Western Undergraduate

Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

The Effects of Footwear on Squat

Movements
Joshua W. Cohen1, Philip Lee1, Jessa Buchman-Pearle1
1
University of Western Ontario

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of different footwear (bare feet, flat-soled shoes, and weightlifting
shoes) on balance during a barbell back squat in novice and advanced participants. It was hypothesized that i) weightlifting shoes
would increase balance performance in the anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions, and ii) advanced participants
would demonstrate increased balance performance in the AP and ML direction compared to novice participants. 17 participants (9
novice and 8 advanced) performed 3 trials of a single squat repetition, using a 45lb Olympic standard barbell on a force plate, with
bare feet, flat shoes, and weightlifting shoes. Squat 1 and 2 were used as warm-up repetitions and data was collected during squat 3
of each condition. Participants were characterized as either novice or advanced based on the number of training sessions they
performed squats each week. Novice participants squatted with a barbell less than once per week, and advanced squatted with a
barbell more than once per week. Balance performance was quantified by the percentage of time the centre of pressure (CoP) had
the smallest displacement from the average CoP location. A chi-square test was performed to determine the statistically significant
changes in CoP displacement between the 3 footwear conditions; accordingly, the post hoc significance interval was calculated to
P0.0167). Using a 2-way ANOVA, no significant differences were found between novice and advanced participants’ root mean square
values for normalized CoP in the AP or ML directions (P>0.05). Participants during the weightlifting shoe condition were found to have
better regulation of balance compared to bare feet or flat shoes conditions. Additionally, it was found that novice and advanced
participants did not regulate balance differently from each other during the squat movement.

KEYWORDS: biomechanics, balance regulation, strength and conditioning

(CNS): visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive (9). It

Introduction has been found that regulation of balance is better
The squat is one of the most prevalent barefoot as this provides more feedback to the
compound exercises used in athletic strength cutaneous system (10).
training, as well as rehabilitation (1,2). Performing The increase in balance regulation with the
the squat requires muscle activation throughout the utilization of the cutaneous system may also be true
lower extremity, specifically, the gluteals, when performing squats in bare feet (BF). Changes
quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, and tibialis in kinematics occur as different musculature is
anterior (3). Due to the sequential and simultaneous recruited throughout the squat; different footwear
contractions of these muscles, balance is a causes these musculature changes (11). In
fundamental aspect of the squat movement (4). weightlifting shoes (WLS) (Figure 1A) a rigid midsole
Balance is defined as the regulation of an individual’s and heel lift increases the amount of ankle plantar
body to maintain stability (5). To accomplish this, the flexion (12). By increasing ankle plantar flexion,
centre of pressure (CoP) drives the centre of mass muscular recruitment will change during the squat
(CoM) within the boundaries of the base of support movement, resulting in increased plantar flexor
(BoS) (6). CoP location can be calculated from the activation (13). As the ankle strategy relies on plantar
ground reaction forces produced by an individual flexors, it is postulated that the increase in plantar
standing on a force plate (5). flexor activation will help regulate balance.
Fundamentally, there are three postural Previous research has demonstrated that
changes to regulate balance: increasing the area of cushioned footwear (Figure 1B) negatively affects
the BoS, utilizing ankle and hip musculature. balance performance (14). Body weight applies a
Anterior-posterior (AP) balance regulation is downward force on the shoe resulting in
accomplished by plantar flexors (ankle strategy), as compression of the cushioning. While squatting, this
well as hip flexors and extensors (hip strategy). The creates a less stable base, thereby compromising
ankle strategy is used more often, unless a large performance and safety throughout the exercise
perturbation is encountered. Medial-lateral (ML) (15). Flat-soled shoes (FS) (Figure 1C) may alleviate
regulation is accomplished at the hips by abductors the negative effects of cushioning.
and adductors (7,8). In addition to the postural Previous research has demonstrated that
changes, balance is maintained by the integration of different footwear can result in kinematic changes
three afferent systems in the central nervous system

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 Western Undergraduate
Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

during the squat movement (12,14,16). However, bodied. The exclusion criteria were if they had
few studies have examined the effects of footwear on sustained any lower extremity injuries 3 months prior
the kinetics driving these kinematic changes during to testing, or any other musculoskeletal disorders.
the squat movement. The purpose of this study was 17 male participants (mean age 20.8 years,
to compare the kinetics of the barbell back squat in SD=1.3 years; mean height 180.9 cm, SD=5.9 cm;
novice and advanced participants wearing three mean weight 83.4 kg, SD=11.1 kg) volunteered in the
types of footwear conditions; BF, FS, and WLS. It study. All participants had previously squatted with
was hypothesized that i) WLS would increase an 45lb Olympic standard barbell. Participants were
balance performance in the AP and ML directions, classified as either novice or advanced, based on the
and ii) advanced participants would demonstrate number of training sessions in which they performed
increased balance performance in the AP and ML squats each week. Novice participants squatted with
direction compared to novice participants. a barbell less than once per week, and advanced
squatted with a barbell more than once per week.
A) Weightlifting Shoes
Protocol
Participants wore three footwear conditions:
i) BF, ii) FS, and iii) WLS. 3 squats were performed
for each condition; squat 1 and 2 were used as warm-
up, and data was collected during squat 3. Pilot
testing determined that the third squat provided the
smallest CoP displacement, indicating their best trial.
Condition orders were counterbalanced, and shoes
B) Athletic Footwear in the participant’s size were provided.
Participants stood on the force plate in their
preferred squat stance and a 45lb Olympic standard
barbell was placed on their back. Tape was used to
outline each participant’s BoS and participants stood
at this location for each of their trials. Participants
were allotted 5 seconds to complete the full squat
movement, descending to 90 degrees of knee flexion
and ascending to stand. 5 seconds elapsed between
the trials.
C) Flat-soled Shoes
Equipment
A Kistler force plate (Kistler 9287 B, Kistler
Holding AG, Winterthur, Switzerland) was used to
measure the ground reaction forces and moments of
the Cartesian coordinate system. Force plate voltage
signals were amplified with an analogue-to-digital
conversion board, and recorded with a custom
LabVIEW software. Voltages were converted to
forces and moments using the LabVIEW software.
These data were processed in Microsoft Excel 2016
Figure 1. Pictures of different footwear. and PRISM 7. The Adidas Powerlifts, in the
participant’s size, were provided for the WLS
Methods condition, and Converse Chuck Taylors, in the
participant’s size, were provided for the FL condition.
Participants
A 45lb Olympic standard barbell was used for each
This study was approved by the University of
trial.
Western Ontario’s Health Sciences Research Ethics
Board, and all participants provided written informed
Data analysis
consent. They were recruited by posters distributed
Each participant’s squat varied in time as
throughout the University of Western Ontario.
making participants perform a standardized squat
Participants were included if they were between 18-
could have resulted in unnatural movement.
24 years of age, male, English speaking, and able-

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Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

Therefore, the data file was trimmed, outlined in the where 𝑠 is the slope of CoM displacement ∆𝑑 is the
calculations section below, to standardize each difference between subsequent displacements.
squat movement. CoM velocity was calculated using
the impulse-momentum relationship (Calculation 1 2. CoP in AP and ML direction was calculated by:
and Calculation 2). CoM velocity and time were
multiplied to determine CoM displacement 𝑀@ + 𝑐𝐹B
(Calculation 3). The slope of the CoM displacement 𝐶𝑜𝑃<= = − ,
𝐹C
was then calculated (Calculation 4). When CoM
𝑀B − 𝑐𝐹@
displacement slope is positive, the participant was 𝐶𝑜𝑃)D = ,
moving up; when the slope is negative, the 𝐹C
participant was moving down. When the slope was
equal to 0, the participant had completed the where 𝑀 is moment, 𝑐 is origin location of the force
movement, and the data file was cut. These plate coordinate system, and 𝐹 is ground reaction
calculations were verified with visual analysis of the force.
graphs (Figure 2).
No participants were excluded from the 3. Data was normalized via the following:
analysis. A chi-square test was performed to
determine the statistically significant changes in CoP 𝐶𝑜𝑃E(FG/H = 𝐶𝑜𝑃(FI1IE/H − 𝐶𝑜𝑃GJ/E .
displacement between the 3 footwear conditions.
Accordingly, a post hoc was completed, in which the 4. Percentage of time normalized CoP spent in each
significance interval was calculated and set to radius within the BoS was calculated by:
P<0.0167 (Calculation 6).
2-way ANOVA was performed to compare 𝑛F/MINO
novice and advanced RMS values in the AP and ML %𝑡 = 𝑥 100%,
𝑛P(P/H
directions for the normalized CoP data. Significance
was set to P<0.05.
where %𝑡 is percentage of time spent by normalized
CoP, 𝑛F/MINO is number of data points within a specific
Calculations
radius (10mm, 20mm, and 𝑛P(P/H is total number of
1. Due to each participant’s squat varying in time,
data points.
data points for when individuals were completing the
squat movement were extracted by determining
5. Root Mean Square (RMS) in AP and ML directions
when CoM was moving upwards (positive slope),
was calculated by:
downwards (negative slope), or at starting position
E T
IU6 𝑥I
(0):
𝐽 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑡, 𝑅𝑀𝑆<= = ,
𝑛
where 𝐽 is impulse, 𝐹 is force, and 𝑡 is time.
E T
𝐹∗𝑡 IU6 𝑦I
𝑅𝑀𝑆)D = ,
𝑣'() = , 𝑛
𝑚
where 𝑣'() is CoM velocity, and 𝑚 is mass. where 𝑛 is number of subjects (𝑛WXYZ[\ = 9, 𝑛]^Y]W[\^ =
8), 𝑥 or 𝑦 is each subjects normalized CoP
displacement.
𝑑- = 𝑣/01 ∗ 0.01 + 𝑑6 ,
6. Post hoc significance level was determined by
where 𝑑- is CoM displacement from starting calculating Bonferroni’s correction factor:
position, 𝑣/01 is average velocity in 0.01 seconds,
and 𝑑6 is the previous CoM displacement. 0.05
𝛽= ,
𝑛
∆𝑑
𝑠= ,
0.01 where 𝛽 is Bonferroni’s correction, and 𝑛 is number
of conditions compared (𝑛 = 3).

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Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

Results
-700
-800 A

Vertical Ground Reaction Force (newtons)

-900
-1000
-1100
-1200
-1300
-1400

-700 0 1 2 3 4 5

-800 B
-900
-1000
-1100
-1200
-1300
-1400

0 1 2 3 4 5

Time (s)

Figure 2: Data analysis of vertical ground reaction force of a single squat trial. A denotes the raw data file before
our analysis, B denotes the trimmed data file.

0.04 A 0.04 B
Anterior-Posterior (mm)

Anterior-Posterior (mm)

0.02 0.02

0.00 0.00

-0.02 -0.02

-0.04 -0.04

-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04
Medial-Lateral (mm) Medial-Lateral (mm)

0.04 C
Anterior-Posterior (mm)

0.02

0.00

-0.02

-0.04

-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04

Medial-Lateral (mm)

Figure 3: Direction of centre of pressure during a single trial of squatting during each condition; flat shoes (A),
bare feet (B), and weightlifting shoes (C).

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Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

Radius (mm)
Condition Total
10 20 30 40 50 60

Observed Values
Novice
Bare Feet 34.75 48.25 34.25 18.13 4.25 0.75 140.38
Flat Shoes 42.25 64.50 31.63 10.13 3.50 2.38 154.38
Weightlifting Shoes 27.63 72.75 35.13 14.88 6.50 6.25 163.13
Advanced
Bare Feet 41.38 52.00 30.50 16.38 2.88 0.38 135.50
Flat Shoes 49.00 62.88 22.50 6.13 2.50 2.50 143.50
Weightlifting Shoes 27.63 72.75 35.125 14.88 6.50 6.25 145.50
Total 221.25 361.88 188.63 76.38 21.50 12.75 882.38

Table 1: Chi-square Observed Values (degrees of freedom = 25) for Novice and Advanced Participants

Novice Advanced
Bare feet Flat Weightlifting Bare feet Flat Weightlifting
AP 0.013 0.014 0.013 0.014 0.013 0.013
± 0.006 ± 0.006 ± 0.008 ± 0.005 ± 0.004 ± 0.004

ML 0.016 0.013 0.019 0.013 0.014 0.011

± 0.008 ± 0.008 ± 0.005 ± 0.004 ± 0.006 ± 0.004

Table 2: RMS Mean and Standard Deviations in AP and ML Directions for Novice and Advanced Participants.
AP – Anterior-Posterior; ML – Medial-Lateral.
the highest order of cognitive function in healthy
individuals (16). It takes priority over noxious stimuli,
Discussion cognitive function, and movement speed (16,17,18).
The purpose of the study was to determine Dual tasks, with balancing and cognitive
the differences in balance regulation between BF, components, show diminishing results in the
FS, and WLS conditions, in novice and advanced cognitive tasks in order to maintain balance (17).
participants. It was hypothesized that WLS would Furthermore, movement speed demonstrates a
regulate balance more effectively than the other similar effect; speed decreases in order to regulate
footwear conditions. The WLS condition elicited balance (18). Squatting experience levels appear to
improved balance performance compared to BF and make no difference in regulating balance during a
FS. CoPs was centralized toward the middle their squat movement; novice squatters may have
BoS (Figure 3). It was also hypothesized that decreased cognitive function or movement speed;
advanced participants would demonstrate increased however, their balance will remain regulated.
balance performance in the AP and ML directions Regardless of familiarity with the squat movement,
compared to novice participants. This was not because it is a simple task, individuals will maintain
supported, as there was no statistically significant balance. Since the sample population was
difference between novice and advanced comprised of able-bodied individuals, this is likely the
participants in balance regulation. reason for the lack of difference in balance
The 2-way ANOVA found no significant regulation.
differences between the comparison groups and the As mentioned earlier, balance is regulated
specific footwear condition (Table 2); experience by the CNS and postural changes, indicating an array
level had no effect on balance performance when of explanations for the differences found between the
wearing the same footwear. Balance is regulated at footwear conditions. Previous research has

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Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

established that bare feet and barefoot-inspired are at a higher risk of falling after damaging their
shoes have similar characteristics in regulating balance regulation pathways (19). With the aid of
balance (19). Similar to the present findings, there WLS, these patients can utilize the strengthening
were no significant differences between BF and FS benefits of the squat, while minimizing the risk of
conditions. These conditions require similar falling.
kinematic adjustments as the foot positioning is the
same on a non-compressible surface. Presumably,
this allows for similar muscular recruitment and Limitations and Future
activation throughout the squat movement. These
similarities are noted by the lack of differences
Directions
between the percentage of time spent in each radius The population of the study was solely male.
within the BoS. The main difference between the 2 Fundamentally, there are anatomical differences
conditions is that FS is thought to provide less between females and males. Females tend to have
afferent cutaneous information from the plantar wider pelves and greater muscle flexibility,
aspect of the foot. As previously mentioned, balance contributing to differences in squat mechanics (20,
is regulated by three afferent systems. As vestibular 21). In addition, females are more likely to wear high-
and visual information is consistent between the heeled shoes, potentially playing a role in
conditions, the comparison illustrates the acclimatization to the WLS heel lift. Future studies
effectiveness of the cutaneous system. The should include participants with a broader range of
insignificant differences between FS and BF is ages and includes both sexes to determine if results
indicative of cutaneous information not being heavily differ across populations.
relied upon in balance regulation during a squat The classification of advanced vs novice
movement. As the cutaneous system is impaired, the squatters does not necessarily reflect their skill sets.
vestibular and visual systems accommodate the As the classification of each condition was based
deficiency, and balance is maintained (9). To upon the frequency of squatting rather than
maintain safety, many gyms require patrons to wear technique and total time squatting. In future studies,
indoor footwear. This protects patrons from injury, squatting technique should be analyzed and used to
and prevents the spread of bacteria. As participants demarcate groups accordingly.
during the BF and FS conditions regulate balance The amount of experience participants’ had
similarly, patrons can utilize FS while adhering to in each footwear condition was different. Participants
gym rules and maintaining safety. could be comfortable squatting with specific
While there were no statistically significant footwear, possibly leading to better balance
differences between participants in the BF and FS performance in their preferred footwear condition. To
condition, it was found that WLS are superior in achieve more homogeneous results in future studies,
balance regulation. CoP in WLS had a larger there should be congruency within the groups based
percentage of time spent in a 10mm and 20mm radii on the level of comfort with each footwear conditions.
within the BoS. The main difference between WLS The protocol required participants to squat
and the other conditions is the addition of a 1.5” heel with an unweighted barbell. Kinematic and kinetic
lift. Since increasing the plantar flexion angle changes in squat occur as weight is increased (14).
increases plantar flexor activation, adding a 1.5” heel Adding weight causes changes in the musculature
lift will have the same effect (13). As the AP balance recruitment, and thus potential changes in balance
is regulated by the plantar flexors, it was postulated regulation. In future studies, the weight of the barbell
that increasing plantar flexor activation will increase used should be adjusted accordingly for the
the effectiveness of the ankle strategy. Furthermore, advanced and the novice groups.
kinematic changes at the ankles will influence Joint angle and muscle activation patterns
adjustments at the hip. Previous studies suggest that were not measured. Future studies should consider
WLS reduce the amount of trunk lean, caused by spatial-temporal parameters, through motion
greater hip extensor moments (12). This results in a capture, and electromyography to quantify changes
safer squat technique as less shear forces are in musculature recruitment.
applied to the lower back.
The present findings, specifically the
superiority of WLS, can help individuals build lower
Conclusion
The results of this study demonstrate that
limb strength, while mitigating the risk of falling and participants during the WLS condition regulated
injury. Specific populations, such as stroke patients, balance better than during BF and FS conditions.

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Research Journal RESEARCH ARTICLE

The initial plantar flexion caused by the WLS heel lift 14. Sinclair J, McCarthy D, Bentley I, Hurst HT, Atkins S. The
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