on volatile or high-pressure equipment and
machinery.

It’s main aim, when used properly, and the results of the tests accurately acted upon is to identify
and resolve problems that could otherwise be disastrous.

ii. It provides reliability

If workers in industry want reliable and accurate results, non-destructive testing will offer
stability.

Any given piece of equipment or machinery can undergo a range of non-destructive tests which
will remove the risk of any inaccuracy of result, or oversight.

iii. It is cost effective

Different types of industry work to different safety standards and need to comply to a range of
rules and regulations.

Machinery will need to be inspected at different intervals, because of this. Non-destructive

testing will always be the most affordable option in terms of inspecting and looking after
equipment.

These types of tests can also give insights that can result in the effective replacement or repair of
components or equipment before a real malfunction or breakdown occurs, which will save more
money in the long term.

iv. It offers reassurance

Reassurance is such a simple thing, but it can sometimes be the most important advantage to
non-destructive testing.

If a plant or factory know that their machinery is A1 and running as it should be, it can provide
all the stability, reassurance and peace of mind that you need. Knowing that procedures are in
place to make sure that testing is carried out on a regular basis can also give an added layer of
security.

When workers know they are safe, they feel more secure and this is something that can benefit
productivity and output, overall.
The Disadvantages of Non-destructive Testing

The disadvantages of non-destructive testing are few and far between. Depending on the type of
non-destructive testing used on a component minor issues can crop up. These can include simple
factors like:

i. Components needing to be cleaned before and after inspection

ii. Sensitivity of inspection can sometimes be affected by the finish of a component.

iii. Sometimes there might be a lack of depth sizing

iv. On some non-destructive test methods, only relatively non-porous surfaces can be
inspected

v. Some test methods require electricity

vi. Some can also be affected by variations in magnetic permeability

vii. Some tests are only effective on materials that are conductive

applications of NDT are:

NDT is used to test the quality of components and machine condition before or during their
active use. Non-destructive testing is used for condition assessment and quality control in a
wide range of industries, which include (but are not limited to):

 Aerospace – testing castings

 Automotive – to test the durability of piston heads

 Manufacturing – to test the quality of components before it goes into production

 Medical devices – to test the durability and composition of stents

 Military and defense – ballistics testing and analysis

 Packaging – to test the structure and chances of leakage for packages

 Marine industries – to identify corrosion

 Power generation – to test welding-related defects

 Waste management – to identify redeemable metals in waste

  Petrochemical industry – to test pipelines used to transport oil

16. Explain in detail Iron – carbide diagram.

17. Discuss the important factors in the selection of material of construction of pipes.
Explain with examples.

SOLUTION

Important factor in selection of material of construction of pipes are as follows:

A. MATERIAL BEING TRANSPORTED

i. The type of liquid or gas your pipe system transports plays a significant role in
choosing fluid handling pipe material.
ii. Some pipe materials are better suited for non-corrosive liquids, like oils or standard
wastewater.
iii. More corrosive liquids, like acid or peroxide, require a pipe with an interior that
can hold up to the abrasiveness of these corrosive materials.
iv. Corrosive materials are common in many industrial cleaning solutions, as well as
in chemical manufacturing and handling.
v.Despite a plastic or metal pipe material’s durability and corrosion resistance, chemicals,
acids and saltwater are much more abrasive than standard water or oil.
vi. Always keep the liquid you are transporting in mind when selecting a pipe
material.

B. TEMPERATURE OF LIQUID PASSING THROUGH

i. The next thing to consider is the temperature of the liquid in your fluid handling
system.
ii. If you’re transporting high-temperature liquids, you’ll need to be sure your system
consists of high-temperature pipe materials.
iii. Certain types of plastic piping may not be ideal for handling high temperatures, while
others may be designed to handle fluids no matter how hot they are.
iv. Metal pipe materials are typically wise choices for high-temperature liquids, although
some types may become too hot to the touch.
v. If you are handling extremely high or low-temperature fluid — including cryogenic
liquids— make sure your pipe consists of material intended for extreme temperatures.
vi. Otherwise, you risk damaging or corroding your pipes and contaminating the liquids
inside of them.
vii. In some cases, extreme temperatures can break your piping entirely, resulting in
expensive repairs, damaged product and hazardous workplace conditions.
viii. Metal pipe material is usually suitable for extremely hot liquids, although you and your
employees should exercise caution when working with them. Depending on the
temperature, aluminum is often used to transport cryogenic liquids.
 C. THE PRESSURE OF THE LIQUID HANDLING PROCESS

i. the pressure of these service fluids is very high, you will need piping material
that is either high-strength, higher thickness or designed to resist high-
pressure fluids.
ii. The average pressure that most manufacturing facilities’ piping must be able
to handle is around 150 pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
iii. If your facility is working with liquids of higher pressures than this, you may
have to request a piping material that is specially designed to handle high-
pressure fluids.
iv. Various liquids and gases create different pressures inside of your fluid
handling pipes. For example, cryogenic fluids are known for creating very
high-pressure environments during the transfer process.
v. Many external factors can impact this pressure, too, including the temperature
and elevation of your piping.
vi. Some liquids and gases that might require pressure-specific pipe materials
include:
 Ammonia
 Chlorine
 Propane
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrous oxide
 Acetylene
 Butane
 Hydrogen
 Helium
 Neon
 Nitrogen
 Concentrated oxygen

D. Service Life of the Fluid Handling System

i. One needs reliable and durable piping according to fluid handling system.
ii. A major component of effective piping design and material selection is asking
how long you expect your fluid handling system to last.
iii. If you know you’ll likely have to replace the system in five to 10 years due to
another reason, such as relocation, you don’t need to invest in a very long-lasting
piping material.
 iv. This may also affect how much money you’re willing to spend on the system,
which will, in turn, impact the type of material you should choose.
v. If, on the other hand, you expect this system to last for 10 or more years, you
should invest in the most durable type of piping material.
vi. For example, temporary worksites or processing plants that do not typically deal
in fluid handling may not need as intricate or durable a system as a permanent
plant that transfers fluids daily. You should also factor in how often your business
will use your fluid handling system. Of course, there are some conditions — such
as extremely corrosive chemicals, hazardous materials or fluids that need
temperature regulation — that will require certain pipe materials, regardless of the
desired service life of your system. If no special circumstances apply to your
business, use this information to help you gauge the amount you should invest in
your pipes, as well as that type and quality of material used.

E. Ease of Maintenance

i. Just like flooring, countertops and other solid surfaces, certain types of piping
material are easier to clean than others.
ii. Be realistic about the frequency, as it is can become a very time-consuming task
depending on the size and intricacy of your system.
iii. If you won’t be able to clean it very often, having a low-maintenance piping
material should be a priority for your facility.

F. Valve and Fitting Sizes

Certain piping materials will only have a few valve and fitting sizes to choose from, so
you may need to eliminate some options based on this factor. Some of the valve and
fitting types you can choose from include:
 Butterfly valves
 Ball valves
 Check valves
 Diaphragm valves
 Rupture pin safety valves
 Knife gate valves
 Solenoid valves
 Slurry valves
 Severe service valves
 Sanitary valves
 The types of valve and fittings you choose will depend upon the types of connections
you’ll need to make from pipe to pipe, as well as to connect the pipes to other features of
the fluid handling system.

G. THE COST OF THE MATERIAL

i. Cost is a significant factor in any business decision. As you consider different pipe
materials, keep in mind the cost of:
 The initial investment in all required parts, including the pipes, valves and pipe fittings
 Whether your chosen material is readily available or needs to be imported
 Routine and emergency maintenance appointments
 Pipe lining materials, if applicable
ii. As with any expense, always consider the return on investment when comparing
different costs.
iii. For example, if a pipe material is best suited for your industry due to its thermal
regulation and durability, but it is more expensive, keep in mind the potential loss you
might face if choosing a cheaper, less viable option. For many industries, not investing in
the right pipe materials can lead to much more costly issues down the road. Always keep
your industry’s non-negotiable needs in mind when examining costs.

18. Explain water hammer in pipeline; also discuss its effects and prevention.

SOLUTION

Water hammer is a commonly observed phenomenon taking place during a fluid flow.
Presence of water hammer can be easily detected by the noise it makes. Noise is not the final
effect of water hammer but just an indication of it. Water hammer has multiple adverse
effects on steam systems. Water hammer can damage equipments like flow meters which are
installed on the steam network. Instances of rupture and disruption of piping on account of
water hammer are also quite common. In a few cases, water hammer has resulted into
catastrophic hazards. Water hammer is not only a system issue but it is also a safety issue.
Water hammer can be defined as follows-
Water hammer is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but
sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly (momentum
change).
As soon as steam leaves the boiler, it starts losing heat. As a result, steam stats condensing
inside the pipe work. The rate of condensate formation is high particularly during the start
ups when the system is cold. As a result of the condensation, the droplets of water are
formed. These droplets of condensate get built up along the length of steam pipework
forming a solid slug. When this slug encounters any obstacle such as a bend, it will be
brought to a halt abruptly. All the kinetic energy of the condensate slug will get converted
 into pressure energy which has to be absorbed by the pipe work. This gives rise to the
phenomenon of water hammer.
EFFECTS:
One might wonder why water hammers are thought to be a serious problem. The destructive
nature of water hammer can be realized through the following illustration:

Recommended velocity of saturated steam in pipe network = 20-35 m/s

Recommended velocity of water in pipe network= 2-3m/s

In case of water hammers, condensate is dragged by steam and hence, the water slug travels
with velocity equal to that of steam which is around ten times more than the ideal water velocity.
As a result, the total pressure impact exerted by water hammer is very high.

SOLUTIONS:

Though water hammer cannot be completely eliminated from steam systems, it can certainly be
avoided. There are certain best practices, which when followed, ensure least chances of
occurrence of water hammer. Some of these practices are-

1. Steam lines should always be installed with a gradual slope (gradient) in

direction of flow.

2. Installing steam traps at regular intervals and also at the low points. This
ensures removal of condensate from the steam system as soon as it is formed.

3. Sagging of pipes should be avoided by providing proper support. Sagging pipes

can form pool of condensate in the pipework, increasing the chances of water
hammer.

4. Operators should be trained to open isolation valve slowly during the start-up
modes.

5. Drain pockets should be properly sized to ensure that condensate just not jumps
over it. Instead, the drain pockets should be sized enough so that all the
condensate reaches the trap.

6. Reducers- Eccentric reducers should be used against concentric reducers

19. Explain the manufacturing process each of seamless and welded pipe

SOLUTION
 I. Seamless pipe:
i. This process is used to make smaller sizes of seamless pipe, typically 1 to 6 inches
(25 to 150 mm) diameter.
ii. The ingot of steel is heated to 2,370 °F (1,300 °C) and pierced.
iii. A mandrel is inserted into the tube and the assembly is passed through a rolling
(mandrel) mill.
iv. the mandrel mill reduces wall thickness continuously with a series of pairs of curved
rollers set at 90° angles to each other.
v. After reheating, the pipe is passed through a multi -stand stretch-reducing mill to
reduce the diameter to the finished diameter.
vi. The pipe is then cut to length before heat treatment, final straightening, inspection,
and hydrostatic testing

II. ERW (Electric resistance wielding)

i. Electric resistance welded (ERW) pipe is manufactured by cold-forming a sheet of

steel into a cylindrical shape. Current is then passed between the two edges of the
steel to heat the steel to a point at which the edges are forced together to form a bond
without the use of welding filler material.
ii. Initially this manufacturing process used low frequency A.C. current to heat the
edges. This low frequency process was used from the 1920s until 1970. In 1970, the
low frequency process was superseded by a high frequency ERW process which
produced a higher quality weld.
iii. Over time, the welds of low frequency ERW pipe was found to be susceptible to
selective seam corrosion, hook cracks, and inadequate bonding of the seams, so low
frequency ERW is no longer used to manufacture pipe. The high frequency process is
still being used to manufacture pipe for use in new pipeline construction

20. What is the ASME Code followed for design of Piping Systems in process piping
(Refineries & Chemical Industries)?

SOLUTION

B 31.3 – 2002 – Process Piping:

This Code Describe Process Piping. Code rules for design of chemical, petroleum plants,
refineries, hydrocarbons, water and steam. This Code contains rules for piping typically found in
petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic
plants; and related processing plants and terminals. It prescribes requirements for materials and
components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, examination, inspection, and testing of
piping. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages within a packaged
equipment assembly.

ASME B31.3 Code is typically used for the design and construction of pressure piping found in
Petroleum Refineries, Chemical, Pharmaceutical, Textile, Paper, Semiconductor, and Cryogenic
Plants and related Processing Plants and Terminals.

B31.3 is intended to be applied to:

• Piping for all fluid services.

• Metallic and nonmetallic piping.
• All pressures.
• All temperatures.

B31.3 does NOT apply to:

• Piping systems designed for pressures at or above 0 but less than 15 psig, provided
they meet certain other requirements including temperature ranges.
• Tubes and pipes internal to a heater enclosure.
• Pressure vessels and certain other equipment and piping.

21. Which American Institute Standard Does Piping Engineer refer ?

SOLUTION

A. The American Petroleum Institute (API)

B. The American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI)

C. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

D. The American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

E. The American Welding Society (AWS)

F. The American Water Works Association (AWWA)

G. The American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

22. Where the ERW & Seamless pipes are used?

SOLUTION

Above 18” ERW pipes are used. Below 18” seamless pipes are used. Seamless pipes can
sustain higher temperature & Pressure.

23. How can flanges be classified based on Pipe Attachment?

SOLUTION

Flanges can be classified based on pipe attachment as :-

 Slip on - The slip – on type flanges are attached by welding inside as well as
outside. These flanges are of forged construction.
 Socket Weld - The Socket Weld flanges are welded on one side only. These are
used for small bore lines only
 Screwed - The Screwed – on flanges are used on pipe lines where welding cannot be
carried out.
 Lap joint - The lap joint flanges are used with stub ends. The stub ends are welded
with pipes & flanges are kept loose over the same.
 Welding Neck - The welding neck flanges are attached by butt welding to the pipe.
These are used mainly for critical services where the weld joint need radiographic inspection.
 Blind- The Blind flanges are used to close the ends which need to be reopened.
 Reducing - The reducing flanges are used to connect between larger and smaller sizes
without using a reducer. In case of reducing flanges, the thickness of flange should be that of
the higher diameter.
 Integral- Integral flanges are those, which are cast along with the piping component
or equipment.

25. What are Weldlet and Sockolet ? And where they are used?

SOLUTION

Weldolet and Sockolet are basically self – reinforced fittings.

Weldolet is used for Butt weld branch connection where should tee is not available due to
size restrictions and the piping is of critical/ high- pressure service. Sockolet is used for
socket welding branch connection, which require reinforcing pad.

26. How the valves are classified based on their function

SOLUTION
E. Isolation

8. Gate valve

9. Ball valve

10. Plug valve

11. Piston valve

12. Diaphragm valve

13. Butterfly valve

14. Pinch valve

F. Regulation

7. Globe valve

8. Needle valve

9. Butterfly valve

10. Diaphragm valve.

11. Piston valve

12. Pinch Valve

G. Non – Return

2. Check – valve

H. Special Purpose

7. Multi- Port valve

8. Flush Bottom valve

9. Float valve

10. Foot valve

11. Line blind valve

 12. Knife Gate valve

27. What are common welding defects

SOLUTION

I. Misalignment (HiLo)
Misalignment, or HiLo, is the difference between the internal and/or external heights of
two pipes. Poor alignment causes a weaker weld that is less able to cope under high
fatigue conditions. Improving pipe fit-up is the best way to reduce HiLo before welding.

II. Excessive penetration

Excessive penetration occurs when excess weld metal protrudes through the weld root. It
is usually caused by a joint gap that is too large, root faces that are too small or heat input
that is too high and can cause erosion and/or corrosion. Better pipe fit-up and ensuring
correct weld technique will reduce the risks of excessive penetration.

III. Root concavity/concavity/suck-back

Root concavity, concavity and suck-back cause a shallow groove to appear in the weld
root and happens when the pool shrinks within the weld.

IV. Cracking
Cracking is the most serious weld defect. They will eventually cause a weld to fail and
welding contractors go to great lengths to avoid them. Welds are under continual internal
stress from fatigue, bending, flexing and expansion/contraction and cracking occurs when
the internal stresses exceed either the base metal, the weld metal or both. Hot cracks
happen at temperatures over 1,000°C and are usually caused by contamination or material
problems, cold cracks occur after the weld has cooled, usually caused by hydrogen
diffusion, and crater cracks appear because the weld pool does not have enough volume.
Preparing welds carefully, choosing the correct materials and storing them safely will help
to prevent cracking.

V. Lack of penetration/incomplete fusion/undercut

Incomplete root fusion occurs when the weld fails to fuse to one side of the root. Lack of
penetration happens when both sides of the root fail to fuse to the weld. Undercutting is a
groove that appears in the base metal near the weld root. Correct preparation of the joint
and base metal surfaces, along with use of correct materials and welding techniques can
help to prevent these defects, which can lead to poor quality, weak welds and eventual
cracking, from occurring.

28. How the intensification factor depends on the thickness of the foil
SOLUTION

29. What are the essential data/ documents required for preparation of equipment
layout?

SOLUTION

ESSENTIAL DATA for equipment Layout:

• The general arrangement drawing shall indicate and locate various equipment viz.
Coolers, Heat exchangers, Pumps, Vessels, Columns, Heaters, Compressors,
Reactors, Flare stack, Package system, etc.
• All equipment shall be located in the sequence and at levels as recommended by
process
• department with unique equipment number and dimension.
• Dimensions shall be given with respect to centre line/tangent line of the equipment
to the
• nearest building column or to adjacent equipment.
• Access platform for equipment, ladders, and stairways shall be indicted.
• Maintenance spaces and drop out area for equipment shall be clearly indicted
• Further equipment if any shall be indicated in dotted line.

30. How do you calculate the width of pipe rack?

SOLUTION

i. The width of pipe rack is influenced by :

• The number of lines
• Electrical/instrument cable trays.
• Space for future lines.
ii. The width of a pipe rack may be calculated using the following method : First
estimate number of lines as described. Add up the number of lines up to 18” diameter in
the densest section of the pipe rack.
The total width in meters (W) will be :

w= (f * n * s) + A + B.

where,

f = Safety Factor
 1.5 if pipes are counted from PFD.

1.2 if pipes are counted from P&ID.

n = number of lines in the densest area up to size 450NB.

300 mm (Estimated average spacing)

225 mm (if lines are smaller than 250 NB)

A = Additional Width for Lines larger than 450 NB.

For instrument cable tray

For Electrical cable tray.

s = 300 mm (estimated average spacing)

225 mm (if lines are smaller than 250 NB)

B = future provision

20% of (f *X n X s) + A