STRESS STRAIN CURVE

Properties of Materials
• The design of machines and structures so that they
will function properly requires that we understand
the mechanical behavior of the materials being
used.

• Ordinarily, the only way to determine how

materials behave when they are subjected to loads
is to perform experiments in the laboratory.
 Tensile Test
• The tension test is commonly employed to determine
such engineering properties as

1- Young’s modulus ,E
2- Yield strength σy
3 Ultimate strength σu
4 Percent elongation , and percent reduction of area.
5- Ductile/brittle behavior
 Tensile Test

• One of the most common tests of material is the tension test.

• In the usual tension test the cross section of the specimen is
round, square, or rectangular.
 Tensile Test

• The tensile-test specimen is placed in a test machine

called tensile-test machine.
• The deformation is recorded by extensometer or strain
gauge.
Tensile Test Specimen
Tensile Test Specimen
ELASTIC LIMIT
 YIELD STRENGHT
The yield point is the point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the
limit of elastic behavior and the beginning plastic behavior.

Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the

stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. In contrast, the
yield point is where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.
Before the yield point, the material will deform elastically and return
to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will
be permanent and non-reversible. Some steels and other materials
exhibit a behavior termed a yield point phenomenon. Yield strengths
vary from 35 MPa for low-strength aluminum to greater than 1400
MPa for high-strength stee
YIELD STRENGHT
 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
Ultimate tensile strength (or tensile strength for short) is an important
property of materials to determine their mechanical performance.

It is the ability of a material to resist cracking due to stress.

This parameter is applicable to all types of materials such as wires,

ropes, metal beams.

When excessive tension is applied, both tough and brittle materials will
approach a breaking point. Initially, uniform deformation will be
observed. Over the entire body of the material, the length will increase
while the width will decrease by the same amount.
 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
It is imperative to know the tensile strength of a particular metal or any
material to ensure it is the right choice for an application. This ensures
an incident-free service life.
The results of choosing materials with lower tensile strength than what
the application demands can be disastrous.

Engineers turn to yield strength in the design phase to make sure the
stress never reaches any higher than that. Otherwise, the structure
suffers permanent deformations. But ultimate tensile strength tells us
the value that is necessary for complete failure and breaking.
Thus, a roof construction that comes under more stress because of a
higher than normal snow load may bend the structure.
At the same time, surpassing the tensile strength value means that the
roof may fall in.
 Tensile Test: Stress Calculation
Loads are gradually applied to the specimen and simultaneous
readings of the load and deformation are taken at specified
intervals.
• Nominal, or engineering, stress  is determined by the
formula
P
 =
A 0

where A0 is the original cross-sectional area in the gage section

and P is the applied load.
 Tensile Test: Strain Calculation

• Corresponding values of strain are found by dividing the deformation by the gauge
length.
l − l0 l
 = =
l0 l0
•Where lo is the original length of an axial line element and l is the current current
length of this element.

The convention for strain is that it is positive when l is greater than l0 .

Tensile Stress –Strain Curve
 Tensile Test: Curve

• The stress and strain values obtained can then be plotted in a stress-
strain curve.
• The shape of the curve will depend on the kind of material tested.
• (The temperature and speed at which the test is performed also affect the
results.)
 Strain Hardening
One of the stages in the stress-strain curve is the strain hardening region.
This region starts as the strain goes beyond the yield point and ends at the
ultimate strength point; the maximal stress shown in the stress-strain curve.
In this region, the stress mainly increases as the material elongates, except that
there is a nearly flat region at the beginning. Strain hardening is also called
work-hardening or cold-working.

It is called cold-working because the plastic deformation must occur at a

temperature low enough that atoms cannot rearrange themselves. It is a process
of making a metal harder and stronger through plastic deformation. When a
metal is plastically deformed, dislocations move, and additional dislocations
are generated.
 Stress –Strain Curve: Regions
• Elastic behavior: The
sample returns to its
original shape/ length
when the load is
removed. Curve acts
like straight line, the
end of this region is
the elastic limit.
 Stress –Strain Curve: Regions
• Yielding: An increase of the
load above the elastic limit will
result in a permanent
deformation of the material.
This behavior is called yielding.
The stress that causes yielding
is called “yield stress” and the
strain that occurs is called a
plastic strain.
• Question: How to detefrmine
the yield point if the curve not
exactly linear??
 Stress – Strain Curve: Regions
• Strain Hardening: when yield
has ended, an increase in the
load will result in a stress
rising until it reaches a
maximum value of stress
called the ultimate stress, u.
All materials have an ultimate
strength given by
Pmax
u =
A0
• where P max is the maximum
load sustained in tension, and
A 0 is the original cross-
sectional area.
 Stress – Strain Curve: Regions
• Necking:
After the stress exceeds theu
value, the cross sectional area
of the sample starts to
decrease rapidly at almost
midpoint of the gauge length.
Since the area decreases, it can’t
hold large loads so the the
stress strain-curve tends to
curve downward until the
material breaks at fracture
stress f
 Young’s Modulus: E

• For all materials, the slope E of the

linear portion of the stress–strain
curve for small strain is a
characteristic of the material, called
Young’s modulus.

• For example, Young’s modulus of

most steels is about 200 GPa, while
that of aluminum and glass is about
70 GPa.

• Young’s modulus is an example of a

bulk property of a material—one
that is determined primarily by the
major constituent of the material.
Young’s Modulus
 Ductile and Brittle Materials
• For a brittle material, the
stress–strain curve is linear
almost to failure. Glass, Gray
cast iron, exhibit brittle
behavior.
• For a ductile material, there is
an easily distinguished yield
point beyond which the stress
grows very slowly (if at all)
with strain. Ductile material
can sustain large strains
before fracture. Examples of
ductile materials are mild
steel, aluminum and rubber.
 Ductility- Necking

• Ductile materials will

often neck prior to failure
• The necking begins when
the ultimate strength has
been reached, at which
point the stress begins to
decrease with increasing
strain.
 Measurement of Ductility
• Ductility is measured by percent
elongation or percent reduction of
area

l f − l0
Percent elongation = (100%)
lo
A0 − Af
Percent reduction of area = (100%)
A0
Strength and Ductility
 Brittle Fracture

• Brittle fractures are

characterized by a flat fracture
surface perpendicular to the
maximum principal normal
stress direction. The fracture
originates at the surface, due
to the presence of a suitable
flaw, such as a scratch,
machining mark, or crack
• Brittle materials fail at small
strains and in tension.
 Ductile Fracture
• Ductile failures are often of the cup-and-
cone type. Necking produces a triaxial
state of stress that results in ductile
tearing, starting at outward.
• As the fracture approaches the surface,
the outside ring of unbroken material
becomes loaded approximately
uniaxially and may fail in shear along
45º surfaces.
• If this shear surface forms continuously
around the specimen, then a cup forms
on one side, and a cone on the other.
• Ductile materials fail at large strains and
in shear.
Ductile Fracture
 Hook’s Law
• When a material behaves elastically
and also shows a linear relationship
between stress and strain (line starts
from 0 stress up to proportional limit)
it is said to be linearly elastic material.
• Hooke’s law: stress is proportional to
strain in the linear elastic region of a
stress-strain diagram.

 = E
• The slope of the stress-strain curve (E )
is the elastic modulus or modulus of
elasticity (Young’s Modulus).
 Strain Energy
• As the material is deformed by an external loading, the
material tends to store energy internally through-out its
volume. This energy is called strain energy.
• It is convenient to formulate strain energy per unit volume of
materials. This is called the strain energy density and is given
as 1
u = 
2
• Two Material’s quantities related to the strain energy density:
Modulus of Resilience and Modulus of Toughness
 Modulus of Resilience: ur
• It is a measure of the capacity of
the material to absorb (elastically)
energy without undergoing
permanent deformation .

• Modulus of resilience is the area

under the portion of the stress-
strain curve that is delimited by the
proportional limit.

1 usingHooks' law
1  2 pl
ur =  pl  pl
2  =
2 E
• the units of ur : energy per volume.
 Modulus of Toughness: ut
• It indicates the strain
energy density of the
material just before it
fractures.
• The modulus of
toughness is defined
by the total area under
the stress-strain curve
• Units of toughness are
energy per volume
Ductility and Toughness Relation
 True Stress-Strain Curve
• “True stress” t, is based on the actual load divided by the
current area A rather than the initial area Ao.

• Notice that when the area A is reduced (as in the tension

test), the “true stress” is larger than the nominal or
engineering stress.

• “True strain,” t is based on the summation of incremental

strains based on current length l,

• Since, in tension, the current length is larger than the initial

length, the “true strain” t is smaller than the nominal or
engineering strain .
True Stress-Strain Curve
 Shear Stress-Strain Diagram
• Hook’s law for Shear
 = G
 : shear stress
 :Shear strain
G :Shear mosulus( Modulus of Rigidity)

E
G =
2 (1 +  )
Values of E, G, and 
 NUMERICALS
1. A wire 2 m long and 2 mm in diameter, when stretched by weight of
8 kg has its length increased by 0.24 mm. Find the stress, strain and
Young’s modulus of the material of the wire. g = 9.8 m/s².

2. A mild steel wire of radius 0.5 mm and length 3 m is stretched by a

force of 49 N. calculate
a) longitudinal stress,
b) longitudinal strain
c) elongation produced in the body if Y for steel is 2.1 × 1011 N/m².
 NUMERICALS

3. What must be the elongation of a wire 5m long so that the

strain is 1% of 0.1? If the wire has cross-selection of 1mm²
and is stretched by 10 kg-wt, what is the stress?

4. A brass wire of length 2 m has its one end, fixed to a rigid

support and from the other end a 4 kg wt is suspended. If
the radius of the wire is 0.35 mm, find the extension
produced in the wire. g = 9.8 m/s², Y = 11 × 1010 N/m²