LECTURE NOTES ON

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OFALGORITHMS

Department of Information Technology

Prepare By
Dr. K Rajendra Prasad
Dr. R Obula kondaReddy
Dr. B.V. Rao
Dr. G.Ramu
Mr. Ch.Suresh Kumar Raju
Ms. K.Radhika

INSTITUTE OF
AERONAUTICALENGINEERING (Autonomous)
Dundigal – 500 043, Hyderabad
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: Introduction

1.1 Algorithm
1.1.1 Pseudo code
1.2 Performance analysis
1.2.1 Space complexity
1.2.2 Time complexity
1.3 Asymptotic notations
1.3.1 Big O Notation
1.3.2 Omega Notation
1.3.3 Theta Notation and
1.3.4 Little O Notation,
1.4 Probabilistic analysis
1.5 Amortized complexity
1.6 Divide and conquer
1.6.1 General method
1.6.2 Binary search
1.6.3 Quick sort
1.6.4 Merge sort
1.6.5 Strassen's matrix multiplication.

CHAPTER 2: SEARCHING AND TRAVERSAL TECHNIQUES

2.1 Disjoint Set Operations

2.2 Union And Find Algorithms
2.3 Efficient Non Recursive Binary Tree Traversal Algorithms 2.4
Spanning Trees
2.5 Graph Traversals
2.5.1 Breadth First Search
2.5.2 Depth First Search
2.5.3 Connected Components
2.5.4 Biconnected Components

CHAPTER 3: GREEDY METHOD AND DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

3.1 Greedy Method

3.1.1 The General Method
3.1.2 Job Sequencing With Deadlines
3.1.3 Knapsack Problem
3.1.4 Minimum Cost Spanning Trees
3.1.5 Single Source Shortest Paths
3.2 Dynamic Programming
3.2.1 The General Method
3.2.2 Matrix Chain Multiplication
3.2.3 Optimal Binary Search Trees
3.2.4 0/1 Knapsack Problem
3.2.5 All Pairs Shortest Paths Problem
3.2.6 The Travelling Salesperson Problem
CHAPTER 4:BACKTRACKING AND BRANCH AND BOUND
 4.1 Backtracking
4.1.1 The General Method
4.1.2 The 8 Queens Problem
4.1.3 Sum Of Subsets Problem
4.1.4 Graph Coloring
4.1.5 Hamiltonian Cycles
4.2 Branch And Bound
4.2.1 The General Method
4.2.2 0/1 Knapsack Problem
4.2.3 Least Cost Branch And Bound Solution
4.2.4 First In First Out Branch And Bound Solution
4.2.5 Travelling Salesperson Problem

CHAPTER 5: NP-HARD AND NP-COMPLETE PROBLEMS

5. Basic Concepts
5.1 Non-Deterministic Algorithms
5.2 The Classes NP - Hard And NP
5.3 NP Hard Problems
5.4 Clique Decision Problem
5.5 Chromatic Number Decision Problem
5.6 Cook's Theorem
Unit-1
Introduction

ALGORITHM:
Algorithm was first time proposed a purshian mathematician Al-Chwarizmi in 825 AD.
According to web star dictionary, algorithm is a special method to represent the procedure
to solve given problem.

OR

An Algorithm is any well-defined computational procedure that takes some value or set of
values as Input and produces a set of values or some value as output. Thus algorithm is a
sequence of computational steps that transforms the input into the output.

Formal Definition:

An Algorithm is a finite set of instructions that, if followed, accomplishes a

particular task. In addition, all algorithms should satisfy the following criteria.

1. Input. Zero or more quantities are externally supplied.

2. Output. At least one quantity is produced.
3. Definiteness. Each instruction is clear and unambiguous.
4. Finiteness. If we trace out the instructions of an algorithm, then for all cases, the
algorithm terminates after a finite number of steps.
5. Effectiveness. Every instruction must very basic so that it can be carried out, in
 principle, by a person using only pencil & paper.

Areas of study of Algorithm:

∙ How to device or design an algorithm– It includes the study of various design

techniques and helps in writing algorithms using the existing design techniques
like divide and conquer.
∙ How to validate an algorithm– After the algorithm is written it is necessary to
check the correctness of the algorithm i.e for each input correct output is
produced, known as algorithm validation. The second phase is writing a program
known as program proving or program verification.
∙ How to analysis an algorithm–It is known as analysis of algorithms or performance
analysis, refers to the task of calculating time and space complexity of the
algorithm.
∙ How to test a program – It consists of two phases . 1. debugging is detection and
correction of errors. 2. Profiling or performance measurement is the actual
amount of time required by the program to compute the result.

Algorithm Specification:

Algorithm can be described in three ways.

1. Natural language like English:
2. Graphic representation called flowchart:
This method will work well when the algorithm is small& simple.
3. Pseudo-code Method:
In this method, we should typically describe algorithms as program, which resembles
language like Pascal &algol.

Pseudo-Code for writing Algorithms:

1. Comments begin with // and continue until the end of line.

2. Blocks are indicated with matching braces {and}.
3. An identifier begins with a letter. The data types of variables are not explicitly
declared.
4. Compound data types can be formed with records. Here is an example,
Node. Record
{
data type – 1 data-1; .
data type – n data – n;
node * link;
}
Here link is a pointer to the record type node. Individual data items of a
record can be accessed with 🡪 and period.
5. Assignment of values to variables is done using the assignment statement.
<Variable>:= <expression>;
6. There are two Boolean values TRUE and FALSE.
Logical Operators AND, OR, NOT

Relational Operators <, <=,>,>=, =, !=

7. The following looping statements are employed.

For, while and repeat-until

While Loop:

While < condition >do{

<statement-1>
..
<statement-n>
}
For Loop:

For variable: = value-1 to value-2 step step do

{
<statement-1>
.
.
<statement-n>
}
One step is a key word, other Step is used for increment or decrement.

repeat-until:

repeat{
<statement-1>
.
.
<statement-n>
}until<condition>
8. A conditional statement has the following forms.
(1) If <condition> then <statement>

(2) If <condition> then <statement-1>

Else <statement-2>

Case statement:

Case
{ :<condition-1>:<statement-1>
.
.
 :<condition-n>:<statement-n>
:else:<statement-n+1>
}
9. Input and output are done using the instructions read & write.
10. There is only one type of procedure:
Algorithm, the heading takes the form,

Algorithm Name (<Parameter list>)

As an example, the following algorithm fields & returns the maximum of ‘n’ given
numbers:

Algorithm Max(A,n)
// A is an array of size n
{
Result := A[1];
for I:= 2 to n do
if A[I] > Result then
Result :=A[I];
return Result;
}
In this algorithm (named Max), A & n are procedure parameters. Result & I are
Local variables.

Performance Analysis.
There are many Criteria to judge an algorithm.
– Is it correct?
– Is it readable?
– How it works
Performance evaluation can be divided into two major phases.

1. Performance Analysis (machine independent)

– space complexity: The space complexity of an algorithm is the amount of

memory it needs to run for completion.

– time complexity: The time complexity of an algorithm is the amount of

computer time it needs to run to completion.

2 .Performance Measurement (machine dependent).

Space Complexity:

The Space Complexity of any algorithm P is given by S(P)=C+SP(I),C is constant.

1.Fixed Space Requirements (C)

Independent of the characteristics of the inputs and outputs
– It includes instruction space
– space for simple variables, fixed-size structured variable, constants
2. Variable Space Requirements (SP(I))
 depend on the instance characteristic I
– number, size, values of inputs and outputs associated with I
– recursive stack space, formal parameters, local variables, return address
Examples:
*Program 1 :Simple arithmetic function
Algorithmabc( a, b, c)
{
return a + b + b * c + (a + b - c) / (a + b) + 4.00;
}

SP(I)=0

HenceS(P)=Constant

Program 2: Iterative function for sum a list of numbers

Algorithm sum( list[ ], n)
{
tempsum = 0;
for i = 0 ton do
tempsum += list [i];
return tempsum;

}
In the above example list[] is dependent on n. Hence SP(I)=n. The remaining variables
are i,n, tempsum each requires one location.

Hence S(P)=3+n

*Program 3: Recursive function for sum a list of numbers

Algorithmrsum( list[ ], n)
{

If (n<=0) then

return 0.0

else
return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n];

In the above example the recursion stack space includes space for formal parameters
local variables and return address. Each call to rsum requires 3 locations i.e for list[],n
and return address .As the length of recursion is n+1.

S(P)>=3(n+1)

Time complexity:
 T(P)=C+TP(I)

It is combination of-Compile time (C)

independent of instance characteristics
-run (execution) time TP
dependent of instance characteristics
Time complexity is calculated in terms of program step as it is difficult to know the
complexities of individual operations.
Definition: Aprogram step is a syntactically or semantically meaningful program
segment whose execution time is independent of the instance characteristics.

Program steps are considered for different statements as : for comment zero steps .
assignment statement is considered as one step. Iterative statements such as “for, while
and until-repeat” statements, we consider the step counts based on the expression .

Methods to compute the step count:

1) Introduce variable count into programs
2) Tabular method
– Determine the total number of steps contributed by each statement
step per execution × frequency
– add up the contribution of all statements
Program 1.with count statements

Algorithm sum( list[ ], n)

{
tempsum := 0; count++; /* for assignment */
for i := 1 to n do {
count++; /*for the for loop */
tempsum := tempsum + list[i]; count++; /* for assignment */
}
count++; /* last execution of for */
return tempsum;
count++; /* for return */

Hence T(n)=2n+3

Program :Recursive sum

Algorithmrsum( list[ ], n)
{
count++; /*for if conditional */
if (n<=0) {
count++; /* for return */
return 0.0 }

else
returnrsum(list, n-1) + list[n];

count++;/*for return and rsum invocation*/

T(n)=2n+2

Program for matrix addition

Algorithm add( a[ ][MAX_SIZE], b[ ][MAX_SIZE],

c[ ][MAX_SIZE], rows, cols ) {
for i := 1 to rows do {
count++; /* for i for loop */
for j := 1 to cols do {
count++; /* for j for loop */
c[i][j] := a[i][j] + b[i][j];
count++; /* for assignment statement */
}
count++; /* last time of j for loop */
}
count++; /* last time of i for loop */
}

T(n)=2rows*cols+2*rows+1

II Tabular method.

Complexity is determined by using a table which includes steps per execution(s/e) i.e
amount by which count changes as a result of execution of the statement.

Frequency – number of times a statement is executed.

Statement s/e Frequency Total steps

Algorithm sum( list[ ], n) 0 - 0

{ 0 - 0
tempsum := 0; 1 1 1
for i := 0 ton do 1 n+1 n+1
tempsum := tempsum + list [i]; 1 n n
return tempsum; 1 1 1
} 0 0 0

Total 2n+3

Statement s/e Frequency Total steps

n=0 n>0 n=0 n>0
 Algorithmrsum( list[ ], n) 0 - - 0 0
{ 0 - - 0 0
If (n<=0) then 1 1 1 1 1
return 0.0; 1 1 0 1 0
else 0 0 0 0 0
return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n]; 1+x 0 1 0 1+x
0 0 0 0 0
}

Total 2 2+x

Statement s/e Frequency Total steps

Algorithm add(a,b,c,m,n) 0 - 0
{ 0 - 0
for i:=1 to m do 1 m+1 m+1
for j:=1 to n do 1 m(n+1) mn+m
c[i,j]:=a[i,j]+b[i,j]; 1 mn mn
} 0 - 0

Total 2mn+2m+1

Complexity ofAlgorithms

The complexity of an algorithm M is the function f(n) which gives the running time
and/or storage space requirement of the algorithm in terms of the size ‘n’ of the input
data. Mostly, the storage space required by an algorithm is simply a multiple of the data
size ‘n’. Complexity shall refer to the running time of thealgorithm.
The function f(n), gives the running time of an algorithm, depends not only on the size ‘n’
of the input data but also on the particular data. The complexity function f(n) for certain
casesare:

1. Best Case : The minimum possible value of f(n) is called the bestcase. 2.

Average Case : The average value off(n).

3. Worst Case : The maximum value of f(n) for any key possibleinput.

The field of computer science, which studies efficiency of algorithms, is known as analysis
ofalgorithms.
Algorithms can be evaluated by a variety of criteria. Most often we shall be interested in
the rate of growth of the time or space required to solve larger and larger instances of a
problem. We will associate with the problem an integer, called the size of the problem,
which is a measure of the quantity of inputdata.Rate ofGrowth:
 The following notations are commonly use notations in performance analysis and used to
characterize the complexity of analgorithm:

Asymptotic notation

Big oh notation:O
The function f(n)=O(g(n)) (read as “f of n is big oh of g of n”) iff there exist positive
constants c and n0 such that f(n)≤C*g(n) for all n, n≥0

The value g(n)is the upper bound value of f(n).

Example:
3n+2=O(n) as
3n+2 ≤4n for all n≥2

Omega notation:Ω

The function f(n)=Ω (g(n)) (read as “f of n is Omega of g of n”) iff there exist positive
constants c and n0 such that f(n)≥C*g(n) for all n, n≥0
The value g(n) is the lower bound value of f(n).
Example:
3n+2=Ω (n) as
3n+2 ≥3n for all n≥1
Theta notation:θ
The function f(n)= θ (g(n)) (read as “f of n is theta of g of n”) iff there exist positive
constants c1, c2 and n0 such that C1*g(n) ≤f(n)≤C2*g(n) for all n, n≥0 Example:
3n+2=θ (n) as
3n+2 ≥3n for all n≥2
3n+2 ≤3n for all n≥2
Here c1=3 and c2=4 and n0=2

Little oh: o
The function f(n)=o(g(n)) (read as “f of n is little oh of g of n”) iff
Lim f(n)/g(n)=0 for all n, n≥0
n🡪~
Example:
3n+2=o(n2) as

Lim ((3n+2)/n2)=0
n🡪~

Little Omega:ω
The function f(n)=ω (g(n)) (read as “f of n is little ohomega of g of n”) iff

Lim g(n)/f(n)=0 for all n, n≥0

n🡪~
Example:
3n+2=o(n2) as

Lim (n2/(3n+2) =0
n🡪~

AnalyzingAlgorithms
Suppose ‘M’ is an algorithm, and suppose ‘n’ is the size of the input data. Clearly the
complexity f(n) of M increases as n increases. It is usually the rate of increase of f(n) we
want to examine. This is usually done by comparing f(n) with some standard functions.
The most common computing timesare:
2 3 n
O(1), O(log2n), O(n), O(n. log2n), O(n ), O(n ), O(2 ), n! andnn

Numerical Comparison of DifferentAlgorithms

The execution time for six of the typical functions is givenbelow:
n 2 3
N log2n n*log2 n n 2n
0 0 1 1

1 2 4 8

2 8 16 64

3 24 64 512

4 64 256 4096

5 160 1024 32,768

6 384 4096 2,62,144

7 896 16,384 2,097,152

12
24
4 16
8 256
16 65,536
32 4,294,967,296 64 Note1
128 Note2
256 8 2048 65,536 1,677,216 ????????

Note1: The value here is approximately the number of machine instructions executed
by a 1 gigaflop computer in 5000years.
 Note 2: The value here is about 500 billion times the age of the universe in nanoseconds,
assuming a universe age of 20 billionyears.
2 3 n
Graph of log n, n, n log n, n , n , 2 , n! andnn

One way to compare the function f(n) with these standard function is to use the functional
‘O’ notation, suppose f(n) and g(n) are functions defined on the positive integers with the
property that f(n) is bounded by some multiple g(n) for almost all ‘n’.Then,f(n) =O(g(n))
Which is read as “f(n) is of order g(n)”. For example, the order of complexityfor: ∙ Linear
search is O(n)
∙ Binary search is O (logn)
2
∙ Bubble sort is O(n )
∙ Merge sort is O (n logn)

Probabilistic analysis of algorithms is an approach to estimate the computational

complexity of an algorithm or a computational problem. It starts from an assumption about
a probabilistic distribution of the set of all possible inputs. This assumption is then used to
design an efficient algorithm or to derive the complexity of a known algorithm.
DIVIDE AND CONQUER

General method:
Given a function to compute on ‘n’ inputs the divide-and-conquer strategy suggests splitting
the inputs into ‘k’ distinct subsets, 1<k<=n, yielding ‘k’ sub problems. These sub problems
must be solved, and then a method must be found to combine sub solutions into a solution
of the whole.

If the sub problems are still relatively large, then the divide-and-conquer strategy can
possibly be reapplied.Often the sub problems resulting from a divide-and-conquer design
are of the same type as the original problem.For those cases the re application of the divide
and-conquer principle is naturally expressed by a recursive algorithm.DAndC(Algorithm) is
initially invoked as DandC(P), where ‘p’ is the problem to be solved.Small(P) is a Boolean
valued function that determines whether the i/p size is small enough that the answer can be
computed without splitting.If this so, the function ‘S’ is invoked.Otherwise, the problem P is
divided into smaller sub problems.These sub problems P1, P2 …Pk are solved by recursive
application of DAndC.Combine is a function that determines the solution to p using the
solutions to the ‘k’ sub problems.If the size of ‘p’ is n and the sizes of the ‘k’ sub problems
are n1, n2 ….nk, respectively, then the computing time of DAndC is described by the
recurrence relation.
T(n)= { g(n) n small

T(n1)+T(n2)+……………+T(nk)+f(n); otherwise.

Where T(n) is the time for DAndC on any i/p of size ‘n’.
g(n) is the time of compute the answer directly for small i/ps.
f(n) is the time for dividing P & combining the solution to
sub problems.

Algorithm DAndC(P)
{
if small(P) then return S(P);
else
{
divide P into smaller instances
P1, P2… Pk, k>=1;

Apply DAndC to each of these sub problems;

return combine (DAndC(P1), DAndC(P2),…….,DAndC(Pk));
}
}

The complexity of many divide-and-conquer algorithms is given by recurrence relation

of the form

T(n) = T(1) n=1

= aT(n/b)+f(n) n>1

Where a & b are known constants.

We assume that T(1) is known & ‘n’ is a power of b(i.e., n=bk)

One of the methods for solving any such recurrence relation is called the substitution
method.This method repeatedly makes substitution for each occurrence of the function.
T is the right-hand side until all such occurrences disappear.
Example:

1) Consider the case in which a=2 and b=2. Let T(1)=2 & f(n)=n.
We have,

T(n) = 2T(n/2)+n

= 2[2T(n/2/2)+n/2]+n

= [4T(n/4)+n]+n

= 4T(n/4)+2n
 = 4[2T(n/4/2)+n/4]+2n

= 4[2T(n/8)+n/4]+2n

= 8T(n/8)+n+2n

= 8T(n/8)+3n

*
*
∙ In general, we see that T(n)=2iT(n/2i)+in., for any log2 n >=i>=1.
T(n) =2log n T(n/2log n) + n log n

Corresponding to the choice of i=log2n

Thus, T(n) = 2log n T(n/2log n) + n log n

= n. T(n/n) + n log n

= n. T(1) + n log n [since, log 1=0, 20=1]

= 2n + n log n

T(n)= nlogn+2n.

The recurrence using the substitution method,it can be shown as

log a
T(n)=n b [T(1)+u(n)]
h(n) u(n)

O(nr),r<0 O(1)

((log n)i),i≥0 ((log n)i+1/(i+1))

Ω(nr),r>0 (h(n))

Applications of Divide and conquer rule or algorithm:

Binary search, Quick sort, Merge sort, Strassen’s matrix multiplication.

BINARY SEARCH
Given a list of n elements arranged in increasing order. The problem is to determine
whether a given element is present in the list or not. If x is present then determine the
position of x, otherwise position is zero.

Divide and conquer is used to solve the problem. The value Small(p) is true if n=1. S(P)= i,
if x=a[i], a[] is an array otherwise S(P)=0.If P has more than one element then it can be
divided into sub-problems. Choose an index j and compare x with aj. then there 3
possibilities (i). X=a[j] (ii) x<a[j] (x is searched in the list a[1]…a[j-1])
(iii) x>a[j ] ( x is searched in the list a[j+1]…a[n]).
And the same procedure is applied repeatedly until the solution is found or solution is zero.
Algorithm Binsearch(a,n,x)
// Given an array a[1:n] of elements in non-decreasing
//order, n>=0,determine whether ‘x’ is present and
// if so, return ‘j’ such that x=a[j]; else return 0.
{
low:=1; high:=n;
while (low<=high) do
{
mid:=[(low+high)/2];
if (x<a[mid]) then high;
else if(x>a[mid]) then
low:=mid+1;
else return mid;
}
return 0;
}
Algorithm, describes this binary search method, where Binsrch has 4 inputssa[], I , n& x.It
is initially invoked as Binsrch (a,1,n,x)A non-recursive version of Binsrch is given below.
This Binsearch has 3 i/psa,n, & x.The while loop continues processing as long as there are
more elements left to check.At the conclusion of the procedure 0 is returned if x is not
present, or ‘j’ is returned, such that a[j]=x.We observe that low & high are integer Variables
such that each time through the loop either x is found or low is increased by at least one or
high is decreased at least one.
Thus we have 2 sequences of integers approaching each other and eventually low becomes >
than high & causes termination in a finite no. of steps if ‘x’ is not present. Example:

1) Let us select the 14 entries.

-15,-6,0,7,9,23,54,82,101,112,125,131,142,151.
Place them in a[1:14], and simulate the steps Binsearch goes through as it searches for
different values of ‘x’.
Only the variables, low, high & mid need to be traced as we simulate the algorithm.
We try the following values for x: 151, -14 and 9.
for 2 successful searches & 1 unsuccessful search.
Table. Shows the traces of Binsearch on these 3 steps.
X=151 low high mid

1 147
8 14 11
12 14 13
14 14 14
Found
x=-14 low high mid
1 14 7
163
 121
222
2 1 Not found

x=9 low high mid

1 14 7
163
465
Found

Theorem: Algorithm Binsearch(a,n,x) works correctly.

Proof:We assume that all statements work as expected and that comparisons such as
x>a[mid] are appropriately carried out.

Initially low =1, high= n,n>=0, and a[1]<=a[2]<=……..<=a[n].

If n=0, the while loop is not entered and is returned.Otherwise we observe that each
time thro’ the loop the possible elements to be checked of or equality with x and
a[low], a[low+1],……..,a[mid],……a[high]. If x=a[mid], then the algorithm
terminates successfully.Otherwise, the range is narrowed by either increasing low to
(mid+1) or decreasing high to (mid-1).Clearly, this narrowing of the range does not
affect the outcome of the search.If low becomes > than high, then ‘x’ is not present
& hence the loop is exited.
The complexity of binary search issuccessful searches is
Worst case is O(log n) or θ(log n)
Average case is O(log n) or θ(log n)
Best case is O(1) or θ(1)

Unsuccessful searches is: θ(log n) for all cases.

MergeSort
Merge sort algorithm is a classic example of divide and conquer. To sort an array,
recursively, sort its left and right halves separately and then merge them. The time
complexity of merge sort in the best case, worst case and average case is O(n log n) and
the number of comparisons used is nearlyoptimal.
This strategy is so simple, and so efficient but the problem here is that there seems to be
no easy way to merge two adjacent sorted arrays together in place (The result must be
build up in a separatearray).The fundamental operation in this algorithm is merging two
sorted lists. Because the lists are sorted, this can be done in one pass through the input, if
the output is put in a thirdlist.

Algorithm MERGESORT (low,high)

// a (low : high) is a global array to besorted.

{
if (low <high)
{
mid := (low +high)/2;//finds where to split theset
MERGESORT(low, mid); //sortonesubset
 MERGESORT(mid+1, high); //sort the other subset
MERGE(low,mid,high); // combine theresults
}

}
Algorithm MERGE (low, mid,high)
// a (low : high) is a global array containing two sortedsubsets
// in a (low : mid) and in a (mid + 1 :high).
// The objective is to merge these sorted sets into singlesorted
// set residing in a (low : high). An auxiliary array B isused.
{
h :=low; i := low; j:= mid + 1;
while ((h <mid) and (J <high))do
{
if (a[h] <a[j])then
{
b[i] :=a[h]; h:=h+1;

}
else
{
b[i] :=a[j]; j := j +1;

}
i := i +1;
}
if (h > mid)then
for k := j to highdo
{
b[i] := a[k]; i := i +1 for k := h to middo
{
b[i] := a[K]; i := i +l;
}
for k := low to highdo
a[k] :=b[k];
}

Example

Tree call of Merge sort:

A[1:10]={310,285,179,652,351,423,861

,254,450,520} 1, 10

1, 5
 6, 10
4, 5 9, 10
6, 8
1, 3
1, 2 3 , 3 4, 4 5, 52, 2 6, 7 8, 8 9,9 10, 10 7, 7

6, 6
1, 1
Tree call of Merge sort (1, 10)

Analysis of MergeSort

We will assume that ‘n’ is a power of 2, so that we always split into even halves, so
k
we solve for the case n =2 .

For n = 1, the time to merge sort is constant, which we will be denote by 1.

Otherwise, the time to merge sort ‘n’ numbers is equal to the time to do two recursive
merge sorts of size n/2, plus the time to merge, which is linear. The equation says
thisexactly:
T(1) =1
T(n) = 2 T(n/2) +n

This is a standard recurrence relation, which can be solved several ways. We will
solve by substituting recurrence relation continually on the right–handside.

We have, T(n) = 2T(n/2) +n

Since we can substitute n/2 into this mainequation
2T(n/2) ==
Wehave, 2 (2 (T(n/4))
 +n/2) 4 T(n/4) +n

T(n/2) = 2 T(n/4) +n
T(n) = 4 T(n/4) +2n
Again, by substituting n/4 into the main equation, we seethat

=
4T(n/4) =4 (2T(n/8)) +n/4
8 T(n/8) +n
So wehave,

T(n/4) = 2 T(n/8) +n
T(n) = 8 T(n/8) +3n
Continuing in this manner, weobtain:
k k
T(n) = 2 T(n/2 ) + K.n

k
As n = 2 , K = log2n, substituting this in the aboveequation
T(n) = 2log nT(n/2log n ) +log n * n
=nT(1)+ n log n
=n+n log n
Representing in O-notation T(n)=O(n log n).
k
We have assumed that n = 2 . The analysis can be refined to handle cases when ‘n’ is not
a power of 2. The answer turns out to be almostidentical.
Although merge sort’s running time is O(n log n), it is hardly ever used for main memory
sorts. The main problem is that merging two sorted lists requires linear extra memory and
the additional work spent copying to the temporary array and back, throughout the
algorithm, has the effect of slowing down the sort considerably. The Best and worst case
time complexity of Merge sort is O(n logn).

Strassen’s MatrixMultiplication:

The matrix multiplication of algorithm due to Strassens is the most dramatic example of
divide and conquer technique(1969).
Let A and B be two n×n Matrices. The product matrix C=AB is also a n×n matrix whose i,
jth element is formed by taking elements in the ith row of A and jth column of B and
multiplying them to get

The usual wayC(i, j)=

Here 1≤ i & j ≤ n means i and j are in between 1 and n.

To compute C(i, j) using this formula, we need n multiplications.

The divide and conquer strategy suggests another way to compute the product of two n×n
matrices.For Simplicity assume n is a power of 2 that is n=2k, k is a nonnegative integer. If n
is not power of two then enough rows and columns of zeros can be added to both A and B,
so that resulting dimensions are a power of two.
To multiply two n x n matrices A and B, yielding result matrix ‘C’ as follows: Let A and B
be two n×n Matrices. Imagine that A & B are each partitioned into four square sub matrices.
Each sub matrix having dimensions n/2×n/2.
The product of AB can be computed by using previous formula.
If AB is product of 2×2 matrices then

Then cijcan be found by the usual matrix multiplicationalgorithm,

C =A B +A B
11 11 . 11 12 . 21
C =A
B +A B
12
11 . 12 12 . 22
C =A B +A B
21 21 . 11 22 . 21
C =A B +A B
22 21 . 12 22 . 22

This leads to a divide–and–conquer algorithm, which performs nxn matrix multiplication

by partitioning the matrices into quarters and performing eight (n/2)x(n/2) matrix
multiplications and four (n/2)x(n/2) matrixadditions.
T(1) = 1
T(n) = 8T(n/2)

3
Which leads to T (n) = O (n ), where n is the power of2.
Strassens insight was to find an alternative method for calculating the Cij, requiring seven
(n/2) x (n/2) matrix multiplications and eighteen (n/2) x (n/2) matrix additions
andsubtractions:
P = (A11 + A22) (B11 + B22)

Q = (A21 + A22)B11

R = A11 (B12 -B22)

S = A22 (B21 - B11)

T = (A11 + A12)B22

U = (A21 – A11) (B11 + B12)

V = (A12 – A22) (B21 + B22)

C11 = P + S – T +V

C12 = R + T

C21 = Q +S
 C22 = P + R - Q +U.
This method is used recursively to perform the seven (n/2) x (n/2) matrix multiplications,
then the recurrence equation for the number of scalar multiplications performedis: T(1) =
1
T(n) = 7T(n/2)

k
Solving this for the case of n = 2 iseasy:
k=
T(2 ) 2
7 T(2k
= - - - - --
2
= )
= - - - - --
k–1
7T(2 )
= i k–i
7 T(2 )

Put i =k
=7kT(20)

As k is the power of 2

log
That is, T(n) = 7 2n

log
=n 2
7

=O(nlog27)= O(n2.81)

So, concluding that Strassen’s algorithm is asymptotically more efficient than the standard
algorithm. In practice, the overhead of managing the many small matrices does not pay
off until ‘n’ revolves thehundreds.

QuickSort

The main reason for the slowness of Algorithms in which all comparisons and exchanges
between keys in a sequence w1, w2, . . . ., wn take place between adjacent pairs. In this
way it takes a relatively long time for a key that is badly out of place to work its way into
its proper position in the sortedsequence.
Hoare his devised a very efficient way of implementing this idea in the early 1960’s
2
that improves the O(n ) behavior of the algorithm with an expected performance that is
O(n logn).In essence, the quick sort algorithm partitions the original array by rearranging it
into two groups. The first group contains those elements less than some arbitrary chosen
value taken from the set, and the second group contains those elements greater than or
equal to the chosenvalue.
The chosen value is known as the pivot element. Once the array has been rearranged in
this way with respect to the pivot, the very same partitioning is recursively applied to each
of the two subsets. When all the subsets have been partitioned and rearranged, the original
array issorted.
The function partition() makes use of two pointers ‘i’ and ‘j’ which are moved toward
each other in the followingfashion:
Repeatedly increase the pointer ‘i’ until a[i] >=pivot.
Repeatedly decrease the pointer ‘j’ until a[j] <=pivot. If j > i, interchange
a[j] witha[i]
Repeat the steps 1, 2 and 3 till the ‘i’ pointer crosses the ‘j’ pointer. If ‘i’ pointer crosses ‘j’
pointer, the position for pivot is found and place pivot element in ‘j’ pointerposition. The
program uses a recursive function quicksort(). The algorithm of quick sort function sorts all
elements in an array ‘a’ between positions ‘low’ and‘high’. It terminates when the condition
low >= high is satisfied. This condition will be satisfied only when the array is
completelysorted.Here we choose the first element as the ‘pivot’. So, pivot = x[low]. Now
it calls the partition function to find the proper position j of the element x[low] i.e. pivot.
Then we will have two sub-arrays x[low], x[low+1], . . .. . . x[j-1] and x[j+1], x[j+2], .
..x[high].It calls itself recursively to sort the left sub array x[low], x[low+1], . . . ... . x[j-1]
between positions low and j-1 (where j is returned by the partitionfunction).It calls itself
recursively to sort the right sub-array x[j+1], x[j+2], . . . . ... . . x[high] between positions
j+1 andhigh.

Algorithm

AlgorithmQUICKSORT(low,high)
// sorts the elements a(low), . . . . . , a(high) which reside in the global array A(1 :n) into
//ascending order a (n + 1) is considered to be defined and must be greater than all
//elements in a(1 : n); A(n + 1) = α*/
{
If( low < high) then
{
j := PARTITION(a, low,high+1);
// J is the position of the partitioningelement
QUICKSORT(low, j –1);
QUICKSORT(j + 1 ,high);
}
}

Algorithm PARTITION(a, m,p)

{
V :=a(m); i :=m; j:=p;
// a (m) is thepartitionelement
do
{
repeat
i := i +1;
until (a(i)>v);
repeat
j := j –1;
 until (a(j)<v);
if (i < j) then INTERCHANGE(a, i,j)
} while (i >j);
a[m] :=a[j];a[j]:=V;
returnj;
}
Algorithm INTERCHANGE(a, i,j)
{
p:= a[i];
a[i]:=a[j];
a[j]:=p;
}

Example
Select first element as the pivot element. Move ‘i’ pointer from left to right in search of
an element larger than pivot. Move the ‘j’ pointer from right to left in search of an
element smaller than pivot. If such elements are found, the elements are swapped. This
process continues till the ‘i’ pointer crosses the ‘j’ pointer. If ‘i’ pointer crosses ‘j’
pointer, the position for pivot is found and interchange pivot and element at ‘j’ position.
Let us consider the following example with 13 elements to analyze quicksort:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Remark
s

38 08 16 06 79 57 24 56 02 58 04 70 45

piv I j swap i
ot &j

04 79

i j swap i
&j

02 57

j i

(2 08 16 06 04 02) 38 (56 57 58 79 70 45) swap

4 pivot

piv j,i
ot &j
swap
pivot

(0 08 16 06 04) 24 &j
2

pi i swap
v pivot
o
 t
,
j

02 (08 16 06 04) &j

piv i j swap i
ot &j

04 16

j i

(06 04) 08 (16) swap

pivot

pi i &j
v
o
t
,
j

(04) 06 swap
pivot

04 &j
pi
vo
t,
j,i

16
pi
vo
t,
j,i

(0 04 06 08 16 24) 38
2

(56 57 58 79 70 45)

piv i j swap i
ot

45 57 &j

j i
 (4 56 (58 79 70 57) swap
5) pivot

45 &j
pi swap
vo pivot
t,
j,i

(5 79 70 57) &j
8 i j swap i
piv
o

t 57 79 &j

j i

(57) 58 (70 79) swap

pivot

57 &j
pi
vo
t,
j,i

(70 79)

pi i swap
v pivot
o
t
,
j

70 &j

79
pi
vo
t,
j,i

(4 56 57 58 70 79)
5

02 04 06 08 16 24 38 45 56 57 58 70 79

Analysis of QuickSort:
 Like merge sort, quick sort is recursive, and hence its analysis requires solving a
recurrence formula. We will do the analysis for a quick sort, assuming a random pivot
We will take T (0) = T (1) = 1, as in merge sort.
The running time of quick sort is equal to the running time of the two recursive calls
plus the linear time spent in the partition (The pivot selection takes only constant time).
This gives the basic quick sortrelation:
T (n) = T (i) + T (n – i – 1) + Cn - (1) Where, i = |S1| is the number of
elements inS1.

Worst CaseAnalysis
The pivot is the smallest element, all the time. Then i=0 and if we ignore T(0)=1,
which is insignificant, the recurrenceis:

T (n) = T (n – 1) + Cn n>1 - (2) Using equation – (1) repeatedly,thus

T (n – 1) = T (n – 2) + C (n –1)
T (n – 2) = T (n – 3) + C (n –2)
- - - - - - --
T (2) = T (1) + C(2)
Adding up all these equationsyields
2
=O(n ) - (3)

Best CaseAnalysis
In the best case, the pivot is in the middle. To simply the math, we assume that the two
sub-files are each exactly half the size of the original and although this gives a slight over
estimate, this is acceptable because we are only interested in a Big – oh answer.

T (n) = 2 T (n/2) +Cn - (4) Divide both sides byn and Substitute n/2 for ‘n’

Finally,

Which yields, T (n) = C n log n + n = O(n logn) -

This is exactly the same analysis as merge sort, hence we get the sameanswer.

Average CaseAnalysis
The number of comparisons for first call on partition: Assume left_to_right moves over k
smaller element and thus k comparisons. So when right_to_left crosses left_to_right it has
made n-k+1 comparisons. So, first call on partition makes n+1 comparisons. The average
case complexity of quicksort is
T(n) = comparisons for first call onquicksort
+
{Σ 1<=nleft,nright<=n [T(nleft) + T(nright)]}n = (n+1) + 2 [T(0) +T(1) + T(2) +
----- +T(n-1)]/n
 nT(n) = n(n+1) + 2 [T(0) +T(1) + T(2) + ----- + T(n-2) +T(n-1)]
(n-1)T(n-1) = (n-1)n + 2 [T(0) +T(1) + T(2) + ----- + T(n-2)]\
Subtracting bothsides:
nT(n) –(n-1)T(n-1) = [ n(n+1) – (n-1)n] + 2T(n-1) = 2n + 2T(n-1) nT(n)
= 2n + (n-1)T(n-1) + 2T(n-1) = 2n +(n+1)T(n-1)
T(n) = 2 +(n+1)T(n-1)/n
The recurrence relation obtained is:
T(n)/(n+1) = 2/(n+1) +T(n-1)/n
Using the method ofsubstitution:
T(n)/(n+1) = 2/(n+1) +T(n-1)/n
T(n-1)/n = 2/n +T(n-2)/(n-1)
T(n-2)/(n-1) = 2/(n-1) +T(n-3)/(n-2)
T(n-3)/(n-2) = 2/(n-2) +T(n-4)/(n-3)
..
..
T(3)/4 = 2/4 +T(2)/3
T(2)/3 = 2/3 + T(1)/2 T(1)/2 = 2/2 +T(0)
Adding bothsides:
T(n)/(n+1) + [T(n-1)/n + T(n-2)/(n-1) + ------------- + T(2)/3 +T(1)/2] =
[T(n-1)/n + T(n-2)/(n-1) + ------------- + T(2)/3 + T(1)/2] + T(0)+ [2/(n+1) +
2/n + 2/(n-1) + ---------- +2/4 +2/3]
Cancelling the commonterms:
T(n)/(n+1) = 2[1/2 +1/3+1/4+--------------+1/n+1/(n+1)]
Finally,
We will get,
O(n log n)
UNIT-II

DEARCHING AND TRAVERSAL TECHNIQUES

Disjoint Set Operations

Set:
A set is a collection of distinct elements. The Set can be
represented,for examples, asS1={1,2,5,10}.

Disjoint Sets:
The disjoints sets are those do not have any common element.
For example S1={1,7,8,9} and S2={2,5,10}, then we can say that S1 and S2are
two disjoint sets.

Disjoint Set Operations:

The disjoint set operations are
1. Union
2. Find
Disjoint setUnion:
If Si and Sj are two disjoint sets, then their union Si U Sj consists of all the
elements x such that x is in Si or Sj.

Example:
S1={1,7,8,9} S2={2,5,10}
S1 US2={1,2,5,7,8,9,10}
Example: S1={1,7,8,9}
Then,
Find: S2={2,5,10} s3={3,4,6}
Given the element I, find
the set containing I.

Find(4)=S3 Find(5)=S2 Find97)=S1

Set Representation:
The set will be represented as the tree structure where all children will store the
address of parent / root node. The root node will store null at the place of parent address.
In the given set of elements any element can be selected as the root node, generally we
select the first node as the root node.

Example:
S1={1,7,8,9} S2={2,5,10} s3={3,4,6}
Then these sets can be represented as

Disjoint Union:
To perform disjoint set union between two sets Si and Sj can take any one root and
make it sub-tree of the other. Consider the above example sets S1 and S2 then the union
of S1 and S2 can be represented as any one of the following.
Find:
To perform find operation, along with the tree structure we need to maintain the
name of each set. So, we require one more data structure to store the set names. The
data structure contains two fields. One is the set name and the other one is the pointer
to root.

Union and Find Algorithms:

In presenting Union and Find algorithms, we ignore the set names and identify
sets just by the roots of trees representing them. To represent the sets, we use an array
of 1 to n elements where n is the maximum value among the elements of all sets. The
index values represent the nodes (elements of set) and the entries represent the parent
node. For the root value the entry will be‘-1’.

Example:
For the following sets the array representation is as shownbelow.

I [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]
 P -1 -1 -1 3 2 3 1 1 1 2

Algorithm for Union operation:

To perform union the SimpleUnion(i,j) function takes the inputs as the set roots
i and j . And make the parent of i as j i.e, make the second root as the parent of first
root.

Algorithm SimpleUnion(i,j)
{
P[i]:=j;
}
Algorithm for find operation:
The SimpleFind(i) algorithm takes the element i and finds the root node of i.It
starts at i until it reaches a node with parent value-1.
Algorithm SimpleFind(i)
{
while( P[i]≥0)
i:=P[i];
returni;
}

Analysis of SimpleUnion(i,j) and SimpleFind(i):

Although the SimpleUnion(i,j) and SimpleFind(i) algorithms are easy to state,
their performance characteristics are not very good. For example, consider the sets

1234n
. . . . ..

Then if we want to perform following sequence of operations Union(1,2)

,Union(2,3)……. Union(n-1,n) and sequence of Find(1), Find(2)………Find(n).

The sequence of Union operations results the degenerate tree as below.

n-1
 n-2

Since, the time taken for a Union is constant, the n-1 sequence of union can be processed
in time O(n).And for the sequence of Find operations it will take
We can improve the performance of union and find by avoiding the creation of
degenerate tree by applying weighting rule for Union.
Weighting rule forUnion:
If the number of nodes in the tree with root I is less than the number in the tree
with the root j, then make ‘j’ the parent of i; otherwise make ‘i' the parent of j.

To implement weighting rule we need to know how many nodes are there in every tree.
To do this we maintain “count” field in the root of every tree. If ‘i' is the root then count[i]
equals to number of nodes in tree with rooti.
Since all nodes other than roots have positive numbers in parent (P) field, we can maintain
count in P field of the root as negative number.

Algorithm WeightedUnion(i,j)
//Union sets with roots i and j, i≠j using the weighted rule
// P[i]=-count[i] andp[j]=-count[j]
{
temp:=P[i]+P[j];
if (P[i]>P[j])then
{
// i has fewer nodes
P[i]:=j;
 P[j]:=temp;
}
else
{
// j has fewer nodes
P[j]:=i;
P[i]:=temp;
}
}

Collapsing rule for find:

If j is a node on the path from i to its root and p[i]≠root[i], then set P[j] to root[i].
Consider the tree created by WeightedUnion() on the sequence of1≤i≤8. Union(1,2),
Union(3,4), Union(5,6) and Union(7,8)

Now process the following eight find operations

 Find(8),Find(8)………………………Find(8)

If SimpleFind() is used each Find(8) requires going up three parent link fields for
a total of 24 moves.
When Collapsing find is used the first Find(8) requires going up three links and
resetting three links. Each of remaining seven finds require going up only one link
field. Then the total cost is now only 13 moves.( 3 going up + 3 resets + 7
remaining finds).
Algorithm CoIlapsingFind(i)
// Find the root of the tree containing element i. Use the
// collapsing rule to collapse all nodes from i to the root.
{ r := i;
while (p[r] >0) do
r := p[r]; / Find the root,
while (i< r) do // Collapse nodes from i to root r,
r:=p[i];
return r;
}

SEARCHING

Search means finding a path or traversal between a start node and one of a set of goal nodes.
Search is a study of states and their transitions.
Search involves visiting nodes in a graph in a systematic manner, and may or may not
result into a visit to all nodes. When the search necessarily involved the examination of
every vertex in the tree, it is called the traversal.
Techniques for Traversal of a Binary Tree:
A binary tree is a finite (possibly empty) collection of elements. When the binary tree is
not empty, it has a root element and remaining elements (if any) are partitioned into two
binary trees, which are called the left and right subtrees.
There are three common ways to traverse a binary tree: Preorder, Inorder, postorder In all
the three traversal methods, the left sub tree of a node is traversed before the right sub tree.
The difference among the three orders comes from the difference in the time at which a
node is visited.

Inorder Traversal:
In the case of inorder traversal, the root of each subtree is visited after its left subtree has
been traversed but before the traversal of its right subtree begins. The steps for traversing a
binary tree in inorder traversal are:
1. Visit the left subtree, using inorder.
2. Visit the root.
3. Visit the right subtree, using inorder.

The algorithm for preorder traversal is as follows:

treenode =record
{
 Type data; //Type is the data type of data.
Treenode *lchild, *rchild;
}
Algorithm inorder(t)
// t is a binary tree. Each node of t has three fields: lchild, data, and rchild.
{
If( t ≠0)then
{

inorder (t→ lchild);

visit(t);
inorder (t →rchild);
}
}

Preorder Traversal:
In a preorder traversal, each node is visited before its left and right subtrees are traversed.
Preorder search is also called backtracking. The steps for traversing a binary tree in
preorder traversal are:
1. Visit the root.
2. Visit the left subtree, using preorder.
3. Visit the right subtree, using preorder.

The algorithm for preorder traversal is as follows:

Algorithm Preorder (t)

// t is a binary tree. Each node of t has three fields; lchild, data, and rchild.

If( t ≠0)then
{
visit(t);
Preorder (t→lchild);
Preorder
(t→rchild);

}
}

Postorder Traversal:
In a Postorder traversal, each root is visited after its left and right subtrees have been
traversed. The steps for traversing a binary tree in postorder traversal are: 1. Visit the left
subtree, using postorder.
2. Visit the right subtree, using postorder
3. Visit the root
The algorithm for preorder traversal is as follows:
 Algorithm Postorder (t)

// t is a binary tree. Each node of t has three fields : lchild, data, and rchild.

If( t ≠0)then
{

Postorder(t→ child);
Postorder(t→rchild);
visit(t);
}}
Examples for binary tree traversal/search technique:
Example1:

Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post and in-order.

B C Post order of the vertices: D, B,

G, E, H, I, F, C, A.
D E F G H I

Inorder of the vertices: D, B,

Preordof the vertices: A, B, D, A, E, G, C, H, F, I
C, E, G, F, H, I.

Binary Tree Pre,Post and In-order Traversing

Non Recursive Binary Tree Traversal Algorithms:

At first glance, it appears we would always want to use the flat traversal functions since
the use less stack space. But the flat versions are not necessarily better. For instance,
some overhead is associated with the use of an explicit stack, which may negate the
savings we gain from storing only node pointers. Use of the implicit function call stack
may actually be faster due to special machine instructions that can be used.

Inorder Traversal:
Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:

1. Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex, pushing each vertex onto the
 stack and stop when there is no left son of vertex.
2. Pop and process the nodes on stack if zero is popped then exit. If a vertex with
right son exists, then set right son of vertex as current vertex and return to step
one.

The algorithm for inorder Non Recursive traversal is asfollows:

Algorithm inorder()

stack[1] = 0
vertex =root

top: while(vertex ≠0)

{
push the vertex into the
stack vertex
=leftson(vertex)

pop the element from the stack and make it as vertex

while(vertex ≠0)
{

print the vertex node

if(rightson(vertex)
≠0)

{
vertex =
rightson(vertex) goto
top

}
pop the element from the stack and made it as vertex
}
}

Preorder Traversal:
Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:

1. Proceed down the left most path by pushing the right son of vertex onto stack, if
any and process each vertex. The traversing ends after a vertex with no left child
exists.
 2. Pop the vertex from stack, if vertex ≠ 0 then return to step one otherwise exit.

The algorithm for preorder Non Recursive traversal is as follows:

Algorithm preorder()

stack[1]: = 0
vertex := root.
while(vertex ≠0)

{
print vertex node
if(rightson(vertex)
≠0)
push the right son of vertex into the
stack. if(leftson(vertex) ≠0)

vertex :=leftson(vertex)
else
pop the element from the stack and made it as vertex

}
}
Postorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:

1. Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex. At each vertex of path push vertex
on to stack and if vertex has a right son push –(right son of vertex) onto stack.

2. Pop and process the positive nodes (left nodes). If zero is popped then exit. If a
negative node is popped, then ignore the sign and return to step one.

The algorithm for postorder Non Recursive traversal is as follows:

Algorithm postorder()
{

stack[1] := 0
vertex:=root

top: while(vertex ≠0)

{

push vertex onto stack

 if(rightson(vertex) ≠0)

push -(vertex) onto stack

vertex :=leftson(vertex)

}
pop from stack and make it as
vertex while(vertex >0)

{
print the vertex node
pop from stack and make it as vertex
}
if(vertex <0)
{
vertex :=-(vertex)
goto top
}
}
Example1:
Traverse the following binary tree in pre, post and inorder using non-recursive
traversing algorithm.
• Preorder traversal yields: A, B,
D, G , K, H, L, M , C , E
A

BC • Postorder t raversal yields: K, G

, L, M , H, D, B, E, C , A
DE

• Inorder traversal yields: K, G ,

GH
D, L, H, M , B, A, E, C

KLM

Inorder Traversal:

Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps until
the stack is empty:
1. Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex, pushing each vertex onto the stack
and stop when there is no left son of vertex.
2. Pop and process the nodes on stack if zero is popped then exit. If a vertex with right
son exists, then set right son of vertex as current vertex and return to step one.
Curre Stack Processed nodes Remarks
nt
vertex

A 0 PUSH0
 0 A B D GK PUSH the left most path ofA

K 0 A B DG K POPK

G 0 A BD KG POP G since K has no right

son

D 0 AB K GD POP D since G has no right

son

H 0 AB K GD Make the right son of

D as vertex

H 0 A B HL K GD PUSH the leftmost path of H

L 0 A BH K G DL POPL

H 0 AB K G D LH POP H since L has no right

son

M 0 AB K G D LH Make the right son of

H as vertex

0 A BM K G D LH PUSH the left most path of

M

M 0 AB K G D L HM POPM

B 0A K G D L H MB POP B since M has no right

son

A 0 K G D L H M BA Make the right son of

A as vertex

C 0 CE K G D L H M BA PUSH the left most path of C

E 0C K G D L H M B AE POPE

C 0 K G D L H M B A EC Stop since stack is empty

Postorder Traversal:
Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps until
the stack is empty:
1. Proceed down the left most path rooted at vertex. At each vertex of path push vertex
on to stack and if vertex has a right son push -(right son of vertex) onto stack. 2. Pop and
process the positive nodes (left nodes). If zero is popped then exit. If a negative node is
popped, then ignore the sign and return to step one.
Curren Stack Processed nodes Remark
t
 A 0 s
PUSH0
vertex

0 A -C B D -H GK PUSH the left most path of A

with a -ve for right sons

0 A -C B D-H KG POP all +ve nodes K and G

H 0 A -C BD KG Pop H

0 A -C B D H -ML KG PUSH the left most path of H

with a -ve for right sons

0 A -C B D H-M K GL POP all +ve nodes L

M 0 A -C B DH K GL PopM

0 A -C B D HM K GL PUSH the left most path of M

with a -ve for rightsons

0 A-C K G L M H DB POP all +ve nodes M, H, D

C 0A K G L M H DB andB
PopC

0 A CE K G L M H DB PUSH the left most path of C

with a -ve for rightsons

0 KGLMHDBE POP all +ve nodes E, C andA

0 CA Stop since stack isempty

Preorder Traversal:
Initially push zero onto stack and then set root as vertex. Then repeat the following steps
until the stack is empty:
1. Proceed down the left most path by pushing the right son of vertex onto stack, if any
and process each vertex. The traversing ends after a vertex with no left child exists. 2.
Pop the vertex from stack, if vertex ≠ 0 then return to step one otherwise exit.
Curre Stack Processednodes Remarks
nt
vertex

A 0 PUSH0

0 CH A B D GK PUSH the right son of each vertex

onto stack and process each vertex
in the left most path

H 0C A B D GK POPH
 0 CM A B D G K HL PUSH the right son of each vertex
onto stack and process each vertex
in the left most path

M 0C A B D G K HL POPM

0C A B D G K H LM PUSH the right son of each vertex

onto stack and process each vertex
in the left most path; M has no
leftpath

C 0 A B D G K H LM PopC

0 ABDGKHLM PUSH the right son of each vertex

CE onto stack and process each vertex in
the left most path; C has no right son

0 ABDGKHLM on the left most path

Stop since stack is
CE
empty

Subgraphs and SpanningTrees:

’ ’
Subgraphs: A graph G’ = (V , E ) is a subgraph of graph G = (V, E) iff V’ V and E’
E.
The undirected graph G is connected, if for every pair of vertices u, v there exists a path
from u to v. If a graph is not connected, the vertices of the graph can be divided into
connected components. Two vertices are in the same connected component iff they are
connected by a path.

Tree is a connected acyclic graph. A spanning tree of a graph G = (V, E) is a tree that
contains all vertices of V and is a subgraph of G. A single graph can have multiple spanning
trees.

Lemma 1: Let T be a spanning tree of a graph G. Then

1. Any two vertices in T are connected by a unique simple path.

2. If any edge is removed from T, then T becomes disconnected.
3. If we add any edge into T, then the new graph will contain a cycle.
4. Number of edges in T isn-1.

Minimum Spanning Trees(MST):

A spanning tree for a connected graph is a tree whose vertex set is the same as the vertex set
 of the given graph, and whose edge set is a subset of the edge set of the given graph. i.e.,
any connected graph will have a spanning tree.

Weight of a spanning tree w (T) is the sum of weights of all edges in T. The Minimum
spanning tree (MST) is a spanning tree with the smallest possible weight.

G:

A grap hG:

Thre(of manpossibleSpannintrees frograpG:

2
4
G: 3 5
6
1

e
y
)
g
m
h
2
3

A weighted graphG: TheminimalspanningtreefromweightedgraphG:

Examples:
To explain the Minimum Spanning Tree, let's consider a few real-world examples: 1. One
practical application of a MST would be in the design of a network. For instance, a
group of individuals, who are separated by varying distances, wish to be connected
together in a telephone network. Although MST cannot do anything about the distance
from one connection to another, it can be used to determine the least cost paths with no
cycles in this network, thereby connecting everyone at a minimum cost.
2. Another useful application of MST would be finding airline routes. The vertices of the
graph would represent cities, and the edges would represent routes between the
cities. Obviously, the further one has to travel, the more it will cost, so MST can be
 applied to optimize airline routes by finding the least costly paths with no cycles.
To explain how to find a Minimum Spanning Tree, we will look at two algorithms: the
Kruskal algorithm and the Prim algorithm. Both algorithms differ in their methodology, but
both eventually end up with the MST. Kruskal's algorithm uses edges, and Prim’s algorithm
uses vertex connections in determining the MST.

Kruskal’s Algorithm

This is a greedy algorithm. A greedy algorithm chooses some local optimum(i.e. picking an
edge with the least weight in a MST).
Kruskal's algorithm works as follows: Take a graph with 'n' vertices, keep on adding the
shortest (least cost) edge, while avoiding the creation of cycles, until (n - 1) edges have been
added. Sometimes two or more edges may have the same cost. The order in which the edges
are chosen, in this case, does not matter. Different MSTs may result, but they will all have
the same total cost, which will always be the minimum cost.
Algorithm:
The algorithm for finding the MST, using the Kruskal’s method is as follows:
Algorithm Kruskal (E, cost, n,t)
// E is the set of edges in G. G has n vertices. cost [u, v] is the
// cost of edge (u, v). ‘t’ is the set of edges in the minimum-cost spanning tree.
// The final cost is returned.
{
Construct a heap out of the edge costs using heapify; for
i := 1 to n do parent [i] :=-1;
// Each vertex is in a different set.
i := 0; mincost :=0.0;
while ((i < n -1) and (heap not empty))do
{
Delete a minimum cost edge (u, v) from the heap and re
heapify using Adjust;
j := Find (u); k := Find(v); if
(j k)then
{
i := i +1;
t [i, 1] := u; t [i, 2] := v; mincost
:=mincost + cost [u,v]; Union
(j,k);
}
}
if (i n-1) then write ("no spanning tree"); else
return mincost;
}

Running time:

∙ The number of finds is at most 2e, and the number of unions at most n-1. Including the
initialization time for the trees, this part of the algorithm has a complexity that is just
slightly more than O (n +e).
∙ We can add at most n-1 edges to tree T. So, the total time for operations on T is O(n).
Summing up the various components of the computing times, we get O (n + e log e) as
asymptotic complexity

Example1:
10
1 4 5 40

250

3
30 35

4255
55
20 15
6
Arrange all
the edges in the increasing order of their costs:
Cost 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Edge (1,2) (3,6) (4,6) (2,6) (1,4) (3,5) (2,5) (1,5) (2,3) (5,6)

The edge set T together with the vertices of G define a graph that has up to n connected
components. Let us represent each component by a set of vertices in it. These vertex sets are
disjoint. To determine whether the edge (u, v) creates a cycle, we need to check whether u
and v are in the same vertex set. If so, then a cycle is created. If not then no cycle is created.
Hence two Finds on the vertex sets suffice. When an edge is included in T, two components
are combined into one and a union is to be performed on the two sets.
Edge Cost Spanning Forest Edge Sets Remarks

{1}, {2}, {3},

1 2 3 4 5 {4}, {5},{6}
6

(1, 2) 10 {1, 2}, {3},{4}, The vertices

12 3 4 5 6 1and 2 are in
{5},{6} different sets,
so the edge Is
combined

(3, 6) 15 123456 {1, 2}, {3, 6}, The vertices

3and 6 are in
{4},{5} different sets,
so the edge Is
combined

(4, 6) 20 123546 {1, 2}, {3, 4, 6}, The vertices

4and 6 are in
{5} different sets,
so the edge is
combined
 (2, 6) 25 125 {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}, The vertices
{5}
2and 6 are in
different sets,
4 3 so the edge is
6
combined

(1, 4) 30 Reject The vertices 1and

4 are in the same
set, so the edge is
rejected

(3, 5) 35 12 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6} The vertices

3and 5 are in
4 the same set,
5 3 so the edge is
6 combined

MINIMUM-COST SPANNING TREES: PRIM'SALGORITHM

A given graph can have many spanning trees. From these many spanning trees, we have to
select a cheapest one. This tree is called as minimal cost spanning tree.

Minimal cost spanning tree is a connected undirected graph G in which each edge is labeled
with a number (edge labels may signify lengths, weights other than costs). Minimal cost
spanning tree is a spanning tree for which the sum of the edge labels is as small as possible

The slight modification of the spanning tree algorithm yields a very simple algorithm for
finding an MST. In the spanning tree algorithm, any vertex not in the tree but connected to it
by an edge can be added. To find a Minimal cost spanning tree, we must be selective - we must
always add a new vertex for which the cost of the new edge is as small as possible.

This simple modified algorithm of spanning tree is called prim's algorithm for finding an
Minimal cost spanning tree.

Prim's algorithm is an example of a greedy algorithm.

Algorit

hm

Algorit

hm
 Prim

(E,

cost,

n,t)
// E is the set of edges in G. cost [1:n, 1:n] is the cost
// adjacency matrix of an n vertex graph such that cost [i, j]is
// either a positive real number or if no edge (i, j)exists.
// A minimum spanning tree is computed and stored as a set of
// edges in the array t [1:n-1, 1:2]. (t [i, 1], t [i, 2]) is an edge in
// the minimum-cost spanning tree. The final cost is returned.
{
Let (k, l) be an edge of minimum cost in E;
mincost := cost [k,l];
t [1, 1] := k; t [1, 2] :=l;
for i :=1 to n do //Initialize near if
(cost [i, l] < cost [i, k]) then near [i] :=l;
else near [i] := k;
near [k] :=near [l] :=0;
for i:=2 to n - 1do // Find n - 2 additional edges fort. {
Let j be an index such that near [j] 0and
cost [j, near [j]] is minimum;
t [i, 1] := j; t [i, 2] := near [j]; mincost :=
mincost + cost [j, near [j]]; near [j] :=0
for k:= 1 to n do // Update near[].
if ((near [k] 0) and (cost [k, near [k]] > cost [k, j])) then near
[k] :=j;
}
return mincost;
}

Running time:
We do the same set of operations with dist as in Dijkstra's algorithm (initialize structure, m
2
times decrease value, n - 1 times select minimum). Therefore, we get O (n ) time
when we implement dist with array, O (n + E log n) when we implement it with
a heap. For each vertex u in the graph we dequeue it and check all its neighbors in O (1 +
deg (u)) time.
EXAMPLE1:

Use Prim’s Algorithm to find a minimal spanning tree for the graph shown below starting
with the vertex A.

4
B D

3 2 1 24

4 E1
AC2G
 6
2F1

The stepwise progress of the prim’s algorithm is as follows:

Step1:
DE
Status 0 1 1 1 1 1

B3 ∝
Vertex A B C D E F 1
G
∝ 4
06 ∝
B3
ACG

Dist. 0 3 6 ∝ ∝ ∝ ∝
02
F
∝
D
VertexABCDEFG
Status0011111
Step2: Dist.0324∝∝∝
∝ Next*ABBAAA
E
Next * A A A A A
A
A CG ∝
∝

Step3:

Status0001111
Dist.032142∝

E
02 ∝
1 4
B 3
AG
VertexABCDEFG Next*ABCCCA
D
F

C2

Step4:
 VertexABCDEF
G

Status000011
B 3 1 1
E

2
2 Dist.032122
4 4
D
A
G
F Status000010 1
02 C AG 21

02E

Step5:
C2F

Step6:
B 3 1D
Dist.032122 1
Next*ABCDC D Next*ABCDC E

VertexABCDEF G

A
Step7:
B 3 1D

02
E
1G 2
B 31D
C1F VertexABCDEFG
VertexABCDEFG
Status0000010 Dist.0321211
Next*ABCDGE Status0000000

02 E2
C1F
 3 C G
A 2 1E
Dist.
2B D
Next
1G 0* 1 1

GRAPH ALGORITHMS
Basic Definitions:
∙ Graph G is a pair (V, E), where V is a finite set (set of vertices) and E is a finite set of
pairs from V (set of edges). We will often denote n := |V|, m :=|E|.
∙ Graph G can be directed, if E consists of ordered pairs, or undirected, if E consists of
unordered pairs. If (u, v) E, then vertices u, and v are adjacent.
∙ We can assign weight function to the edges: wG(e) is a weight of edge e E. The
graph which has such function assigned is called weighted graph.
∙ Degree of a vertex v is the number of vertices u for which (u, v) E (denote deg(v)).
The number of incoming edges to a vertex v is called in–degree of the vertex
(denote indeg(v)). The number of outgoing edges from a vertex is called out-degree
(denote outdeg(v)).

Representation of Graphs:

Consider graph G = (V, E), where V= {v1,v2,….,vn}.

Adjacency matrix represents the graph as an n x n matrix A = (ai,j),where

The matrix is symmetric in case of undirected graph, while it may be asymmetric if the
graph is directed.

We may consider various modifications. For example for weighted graphs, we may have
 52
Where default is some sensible value based on the meaning of the weight function
(for example, if weight function represents length, then default can be ,
meaning value larger than any other value).

Adjacency List: An array Adj [1 . . . . . . . n] of pointers where for 1 <v <n, Adj [v]
points to a linked list containing the vertices which are adjacent to v (i.e. the vertices
that can be reached from v by a single edge). If the edges have weights then these
weights may also be stored in the linked list elements.

Paths and Cycles:

A path is a sequence of vertices (v1, v2, . . . . . . , vk), where for all i, (vi, vi+1) E. A
path is simple if all vertices in the path are distinct.

A (simple) cycle is a sequence of vertices (v1, v2, . . . . . . , vk, vk+1 = v1), where for all i,
 (vi, vi+1) E and all vertices in the cycle are distinct except pair v1,vk+1.

Techniques forgraphs:
Given a graph G = (V, E) and a vertex V in V (G) traversing can be done in two ways.
1. Depth first search
2. Breadth first search

Connected Component:

Connected component of a graph can be obtained by using BFST (Breadth first search and
traversal) and DFST (Dept first search and traversal). It is also called the spanning tree.

BFST (Breadth first search and traversal):

In BFS we start at a vertex V mark it as reached (visited).The vertex V is at this time said
to be unexplored (not yet discovered).A vertex is said to been explored (discovered) by
visiting all vertices adjacent from it.All unvisited vertices adjacent from V are visited
next.The first vertex on this list is the next to be explored.Exploration continues until no
unexplored vertex is left. These operations can be performed by using Queue.

This is also called connected graph or spanning tree.

Spanning trees obtained using BFS then it called breadth first spanning
trees53
Algorithm BFS(v)
// a bfs of G is begin at vertex v
// for any node I, visited[i]=1 if I has already been visited.
// the graph G, and array visited[] are global
{
U:=v; // q is a queue of unexplored vertices.
Visited[v]:=1;
Repeat{
For all vertices w adjacent from U do
If (visited[w]=0) then
{
Add w to q; // w is unexplored
Visited[w]:=1;
}
If q is empty then return; // No unexplored vertex.
Delete U from q; //Get 1st unexplored vertex.
} Until(false)
}
Maximum Time complexity and space complexity of G(n,e), nodes are in adjacency
list.
T(n, e)=θ(n+e)
S(n, e)=θ(n)
 If nodes are in adjacency matrix then
T(n, e)=θ(n2)
S(n, e)=θ(n)

DFST(Dept first search and traversal).:

DFS different from BFS. The exploration of a vertex v is suspended (stopped) as soon as a
new vertex is reached.In this the exploration of the new vertex (example v) begins; this new
vertex has been explored, the exploration of v continues. Note: exploration start at the new
vertex which is not visited in other vertex exploring and choose nearest path for exploring next
or adjacent vertex.

Algorithm dFS(v)
// a Dfs of G is begin at vertex v
// initially an array visited[] is set to zero.
//this algorithm visits all vertices reachable from v.
// the graph G, and array visited[] are global
{
Visited[v]:=1;
For each vertex w adjacent from v do
{
If (visited[w]=0) then DFS(w);
{ 54
Add w to q; // w is unexplored
Visited[w]:=1;
}

Maximum Time complexity and space complexity of G(n,e), nodes are in adjacency
list.
T(n, e)=θ(n+e)
S(n, e)=θ(n)

If nodes are in adjacency matrix then

T(n, e)=θ(n2)

S(n, e)=θ(n)

Bi-connected Components:

A graph G is biconnected, iff (if and only if) it contains no articulation point (joint or
junction).

A vertex v in a connected graph G is an articulation point, if and only if (iff) the deletion of
vertex v together with all edges incident to v disconnects the graph into two or more none
empty components.
The presence of articulation points in a connected graph can be an undesirable(un wanted)
feature in many cases.

For example

if G1🡪Communication network with

Vertex 🡪 communication stations.
Edges🡪 Communication lines.

Then the failure of a communication station I that is an articulation point, then we loss the
communication in between other stations. F
Form graph G1

55
There is an efficient algorithm to test whether a connected graph is biconnected. If the case of
graphs that are not biconnected, this algorithm will identify all the articulation points.

Once it has been determined that a connected graph G is not biconnected, it may be desirable
(suitable) to determine a set of edges whose inclusion makes the graph biconnected.
 56
UNIT-III

GREEDY METHOD AND DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

GENERALMETHOD
Greedy is the most straight forward design technique. Most of the problems have n inputs
and require us to obtain a subset that satisfies some constraints. Any subset that satisfies
these constraints is called a feasible solution. We need to find a feasible solution that either
maximizes or minimizes the objective function. A feasible solution that does this is called
an optimal solution.

The greedy method is a simple strategy of progressively building up a solution, one element
at a time, by choosing the best possible element at each stage. At each stage, a decision is
made regarding whether or not a particular input is in an optimal solution. This is done by
considering the inputs in an order determined by some selection procedure. If the inclusion
of the next input, into the partially constructed optimal solution will result in an infeasible
solution then this input is not added to the partial solution. The selection procedure itself is
based on some optimization measure. Several optimization measures are plausible for a
given problem. Most of them, however, will result in algorithms that generate sub-optimal
solutions. This version of greedy technique is called subset paradigm. Some problems like
Knapsack, Job sequencing with deadlines and minimum cost spanning trees are based on
subset paradigm.
For the problems that make decisions by considering the inputs in some order, each
decision is made using an optimization criterion that can be computed using decisions
already made. This version of greedy method is ordering paradigm. Some problems like
optimal storage on tapes, optimal merge patterns and single source shortest path are based
on ordering paradigm.

CONTROLABSTRACTION

Algorithm Greedy (a,n)

// a(1 : n) contains the ‘n’ inputs
{
solution:=ᶲ ; // initialize the solution to be empty
for i:=1 to ndo
{
x := select(a);
if feasible (solution, x)then
solution := Union (Solution,x);
}
return solution;
}
Procedure Greedy describes the essential way that a greedy based algorithm will look, once
a particular problem is chosen and the functions select, feasible and union are properly
implemented.
The function select selects an input from ‘a’, removes it and assigns its value to ‘x’.
Feasible is a Boolean valued function, which determines if ‘x’ can be included into the
solution vector. The function Union combines ‘x’ with solution and updates the objective
function.
57
KNAPSACK PROBLEM
Let us apply the greedy method to solve the knapsack problem. We are given ‘n’ objects
and a knapsack. The object ‘i’ has a weight wi and the knapsack has a capacity ‘m’. If a
 fraction xi, 0 < xi < 1 of object i is placed into the knapsack then a profit of pixi is earned.
The objective is to fill the knapsack that maximizes the total profit earned.
Since the knapsack capacity is ‘m’, we require the total weight of all chosen objects to be at
most ‘m’. The problem is stated as:

Maximize

subject to

58
The profits and weights are positive numbers.
Algorithm
If the objects are already been sorted into non-increasing order of p[i] / w[i] then the
algorithm given below obtains solutions corresponding to this strategy.

Algorithm GreedyKnapsack (m,n)

// P[1 : n] and w[1 : n] contain the profits and weights respectively of
// Objects ordered so that p[i] / w[i]> p[i + 1] / w[i + 1].
// m is the knapsack size and x[1: n] is the solution vector.
{
for i := 1 to n do
x[i] :=0.0 ; //initialize the solution vector
U :=m;
for i := 1 to n do
{
if (w(i) > U) then break;
x [i] := 1.0;
U := U –w[i];
}
if (i <n) then x[i] := U /w[i];
}

Running time:
The objects are to be sorted into non-decreasing order of pi / wi ratio. But if we disregard the
time to initially sort the objects, the algorithm requires only O(n)time.

Example:
Consider the following instance of the knapsack problem: n = 3, m = 20, (p1, p2, p3) = (25,
24, 15) and (w1, w2, w3) = (18, 15,10).

1. First, we try to fill the knapsack by selecting the objects in some order:
x1 x2 x3 ∑wi xi ∑pi xi

1/2 1/3 1/ 18 x 1/2 + 15 x 1/3 + 10 25 x 1/2 + 24 x 1/3 + 15 x

4 x1/4 =16.5 1/4= 24.25

2. Select the object with the maximum profit first (p = 25). So, x1 = 1 and profit earned is
25. Now, only 2 units of space is left, select the object with next largest profit (p = 24).
So, x2 =2/15
x x2 x3 ∑wi xi ∑pi xi
1

1 2/15 0 18 x 1 + 15 x 2/15 =20 25 x 1 + 24 x 2/15 =28.2

59
 3. Considering the objects in the order of non-decreasing weightswi.
x x2 x3 ∑ wi xi ∑ pi xi
1

0 2/3 1 15 x 2/3 + 10 x 1 =20 24 x 2/3 + 15 x 1 =31

4. Considered the objects in the order of the ratio pi / wi.

p1/w1 p2/w2 p3/w3

25/18 24/15 15/10

1.4 1.6 1.5

Sort the objects in order of the non-increasing order of the ratio pi / xi. Select the object
with the maximum pi / xi ratio, so, x2 = 1 and profit earned is 24. Now, only 5 units of
space is left, select the object with next largest pi / xi ratio, so x3 = ½ and the profit earned
is7.5.
x x2 x3 ∑wi xi ∑pi xi
1

0 1 1/2 15 x 1 + 10 x 1/2 =20 24 x 1 + 15 x 1/2 =31.5

This solution is the optimal solution.

JOB SEQUENCING WITHDEADLINES

Given a set of ‘n’ jobs. Associated with each Job i, deadline di >0 and profit Pi >0. For any job
‘i’ the profit pi is earned iff the job is completed by its deadline. Only one machine is available
for processing jobs. An optimal solution is the feasible solution with maximum profit.
Sort the jobs in ‘j’ ordered by their deadlines. The array d [1 : n] is used to store the deadlines
of the order of their p-values. The set of jobs j [1 : k] such that j [r], 1 ≤ r ≤ k are the jobs in ‘j’
and d (j [1]) ≤ d (j[2]) ≤ . . . ≤ d (j[k]). To test whether J U {i} is feasible, we have just to insert i
into J preserving the deadline ordering and then verify that d [J[r]] ≤ r, 1 ≤ r ≤k+1.

Example:
Let n=4,(P1,P2,P3,P4,)=(100,10,15,27)and(d1 d2 d3 d4)=(2,1,2,1).The
feasible solutions and their values are:
Sl.No Feasible Solution Procuring Value Remarks
sequence

1 1,2 2,1 110

2 1,3 1,3 or3,1 115

 60
3 1,4 4,1 127 OPTIMA

4 2,3 2,3 25 L

5 3,4 4,3 42

6 1 1 100

7 2 2 10

8 3 3 15

9 4 4 27

Algorithm:
The algorithm constructs an optimal set J of jobs that can be processed by their deadlines.
Algorithm GreedyJob (d, J,n)
// J is a set of jobs that can be completed by their deadlines.
{
J :={1};
for i := 2 to ndo
{
if (all jobs in J U {i} can be completed by their deadlines) then J
:= J U{i};
}
}
The greedy algorithm is used to obtain an optimal solution.
We must formulate an optimization measure to determine how the next job is chosen.

Algorithm js(d, j, n)
//d🡪 dead line, j🡪subset of jobs ,n🡪 total number of jobs
// d[i]≥1 1 ≤ i ≤ n are the dead lines,
// the jobs are ordered such that p[1]≥p[2]≥---≥p[n]
//j[i] is the ith job in the optimal solution 1 ≤ i ≤ k, k🡪 subset range
{
d[0]=j[0]=0;
j[1]=1;
k=1;
for i=2 to n do{
r=k;
while((d[j[r]]>d[i]) and [d[j[r]]≠r)) do
r=r-1;
if((d[j[r]]≤d[i]) and (d[i]> r)) then
{
for q:=k to (r+1) setp-1 do j[q+1]= j[q];
j[r+1]=i;
k=k+1;
}
}
return k;
}

The Single Source Shortest-Path Problem: DIJKSTRA'SALGORITHMS

61
In the previously studied graphs, the edge labels are called as costs, but here we think
them as lengths. In a labeled graph, the length of the path is defined to be the sum of the
lengths of its edges.

In the single source, all destinations, shortest path problem, we must find a shortest
path from a given source vertex to each of the vertices (called destinations) in the graph
to which there is a path.

Dijkstra’s algorithm is similar to prim's algorithm for finding minimal spanning trees.
Dijkstra’s algorithm takes a labeled graph and a pair of vertices P and Q, and finds the
shortest path between then (or one of the shortest paths) if there is more than one. The
principle of optimality is the basis for Dijkstra’salgorithms.Dijkstra’s algorithm does
not work for negative edges at all.
The figure lists the shortest paths from vertex 1 for a five vertex weighted digraph.
0
1
8

4 13
1 25
4
2 5
343 1
134

3
Graph
Algorithm Shortest-Paths (v, cost,
dist,n)
4

6 12

1 3 4 5Shortest Paths

Algorithm:
// dist [j], 1 <j <n, is set to the length of the shortest path //
from vertex v to vertex j in the digraph G with n vertices.

// dist [v] is set to zero. G is represented by its 62

// cost adjacency matrix cost [1:n,1:n].
{
for i :=1 to n do
{

S [i]:=false; //Initialize S.
dist [i] :=cost [v,i];

}
S[v] := true; dist[v] :=0.0; // Put v in S.
for num := 2 to n – 1do

{
Determine n - 1 paths from v.
Choose u from among those vertices not in S such that dist[u] is
minimum; S[u]:=true; // Put u is S.

for (each w adjacent to u with S [w] = false)do

if (dist [w] > (dist [u] + cost [u, w])then //Update distances
dist [w] := dist [u] + cost [u,w];

}
}

Runningtime:

Depends on implementation of data structures fordist.

∙ Build a structure with nelements A

∙ atmost m = E times decrease the value of anitem mB
∙ ‘n’ times select the smallestvalue nC
 2
∙ For array A = O (n); B = O (1); C = O (n) which gives O (n )total.
∙ For heap A = O (n); B = O (log n); C = O (log n) which gives O (n + m logn) total.

Example1:

Use Dijkstras algorithm to find the shortest path from A to each of the other six vertices in
63
the graph:

4
B D

3 2 1 24

4 E1
AC2G

6
2F1

The problem is solved by considering the following information:

∙ Status[v] will be either ‘0’, meaning that the shortest path from v to v0 has
definitely been found; or ‘1’, meaning that it hasn’t.

∙ Dist[v] will be a number, representing the length of the shortest path from vto v0
found so far.

∙ Next[v] will be the first vertex on the way to v0 along the shortest path found so far
from v to v0

The progress of Dijkstra’s algorithm on the graph shown above is as follows:

Step1:

Vertex A B C D E F
B3 G
1
∝ Status 0 1 1 1 1 1
D
E
06 ∝
Dist. 0 3 6 ∝ ∝ ∝
 ∝
AG
F ∝
C
Step2: Next * A A A A A A
∝
∝
D
Vertex A B C D E F G
Status 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Dist. 0 3 5 7 ∝ ∝ ∝
47 Next * A B B A A A
B3
2
E
05
∝
A G

C
F 64
∝
Step3:
9E G F7

B3
Step4:
∝
Next * A B C C C A
A0 5
Vertex A B C D E F G Status
6D
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Dist. 0 3 5 6 9 7
∝
C
8
5
D
Vertex A B C D E F
G

Status 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
E

B 3 7
A Dist. 0 3 5 6 8 7
G 10 10

07C
 G

Status 0 0 0 0 1 0
1

Step5:

B3 6D
F
Next * A B C D C
D

Vertex A B C D E F
A Next * A B C D C F
C7F
05 8G8
E Dist. 0 3 5 6 8 7 8

65

Step7:
B3 8D

A 05
E
Step6: 8 G8
C7F Vertex A B C D E F G Status
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Dist. 0 3 5 6 8 7 8 Next * A B C D C F

AG
0 58 8 E

C7F
Vertex A B C D E F G

Status 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Dist. 0 3 5 6 8 7 8

Next * A B C D C F
B39D

66
Dynamic Programming
Dynamic programming is a name, coined by Richard Bellman in 1955. Dynamic
programming, as greedy method, is a powerful algorithm design technique that can be
used when the solution to the problem may be viewed as the result of a sequence of
decisions. In the greedy method we make irrevocable decisions one at a time, using a
greedy criterion. However, in dynamic programming we examine the decision
sequence to see whether an optimal decision sequence contains optimal decision
subsequence.

When optimal decision sequences contain optimal decision subsequences, we can

establish recurrence equations, called dynamic-programming recurrence equations
that enable us to solve the problem in an efficient way.
 Dynamic programming is based on the principle of optimality (also coined by
Bellman). The principle of optimality states that no matter whatever the initial state
and initial decision are, the remaining decision sequence must constitute an optimal
decision sequence with regard to the state resulting from the first decision. The
principle implies that an optimal decision sequence is comprised of optimal decision
subsequences. Since the principle of optimality may not hold for some formulations of
some problems, it is necessary to verify that it does hold for the problem being solved.
Dynamic programming cannot be applied when this principle does not hold.

The steps in a dynamic programming solution are:

Verify that the principle of optimality holds. Set up the dynamic-programming
recurrence equations. Solve the dynamic-programming recurrence equations for the
value of the optimal solution. Perform a trace back step in which the solution itself is
constructed.

Dynamic programming differs from the greedy method since the greedy method
produces only one feasible solution, which may or may not be optimal, while dynamic
programming produces all possible sub-problems at most once, one of which
guaranteed to be optimal. Optimal solutions to sub-problems are retained in a table,
thereby avoiding the work of recomputing the answer every time a sub-problem is
encountered

The divide and conquer principle solve a large problem, by breaking it up into smaller
problems which can be solved independently. In dynamic programming this principle
is carried to an extreme: when we don't know exactly which smaller problems to
solve, we simply solve them all, then store the answers away in a table to be used later
in solving larger problems. Care is to be taken to avoid recomputing previously
computed values, otherwise the recursive program will have prohibitive complexity. In
some cases, the solution can be improved and in other cases, the dynamic
programming technique is the best approach.

Two difficulties may arise in any application of dynamic programming:

107
1. It may not always be possible to combine the solutions of smaller problems to form
the solution of a larger one.
2. The number of small problems to solve may be un-acceptably large.

There is no characterized precisely which problems can be effectively solved with

dynamic programming; there are many hard problems for which it does not seen to be
applicable, as well as many easy problems for which it is less efficient than standard
algorithms.

5.1 MULTI STAGEGRAPHS

A multistage graph G = (V, E) is a directed graph in which the vertices are partitioned
into k >2 disjoint sets Vi, 1 <i <k. In addition, if <u, v> is an edge in E, then u Vi
and v Vi+1 for some i, 1 <i <k.
 Let the vertex ‘s’ is the source, and ‘t’ the sink. Let c (i, j) be the cost of edge <i, j>.
The cost of a path from ‘s’ to ‘t’ is the sum of the costs of the edges on the path. The
multistage graph problem is to find a minimum cost path from ‘s’ to ‘t’. Each set Vi
defines a stage in the graph. Because of the constraints on E, every path from ‘s’ to ‘t’
starts in stage 1, goes to stage 2, then to stage 3, then to stage 4, and so on, and
eventually terminates in stage k.
A dynamic programming formulation for a k-stage graph problem is obtained by first

noticingthateverystoppathistheresultofasequenceofk–2decisions.Theith
decision involves determining which vertex in v
i+1, 1 <i <k - 2, is to be on the path.
Let c (i, j) be the cost of the path from source to destination. Then using the forward
approach, we obtain:

cost (i, j) = min {c (j, l) + cost (i + 1,l)}

l in Vi+1

<j, l> in E

ALGORITHM:
Algorithm Fgraph(G, k, n,p)
// The input is a k-stage graph G = (V, E) with n vertices
// indexed in order or stages. E is a set of edges and c [i,j]
// is the cost of (i, j). p [1 : k] is a minimum cost path.
{
cost [n] :=0.0;
for j:= n - 1 to 1 step – 1do
{ // compute cost[j]
let r be a vertex such that (j, r) is an edge
of G and c [j, r] + cost [r] is minimum;
cost [j] := c [j, r] + cost[r];
d [j] :=r:
}
p [1] := 1; p [k] :=n; // Find a minimum cost path.
for j := 2 to k - 1 do
108
p [j] := d [p [j -1]];
}
The multistage graph problem can also be solved using the backward approach. Let
bp(i, j) be a minimum cost path from vertex s to j vertex in Vi. Let Bcost(i, j) be the
cost of bp(i, j). From the backward approach we obtain:

Bcost (i, j) = min { Bcost (i –1, l) + c (l, j)}

1 in Vi -1

<l, j> in E

Algorithm Bgraph(G, k, n,p)

 // Same function asFgraph
{
Bcost [1] :=0.0;
for j := 2 to ndo
{ // Compute Bcost[j].
Let r be such that (r, j) is an edge of
G and Bcost [r] + c [r, j] is
minimum; Bcost [j] := Bcost [r] + c
[r,j];
D [j] :=r;
} //find a minimum costpath p [1] := 1; p [k] :=n;
for j:= k - 1 to 2 do p [j] := d [p [j +1]];
}

EXAMPLE1:

Find the minimum cost path from s to t in the multistage graph of five stages shown
below. Do this first using forward approach and then using backward approach.

24
6

269
9 2
1 54

7 34
7
2

st
17 10 12
33

11
2 4 5
5

11 8 11
6

58

FORWARDAPPROACH:
We use the following equation to find the minimum cost path from s to t:

109
cost (i, j) = min {c (j, l) + cost (i + 1,l)}
l inVi +1

<j, l>inE

cost (1, 1) = min {c (1, 2) + cost (2, 2), c (1, 3) + cost (2, 3), c (1, 4) + cost
(2,4), c (1, 5) + cost (2,5)}
= min {9 + cost (2, 2), 7 + cost (2, 3), 3 + cost (2, 4), 2 + cost (2,5)}
Now first starting with,

cost (2, 2) = min{c (2, 6) + cost (3, 6), c (2, 7) + cost (3, 7), c (2, 8) + cost
(3,8)} = min {4 + cost (3, 6), 2 + cost (3, 7), 1 + cost (3,8)}

cost(3,6) = min {c (6, 9) + cost (4, 9), c (6, 10) + cost (4,10)} =
min {6 + cost (4, 9), 5 + cost (4,10)}

cost(4,9) = min {c (9, 12) + cost (5, 12)} = min {4 + 0) =4

cost (4, 10) = min {c (10, 12) + cost (5, 12)} =2

Therefore, cost (3, 6) = min {6 + 4, 5 + 2} =7

cost(3,7) = min {c (7, 9) + cost (4, 9) , c (7, 10) + cost (4,10)} =

min {4 + cost (4, 9), 3 + cost (4,10)}

cost(4,9) = min {c (9, 12) + cost (5, 12)} = min {4 + 0} =4

Cost (4, 10) = min {c (10, 2) + cost (5, 12)} = min {2 + 0} =2

Therefore, cost (3, 7) = min {4 + 4, 3 + 2} = min {8, 5} =5

cost(3,8) = min {c (8, 10) + cost (4, 10), c (8, 11) + cost (4,11)} =
min {5 + cost (4, 10), 6 + cost (4 +11)}
110
cost (4, 11) = min {c (11, 12) + cost (5, 12)} =5

Therefore, cost (3, 8) = min {5 + 2, 6 + 5} = min {7, 11} =7

Therefore, cost (2, 2) = min {4 + 7, 2 + 5, 1 + 7} = min {11, 7, 8}

=7

Therefore, cost (2, 3) = min {c (3, 6) + cost (3, 6), c (3, 7) + cost
(3,7)} = min {2 + cost (3, 6), 7 + cost (3,7)}
= min {2 + 7, 7 + 5} = min {9, 12} =9

cost (2, 4) = min {c (4, 8) + cost (3, 8)} = min {11 + 7} =18
cost (2, 5) = min {c (5, 7) + cost (3, 7), c (5, 8) + cost (3,8)}
= min {11 + 5, 8 + 7} = min {16, 15} =15

Therefore, cost (1, 1) = min {9 + 7, 7 + 9, 3 + 18, 2

+15} = min {16, 16, 21, 17} =16

The minimum cost path is16.

10 12

The path is 1 2 7

or

1 3 6 10 12

BACKWARDAPPROACH:

We use the following equation to find the minimum cost path from t tos: Bcost (i,

J) = min {Bcost (i – 1, l) + c (l,J)}

l in vi –1
<l,
j>inE
Bcost (5, 12) = min {Bcost (4, 9) + c (9, 12), Bcost (4, 10) + c
(10,12), Bcost (4, 11) + c (11,12)}
= min {Bcost (4, 9) + 4, Bcost (4, 10) + 2, Bcost (4, 11) +5}
111
Bcost (4, 9) = min {Bcost (3, 6) + c (6, 9), Bcost (3, 7) + c (7,9)}
= min {Bcost (3, 6) + 6, Bcost (3, 7) +4}
Bcost (3, 6) = min {Bcost (2, 2) + c (2, 6), Bcost (2, 3) + c (3,6)}
= min {Bcost (2, 2) + 4, Bcost (2, 3) +2}

Bcost (2, 2) = min {Bcost (1, 1) + c (1, 2)} = min {0 + 9} =9

Bcost (2, 3) = min {Bcost (1, 1) + c (1, 3)} = min {0 + 7} =7

Bcost (3, 6) = min {9 + 4, 7 + 2} = min {13, 9} =9

Bcost (3, 7) = min {Bcost (2, 2) + c (2, 7), Bcost (2, 3) + c (3,7),
Bcost (2, 5) + c (5,7)}

Bcost (2, 5) = min {Bcost (1, 1) + c (1, 5)} =2

Bcost (3, 7) = min {9 + 2, 7 + 7, 2 + 11} = min {11, 14, 13} =11

Bcost (4, 9) = min {9 + 6, 11 + 4} = min {15, 15} =15

Bcost (4, 10) = min {Bcost (3, 6) + c (6, 10), Bcost (3, 7) + c (7,10),
Bcost (3, 8) + c (8,10)}

Bcost (3, 8) = min {Bcost (2, 2) + c (2, 8), Bcost (2, 4) + c

(4,8), Bcost (2, 5) + c (5,8)}
Bcost (2, 4) = min {Bcost (1, 1) + c (1, 4)} =3

Bcost (3, 8) = min {9 + 1, 3 + 11, 2 + 8} = min {10, 14, 10} =10

Bcost (4, 10) = min {9 + 5, 11 + 3, 10 + 5} = min {14, 14, 15)

=14

Bcost (4, 11) = min {Bcost (3, 8) + c (8, 11)} = min {Bcost (3, 8) +6}
= min {10 + 6} =16

Bcost (5, 12) = min {15 + 4, 14 + 2, 16 + 5} = min {19, 16, 21} =16.

112
 All pairs shortestpaths

In the all pairs shortest path problem, we are to find a shortest path between every
pair of vertices in a directed graph G. That is, for every pair of vertices (i, j), we are
to find a shortest path from i to j as well as one from j to i. These two paths are the
same when G is undirected.

When no edge has a negative length, the all-pairs shortest path problem may be solved
by using Dijkstra’s greedy single source algorithm n times, once with each of the n
vertices as the source vertex.

The all pairs shortest path problem is to determine a matrix A such that A (i, j) is the
length of a shortest path from i to j. The matrix A can be obtained by solving n single
source problems using the algorithm shortest Paths. Since each application of this
2 3
procedure requires O (n ) time, the matrix A can be obtained in O (n )time.

3
The dynamic programming solution, called Floyd’s algorithm, runs in O (n ) time.
Floyd’s algorithm works even when the graph has negative length edges (provided
there are no negative length cycles).

The shortest i to j path in G, i ≠ j originates at vertex i and goes through some

intermediate vertices (possibly none) and terminates at vertex j. If k is an intermediate
vertex on this shortest path, then the subpaths from i to k and from k to j must be
shortest paths from i to k and k to j, respectively. Otherwise, the i to j path is not of
k
minimum length. So, the principle of optimality holds. Let A (i, j) represent the
length of a shortest path from i to j going through no vertex of index greater than k,
we obtain:

k k-1 k-1
A (i, j) = {min {min {A (i, k) + A (k, j)}, c (i,j)}
1<k<n

Algorithm All Paths (Cost, A,n)

// cost [1:n, 1:n] is the cost adjacency matrix of a graph which
// n vertices; A [I, j] is the cost of a shortest path from vertex
// i to vertex j. cost [i, i] = 0.0, for 1 <i <n.
{
for i := 1 to n do
for j:= 1 to n do
A [i, j] := cost [i,j]; // copy cost into A
for k := 1 to n do
for i := 1 to n do
 113
for j := 1 to n do
A [i, j] := min (A [i, j], A [i, k] + A [k,j]);
}

Complexity Analysis: A Dynamic programming algorithm based on this recurrence

involves in calculating n+1 matrices, each of size n x n. Therefore, the algorithm has a
3
complexity of O(n ).

k-1 k-1
General formula: min {A (i, k) + A (k, j)}, c (i,j)}
1<k<n

Solve the problem for different values of k = 1, 2 and3

Step 1: Solving the equation for, k =1;

1 o o 1
A (1, 1) = min {(A (1, 1) + A (1, 1)), c (1, 1)} = min {0 + 0, 0} =0 A
o o 1
(1, 2) = min {(A (1, 1) + A (1, 2)), c (1, 2)} = min {(0 + 4), 4} =4 A (1,
o o 1
3) = min {(A (1, 1) + A (1, 3)), c (1, 3)} = min {(0 + 11), 11} =11 A
o o 1
(2, 1) = min {(A (2, 1) + A (1, 1)), c (2, 1)} = min {(6 + 0), 6} =6 A (2,
o o 1
2) = min {(A (2, 1) + A (1, 2)), c (2, 2)} = min {(6 + 4), 0)} =0 A (2, 3)
o o 1
= min {(A (2, 1) + A (1, 3)), c (2, 3)} = min {(6 + 11), 2} =2 A (3, 1) =
o o 1
min {(A (3, 1) + A (1, 1)), c (3, 1)} = min {(3 + 0), 3} =3 A (3, 2) =
o o 1
min {(A (3, 1) + A (1, 2)), c (3, 2)} = min {(3 + 4), 0} =7 A (3, 3) =
o o
min {(A (3, 1) + A (1, 3)), c (3, 3)} = min {(3 + 11), 0} =0

Step 2: Solving the equation for, K =2;

2 1 1
A (1, 1) = min {(A (1, 2) + A (2, 1), c (1, 1)} = min {(4 + 6), 0} = 0
2 1 1
A (1, 2) = min {(A (1, 2) + A (2, 2), c (1, 2)} = min {(4 + 0), 4} = 4
2 1 1
A (1, 3) = min {(A (1, 2) + A (2, 3), c (1, 3)} = min {(4 + 2), 11} =6
2
A (2, 1) = min {(A (2, 2) + A (2, 1), c (2, 1)} = min {(0 + 6), 6} =6
 2
A (2, 2) = min {(A (2, 2) + A (2, 2), c (2, 2)} = min {(0 + 0), 0} =0
2
A (2, 3) = min {(A (2, 2) + A (2, 3), c (2, 3)} = min {(0 + 2), 2} =2
2
A (3, 1) = min {(A (3, 2) + A (2, 1), c (3, 1)} = min {(7 + 6), 3} =3

114
2
A (3, 2) = min {(A (3, 2) + A (2, 2), c (3, 2)} = min {(7 + 0), 7} =7
2
A (3, 3) = min {(A (3, 2) + A (2, 3), c (3, 3)} = min {(7 + 2), 0} =0
 115
04

A (2) =6 0
 37

Step 3: Solving the equation for, k =3;

3 2 2
A (1, 1) = min {A (1, 3) + A (3, 1), c (1, 1)} = min {(6 + 3), 0}
3 2 2
=0 A (1, 2) = min {A (1, 3) + A (3, 2), c (1, 2)} = min {(6 + 7),
3 2 2
4} =4 A (1, 3) = min {A (1, 3) + A (3, 3), c (1, 3)} = min {(6 +
3 2 2
0), 6} =6 A (2, 1) = min {A (2, 3) + A (3, 1), c (2, 1)} = min {(2
3 2 2
+ 3), 6} =5 A (2, 2) = min {A (2, 3) + A (3, 2), c (2, 2)} = min
3 2 2
{(2 + 7), 0} =0 A (2, 3) = min {A (2, 3) + A (3, 3), c (2, 3)} =
3 2 2
min {(2 + 0), 2} =2 A (3, 1) = min {A (3, 3) + A (3, 1), c (3, 1)}
3 2 2
= min {(0 + 3), 3} =3 A (3, 2) = min {A (3, 3) + A (3, 2), c (3,
3 2 2
2)} = min {(0 + 7), 7} =7 A (3, 3) = min {A (3, 3) + A (3, 3), c
(3, 3)} = min {(0 + 0), 0} =0
46

0
5 0 2
(3) 70
A = 3

TRAVELLING SALESPERSONPROBLEM

Let G = (V, E) be a directed graph with edge costs Cij. The variable cijis
defined such that cij> 0 for all I and j and cij= if < i, j> E. Let |V| = n and assume n > 1. A
tour of G is a directed simple cycle that includes every vertex in V. The cost of a tour is
the sum of the cost of the edges on the tour. The traveling sales person problem is to find a
tour of minimum cost. The tour is to be a simple path that starts and ends at vertex1.

Let g (i, S) be the length of shortest path starting at vertex i, going through all vertices in
S, and terminating at vertex 1. The function g (1, V – {1}) is the length of an optimal
salesperson tour. From the principal of optimality it followsthat:
C(S, i) = min { C(S-{i}, j) + dis(j, i)} where j belongs to S, j != i and j != 1.

The Equation can be solved for g (1, V – 1}) if we know g (k, V – {1, k}) for all
 116
choices of k.

Complexity Analysis:

Foreachvalueof|S|therearen–1choicesfori.ThenumberofdistinctsetsSof
including 1 ⎜ ⎟
size k not and i is k .
Hence, the total number of g (i, S)’s to be computed before computing g (1, V – {1})
To calculate this sum, we use the binominaltheorem:
n-2
This is Φ (n 2 ), so there are exponential number of calculate. Calculating one g (i, S)

require finding the minimum of at most n quantities. Therefore, the entire algorithm is Φ
2 n-2
(n 2 ). This is better than enumerating all n! different tours to find the best one. So, we
have traded on exponential growth for a much smaller exponential growth. The most
serious drawback of this dynamic programming solution is the space needed, which is O
n
(n 2 ). This is too large even for modest values of n.

Example1:

For the following graph find minimum cost tour for the traveling sales person
problem:

1 2

3 4

The cost adjacency matrix =

0 10 15 20
5 0 9 10
6 13 0 12
8890
Let us start the tour from vertex1:

g (1, V – {1}) = min {c1k + g (k, V – {1,K})} - (1) 2<k<n

 117
More generally writing:
g (i, s) = min {cij+ g (J, s –{J})} - (2) Clearly, g (i, 0) = ci1 , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

g (2, 0) = C21 =5

g (3, 0) = C31 = 6

g (4, 0) = C41 =8

Using equation – (2) we obtain:

g (1, {2, 3, 4}) = min {c12 + g (2, {3, 4}, c13 + g (3, {2, 4}), c14 + g (4, {2,3})}

g (2, {3, 4}) = min {c23 + g (3, {4}), c24 + g (4,{3})}

= min {9 + g (3, {4}), 10 + g (4,{3})}

g (3, {4}) = min {c34 + g (4, 0)} = 12 + 8 =20

g (4, {3}) = min {c43 + g (3, 0)} = 9 + 6 =15

Therefore, g (2, {3, 4}) = min {9 + 20, 10 + 15} = min {29, 25}

=25 g (3, {2, 4}) = min {(c32 + g (2, {4}), (c34 + g (4,{2})}

g (2, {4}) = min {c24 + g (4, 0)} = 10 + 8 =18

g (4, {2}) = min {c42 + g (2, 0)} = 8 + 5 =13

Therefore, g (3, {2, 4}) = min {13 + 18, 12 + 13} = min {41, 25}

=25 g (4, {2, 3}) = min {c42 + g (2, {3}), c43 + g (3,{2})}

g (2, {3}) = min {c23 + g (3, 0} = 9 + 6 =15

g (3, {2}) = min {c32 + g (2, 0} = 13 + 5 =18

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Therefore, g (4, {2, 3}) = min {8 + 15, 9 + 18} = min {23, 27} =23
g (1, {2, 3, 4}) = min {c12 + g (2, {3, 4}), c13 + g (3, {2, 4}), c14 + g (4, {2,3})}
 = min {10 + 25, 15 + 25, 20 + 23} = min {35, 40, 43} =35

The optimal tour for the graph has length = 35 The

optimal tour is: 1, 2, 4, 3,1.

OPTIMAL BINARY SEARCHTREE

Let us assume that the given set of identifiers is {a1, . . . , an} with a1 < a2 < . . . . < an.
Let p (i) be the probability with which we search for ai. Let q (i) be the probability that
the identifier x being searched for is such that ai < x < ai+1, 0 <i <n (assume a0 = -
and an+1 = + ). We have to arrange the identifiers in a binary search tree in a way that
minimizes the expected total access time.
In a binary search tree, the number of comparisons needed to access an element at depth
'd' is d + 1, so if 'ai' is placed at depth 'di', then we want to minimize:

Let P (i) be the probability with which we shall be searching for 'ai'. Let Q (i) be the
probability of an un-successful search. Every internal node represents a point where a
successful search may terminate. Every external node represents a point where an
unsuccessful search may terminate.

The expected cost contribution for the internal node for 'ai'is:
P(i)*level(a
i).
Unsuccessful search terminate with I = 0 (i.e at an external node). Hence the cost
contribution for this node is:
Q (i) * level ((Ei) -1)
The expected cost of binary search tree is:

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Given a fixed set of identifiers, we wish to create a binary search tree organization. We
 may expect different binary search trees for the same identifier set to have different
performance characteristics.

The computation of each of these c(i, j)’s requires us to find the minimum of m quantities.
Hence, each such c(i, j) can be computed in time O(m). The total time for all c(i, j)’s with
2
j – i = m is therefore O(nm –m ).
Example 1: The possible binary search trees for the identifier set (a1, a2, a3) = (do, if,
stop) are as follows. Given the equal probabilities p (i) = Q (i) = 1/7 for all i, we have:

if

stop
do stop

if

do

Tree2

do

do
if

stop

if

Tree 4
Tree1

stop

Tree3

Huffman coding tree solved by a greedy algorithm has a limitation of having the data only
at the leaves and it must not preserve the property that all nodes to the left of the root have
keys, which are less etc. Construction of an optimal binary search tree is harder, because
the data is not constrained to appear only at the leaves, and also because the tree must
satisfy the binary search tree property and it must preserve the property that all nodes to
the left of the root have keys, which areless.
A dynamic programming solution to the problem of obtaining an optimal binary search
tree can be viewed by constructing a tree as a result of sequence of decisions by holding
the principle of optimality. A possible approach to this is to make a decision as which of
the ai's be arraigned to the root node at 'T'. If we choose 'ak' then is clear that the internal
nodes for a1, a2, . . . . . ak-1 as well as the external nodes for the classes Eo, E1, . . . . . . .
Ek-1 will lie in the left sub tree, L, of the root. The remaining nodes will be in the right
subtree, R. The structure of an optimal binary search treeis:

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