BMS 3244

Ethics, Research Methodology

and Statistics

Mrs.E.H.L.Perera
Lecturer
Department of Biomedical Sciences
 What is research?
It is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data;

documentation of critical information; and analysis and

interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with

suitable methodologies set by specific professional fields and

academic disciplines.
Lecture 01-

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Scientific research

➢ A scientific research definition is that “it is the process by which scientists study

various phenomenon using systematic methods of collecting, analyzing, and

interpreting data”.

➢ It is often referred to as a creative process because it involves novel ways to test ideas

that can lead to new ideas and information.

➢ It contributes to a body of science and usually follows the scientific method.

Scientific Method
➢ The scientific method is the process of objectively establishing facts through testing and

experimentation.

➢ The basic process involves making an observation, forming a hypothesis, making a prediction,

conducting an experiment and finally analyzing the results.

Science

➢ Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area

of inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific method”.

➢ Science can be grouped into two broad categories:

1. Natural science

2. Social science
1. Natural science
Natural science is the empirical sciences that explains or predicts natural
phenomena. It is a science, such as biology, chemistry, geology, astronomy, or
physics that deals with the objects, phenomena, or laws of nature and the physical
world.

2. Social science

Social science is the science of people or collections of people, such as groups,

firms, societies, or economies, and their individual or collective behaviors.

Sciences can also be classified based on their ultimate purpose.

➢ Basic sciences, also called pure sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and forces,

relationships between them, and laws governing them. (Ex: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology.

➢ Applied sciences, also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply scientific knowledge from basic

sciences in a physical environment. (Ex: Medical Microbiology)

The only goal of basic science research is to increase the knowledge base of a particular field of study. Applied

science uses the knowledge base supplied by basic science to devise solutions, often technological, to specific

problems.
 Systematic research in any field of inquiry involves three basic operations;

1. Data collection: It refers to observing, measuring, and recording information.

2. Data analysis: It refers to arranging and organizing the collected data that we may be able

to find out what their significance is and generalize about them.

3. Report writing: It is an inseparable part and a final outcome of a research study. Its

purpose is to convey information contained in it to the readers or audience.

 Research will be following the systemic order in steps; The steps are,

1. Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and identifying the related area of

knowledge.

2. Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or dealt with the

problem.

3. Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.

4. Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.

5. Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.

Objectives/ purposes of research
The purpose of a research is as the following,

1. Exploration

2. Description

3. Causal Explanation

4. Prediction
1. Exploration:

Through exploration, researchers will be able to;

● Develop concepts more clearly

● Establish priorities

● Develop operational definitions

● Formulate research hypotheses

● Improve the final research design

For example, of initiating an exploratory research in the following situations –

❖ Crime is increasing in the city at an alarming rate, the reasons for which remain unknown. The problem is ambiguous and what is
actually happening is to be cleared.

❖ A new product is to be marketed, the manufacturer remains in worry if the product will be accepted by the people or not.
2. Description

A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the environment (i.e., nothing is

manipulated).

Sometimes these are referred to as “ correlational ” or “ observational ” studies. A descriptive study may be feasible in

the following instances –

❖ What are the characteristics of the people who are involved in city crime? Are they young? Middle aged?

Poor?

❖ Who are the potential buyers of the new product? Men or women? Urban people or rural people?
3. Casual Explanation

The causal explanation is based on assumption that by finding and explaining the cause of a

phenomenon. Following examples will be appropriate to the causal studies –

● Why people are involved in crime? Can we explain this as a consequence of present crisis in the job

market? Or for lack of parental care?

● Will buyers be motivated to purchase the new product in a new container? Can attractive advertisement

motivate them?
4. Prediction

➢ Prediction seeks to answer when and in what situations the event will occur, if it can be provided plausible

explanation for the vent in question.

➢ In addition to being able to explain an event after it has occurred, it will be able to predict when the event

will occur.
Criteria of a Good Research

❖ Purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

❖ Research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the

research for further advancement.

❖ Procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.

❖ Researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the

findings.

❖ Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should
be

appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.

❖ Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research.

A good research is required to have the following qualities,

1. It is systematic: Research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with
the well defined set of rules.

2. It is logical: Research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction
are of great value in carrying out research.

3. Good research is empirical: Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with

concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable: Research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound

basis for decisions

Classification of Research

➢ It is beneficial, if you can classify a research study under a specific category because each category or type of research

uses a specific set of procedures.

➢ There are two ways of classifying research;

❖ To classify research on the basis of its purpose

❖ To classify research on the basis of the method employed in research

Classification of Research by Purpose.
1. Basic Research

➢ When the solution to the research problem has no apparent applications to any existing practical problem but
only of the scholarly interests of a community of a researcher, the research is called basic reach.

➢ Basic research attempts to generate and expand the fundamental knowledge about social world.

➢ It has no practical value or has little direct impact on action, performance or policy decision.

➢ This knowledge leads to better ways to predict, prevent, diagnose, and treat disease.

➢ Through basic science, researchers try to answer fundamental questions about how life works.

EX: A study to discover the components making up human DNA.

2. Applied Research

➢ It variously known as action research, operations research, social research, decision-linked research, is a type of research that covers a
wide range of social science areas.

➢ This type of research plays an important role in solving everyday problems that often have an impact on life, work, health, and overall
well-being.

➢ Applied research is inspired by the needs of social action and aims at finding a practical solution for an immediate problem of the
sociality making optimal use of the available resources.

➢ The problem solving nature of the applied research means it is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to action,
performance or policy needs.
3. Evaluative Research

● Evaluation research is defined as a form of disciplined and systematic inquiry that is carried out to arrive at an

assessment or appraisal of an object, program, practice, activity, or system with the purpose of providing information

that will be of use in decision making.

● It is concerned with the evaluation of such occurrences as social and organizational programs or intervention.

➢ Evaluative research attempts to,

❖ Assess implemented activities

❖ Examine effects of activities

❖ Assess short-term effects

❖ Determine the impact of a program

❖ Evaluate success of intervention

Classification of Research by Method
1. Historical Research

➢ It is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, diaries, journals, speeches, interviews, remains,

etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point

of time.

2. Descriptive Research

➢ It includes case studies, surveys and fact-findings enquiries of different kinds.

➢ The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs, as it exists at present.

➢ The main characteristic of this method is the researcher has no control over the variables; researcher can

only report what has happened or what is happening.

Ex: A researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed professionals in Maryland.

3. Correlational Research

➢ Descriptive and historical researches provide a picture of events that are currently happening or have occurred in the past.

➢ Researchers often want to go beyond mere description and begin discussing the relationship that certain events might

have to one another.

➢ The most likely type of research to answer the relationship among variables or events is called correlational

research.
4. Ex-post Facto Research

➢ Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal-comparative research the researcher has no control on the variables or
s/he cannot manipulate the variables (independent variables) which cause a certain effect (dependent
variables) being measured.

➢ Since this type of study lacks manipulation of variables, the cause-effect relationship measured are only tentative.

Ex: if a researcher wants to determine a cause-and-effect relationship between height and IQ scores.
5. Experimental Research
➢ We already know that correlational research can help establish the presence of a relationship among variables but not give
us any reason to believe that variables are causally related to one another.

➢ How does one find out if the characteristics or behaviors or events are related in such a way that the relationship is a causal
one? Two types of research can answer for this question:

a. Quasi-experimental research.

b. Experimental research.
a. Quasi-experimental research

➢ Quasi-experimental research is where participants are pre-assigned to groups based on some

characteristic or quality such as differences in sex, race, age, neighborhood, etc.

➢ These group assignments have already taken place before the experiment begins, and the researcher has no

control as to what the people will belong to each group.

Ex: Nonequivalent groups design: You hypothesize that a new after-school program will lead to higher grades.

You choose two similar groups of children who attend different schools, one of which implements the new

program while the other does not

b. Experimental research

➢ The primary characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of at least one variables and control over

the other relevant variables so as to measure its effect on one or more dependent variables.

➢ Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design.

Ex: The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory experiments, which may differ in nature

depending on the subject of research.

Some Other Types of Research

● Analytical Research: In analytical research the researcher has to use facts or information already available,

and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

● Quantitative Research: It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena

that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

● Qualitative Research: It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving

quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior, we

quite often talk of “Motivation Research”, an important type of qualitative research.

● Conceptual Research: It is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

● Longitudinal Research: From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research
or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time period, whereas in the
latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Historical research, case study, genetic comes
under longitudinal approach of research.

● Cross Sectional Research: This type of studies are designed to look at a variable at a particular point in
time. Longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, while cross-
sectional research is focused on looking at variables at a specific point in time.
● Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Clinical or diagnostic research follow case-study methods or indepth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or
events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.

● Baseline/Bench-mark Survey/Research: A baseline survey is a research in which data on pre-project socio-

economic and business aspects are generated in order to facilitate the assessment of future impact of project
intervention. A baseline survey is conducted in the absence of available published data on various socio-
economic and business aspects.

● Impact Assessment: The research, which is undertaken to measure the quantitative benefits derived out of
project intervention and qualitative changes that occurred due to project intervention, is known as an impact
assessment research.
● Feasibility Studies: This type of research is undertaken prior to starting of any business enterprise or any
business related project. This type of research is done to assess the technical, economic, market and financial
viability of the project.
Significance of Research

Research is able to provide solutions to things that are unknown, bridge gaps in knowledge and improve the way that
healthcare professionals work.

➢ Research is important for researchers in studying social relationship and in seeking answers to various social problems.
➢ Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
➢ Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning of business and industry.
➢ Research is needed to develop strategies and models in rural development.
➢ The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the economy as a whole,
has greatly increased in modern items.
➢ Research instructs scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organization.
➢ To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
SCOPE OF RESEARCH

Social Research
Why does the social research important?

➢ Social research is connected with the social life.

➢ It is in fact a part of the scientific study/approach.
➢ Social research investigates and verifies social phenomena and social realities, the facts about social life and formulates
laws this regard.
➢ After the laws have been formulated, investigation is carried out and inter-relationships between various facts and laws are
established.

➢ Through these steps we are able to collect data and knowledge about society.
➢ It provides scientific knowledge about social problems and helps the researcher to find out solutions to them.
➢ It tries to investigate the relationship that exists between various facts and phenomena of social life.
➢ A research aims to establish a scientific knowledge.
➢ Hence the purpose of social science research is to establish scientific, empirical knowledge about the human society.
The main branches of social sciences that deal with the modern problems of the modern world of 21st
century.

❖ Economics

❖ History

❖ Linguistics

❖ Political science

❖ Sociology
Business research
➢ Business research is described, as the systematic and objective procedure for

producing information for help in making business decisions.

➢ Business research should be objective, which means that the information found needs to be

detached and impersonal instead of biased.

➢ Research facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a business.

➢ By lowering the uncertainty of decisions, it cuts down on the risk of making incorrect

decisions.
Scope of business research includes the following areas,

❖ Production Management

❖ Personnel Management

❖ Marketing Management

❖ Financial Management

❖ Materials Management

❖ General Management
Legal research
Legal research becomes necessary,

✓ for ascertainment of law on a given topic or subject.

✓ to highlight ambiguities and inbuilt weaknesses of law.

✓ to critically examine legal provisions.

✓ principles or doctrines with a view to see consistency, coherence and stability of law and its underlying policy.

✓ to undertake social audit of law with a view to highlighting its pre-legislative ‘forces’ and post legislative

‘impacts’.

✓ to make suggestions for improvements in, and development of law.

Research in Arts and Humanities
The scope of research in arts and humanities are also important because,

❖ Humanities help us to understand others through their languages, histories and cultures.

❖ They raise the social justice and equality.

❖ They reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual and intellectual sense of the world.

❖ Humanities teach empathy.

❖ They teach us to deal critically and logically with subjective, complex, imperfect information.

❖ Humanities encourage us to think creatively.

❖ They teach us to reason about being human and to ask questions about our world.

❖ Humanities develop informed and critical citizens. Without the humanities, democracy could not

flourish.
THE END