Course: Diploma in Chemical & Pharmaceutical Technology

Diploma in Biologics & Process Technology

Course Code: CLDF02 / CLDF05

Module Code: CLC101 / CLB101

Module: Algebra

Topic 5 : Vectors

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Distinguish between a vector and a scalar quantity.

2. Define position vector and its vector notation. Evaluate magnitude of a vector.

3. Express a vector in terms of its unit vector. Define direction angles and direction cosines.

4. Perform addition, subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors.

5. Evaluate scalar products. Apply the scalar product in solving geometrical and engineering
problems.

6. Evaluate vector products. Apply the vector product in solving geometrical and engineering
problems.
 Vectors

1. Uses of Vectors

(a) In Mathematics

Vector, in mathematics, a quantity that has both magnitude and direction but not
position. Examples of such quantities are velocity and acceleration.

(b) In Real Life

Vectors can be used to model and solve real-life problems involving magnitude
and direction. For example, we can use vectors to determine the true direction
of a commercial jet.

(c) In Careers

There are many careers that use matrices. Several are listed below.

• Airline pilots
• Meteorologists
• Engineer
• Astronauts

5.1 Introduction to Vectors and Basic Properties

Definition of Scalar and Vector

Scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities are mass, time,
energy, length, density and volume. Scalar quantities can be added to each other according to
the simple laws of arithmetic.

Vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Examples are displacement,
velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, electric and magnetic fields, etc.

Notation
A vector can be presented by a line segment with the direction specified, →
→ → AB or a B
for example 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 or 𝑎𝑎̰ as shown on the right. The modulus of a vector 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 %
→
refer to its magnitude and is denoted by �𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � or |𝑎𝑎̰ |. A

Equality of Vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal if and only if their magnitudes and D C
directions are the same. For example, ABCD is a square, then the vectors
→ → → →
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 are equal and the vectors 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 are equal.

A B

6-2
 Vectors

Negative of a Vector

A vector having the same magnitude as the vector 𝑎𝑎̰ but the
𝑎𝑎̰ direction opposite to that of 𝑎𝑎̰ is called the negative of 𝑎𝑎̰ . It is
denoted by −𝑎𝑎̰ . Geometrically, the negative of a vector 𝑎𝑎̰ is
−𝑎𝑎̰ obtained from the vector 𝑎𝑎̰ by reversing its direction. In general,
for any vector 𝑎𝑎̰ , there is always a negative such that
𝑎𝑎̰ + (−𝑎𝑎̰ ) = 0̰ = (−𝑎𝑎̰ ) + 𝑎𝑎̰ where 0̰ is a zero vector.

Position Vector

The positions of the points P, Q and R relative to R

→ → →
the origin O are denoted by 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 , 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 .
→ → →
These vectors 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 , 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 are called Q
→
position vectors of P, Q and R respectively. 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑟𝑟̰
→ → 𝑠𝑠̰ S
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 can also be represented by 𝑝𝑝̰, 𝑞𝑞̰ and 𝑞𝑞̰
𝑟𝑟̰ respectively.
→ → O
For example, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑝𝑝̰ and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑞𝑞̰

→ → → 𝑝𝑝̰
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂

→ → → P
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑞𝑞̰ − 𝑝𝑝̰

→ → →
Similarly, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑟𝑟̰ − 𝑝𝑝̰ = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂

→ → →
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑠𝑠̰ − 𝑝𝑝̰ = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂

In general, a vector between two points A and B can be expressed in terms of their position
vectors.

Example 1
→ → → →
O, A, B, C and D are five points such that 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ , 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑏𝑏̰ , 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ + 2𝑏𝑏̰ and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 2𝑎𝑎̰ −
→ → → → →
𝑏𝑏̰ . Express 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 , 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 , 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 in terms of 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ .

Solution:
→ → →
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑎𝑎̰
→ → →
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ + 2𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰
→ → →
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 2𝑎𝑎̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ − (𝑎𝑎̰ + 2𝑏𝑏̰ ) = 𝑎𝑎̰ − 3𝑏𝑏̰
→ → →
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ + 2𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑎𝑎̰ = 2𝑏𝑏̰
→ → →
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 2𝑎𝑎̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ = 2𝑎𝑎̰ − 2𝑏𝑏̰

6-3
 Vectors

Representation of vectors in 2D and 3D space

Forms 2D space 3D space

Point form

𝑂𝑂(0, 0) and 𝐵𝐵(3, 2)

𝐴𝐴(2, 4, 5), 𝐵𝐵(3, −4, −2) and 𝐶𝐶(−2, −3, 3)

→ 2 3
Column 3
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ = � � → → →
vectors 2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ = �4� , 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑏𝑏̰ = �−4� and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑐𝑐̰
form 5 −2
−2
= �−3�
3

Component The base vectors of a rectangular coordinate system are given by a set of three mutually
form orthogonal vectors with magnitude of 1 unit, denoted by 𝚤𝚤̰ , 𝚥𝚥̰and 𝑘𝑘̰ that are along the x,
y, and z coordinate directions, respectively.

→
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 4𝚥𝚥̰ + 5𝑘𝑘̰ ,
→ →
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑎𝑎̰ = 3𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 3𝚤𝚤̰ − 4𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ and
→
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = −2𝚤𝚤̰ − 3𝚥𝚥̰ + 3𝑘𝑘̰

6-4
 Vectors

Magnitude of a Vector
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣
The magnitude (or modulus) of vector 𝑣𝑣̰ = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ = � 𝑦𝑦 � is given by
𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧

|𝑣𝑣̰| = �𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 2

The magnitude of a vector is always a positive number, and it is a scalar, not a vector.
3
For example, given a vector 𝑣𝑣̰ = �3�, then its magnitude |𝑣𝑣̰| = √32 + 32 + 52 ≈ 6.56 (a
5
scalar).

Example 2

If |𝐹𝐹̰ | = 5 N and 𝜃𝜃 = 30°as given in the diagram, find the components of 𝐹𝐹̰ in the x and y
direction.

SOLUTION:
𝐹𝐹̰
Horizontal component, 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = |𝐹𝐹̰ | 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 3 0° Fy
≈ 4.33 NVertical component, 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 θ
= |𝐹𝐹̰ | 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 = 5 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 3 0° = 2.5 N Fx

Hence 𝐹𝐹̰ = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ = �4.33𝚤𝚤̰ + 2.5𝚥𝚥̰� N

We can think of the original given force of 5 N applied at an angle of 30° as two separate
forces, namely a horizontal force of 4.33N and a vertical force of 2.5 N.

Example 3

Given three points y

𝐴𝐴(2, 3), 𝐵𝐵(−5, 7) and 𝐶𝐶(1, −5). B(-5,7)
→ → → �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Find the vectors 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 , 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶.

Solution: A(2,3)
→ → →
−5 2 −7 �����⃗
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � �−� �=� �
7 3 4 x
O
→ → →
1 −5 6 �����⃗
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � �−� �=� �
−5 7 −12
→ → →
2 1 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � � − � � = � � C(1,-5)
3 −5 8

6-5
 Vectors

Example 4
The triangle ABC has its vertices at the points𝐴𝐴(−1, 3, 0), 𝐵𝐵(−3, 0, 7) and 𝐶𝐶(−1, 2, 3).
Find in component form, the vectors representing:

(a) �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ,
(b) �����⃗,
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
(c) �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 where P is a point that bisects the line CB,
(d) �����⃗ �����⃗ = 𝚥𝚥̰ − 3𝑘𝑘̰ .
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 if 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄

Solution:
−3 −1 −2
(a) �����⃗ �����⃗ − �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � 0 � − � 3 � = �−3� = −2𝚤𝚤̰ − 3𝚥𝚥̰ + 7𝑘𝑘̰
7 0 7
−3 −1 −2
(b) �����⃗ = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 �����⃗ − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
�����⃗ = � 0 � − � 2 � = �−2� = −2𝚤𝚤̰ − 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 4𝑘𝑘̰
7 3 4
−2 2 −1
1
(c) �����⃗ �����⃗ + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 �����⃗ = �����⃗ �����⃗ = �−3� + 1 � 2 � = �−2� = −𝚤𝚤̰ − 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 5𝑘𝑘̰
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 2 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 2
7 −4 5

(d) �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = �����⃗ �����⃗ = −2𝚤𝚤̰ − 3𝚥𝚥̰ + 7𝑘𝑘̰ − �𝚥𝚥̰ − 3𝑘𝑘̰ � = −2𝚤𝚤̰ − 4𝚥𝚥̰ + 10𝑘𝑘̰
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

Example 5

�⎯� 2
If 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � �,
−4
�⎯�
(a) Calculate�𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 �.
1
(b) Given that the position vector of B is � �, find the coordinates of the point A.
−5
�⎯�
(c) Given that ABCD is a parallelogram, and that M is the midpoint of CD, express 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
as a column vector.

Solution:
�����⃗ � = �22 + (−4)2 = √20 ≈ 4.47
(a) �𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

1 −2 −1
(b) �����⃗ �����⃗ + �����⃗
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = � � + � � = � � ∴ 𝐴𝐴(−1, −1)
−5 4 −1

�����⃗ = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
(c) Since 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 ������⃗ = 1 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
�����⃗, 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 �����⃗ = − 1 � 2 � = �−1�
�����⃗ = 1 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
2 2 2 −4 2

6-6
 Vectors

5.2 Unit Vectors and Direction of Vectors

Unit Vectors (Direction Vectors)

The direction of a vector in any dimensional space is defined by a unit vector which is parallel
to the vector. A unit vector for a vector 𝑎𝑎̰ is written as 𝑎𝑎̰�. It has the magnitude of 1 unit and
pointing in the direction parallel to the vector 𝑎𝑎̰ .
𝑎𝑎̰
𝑎𝑎̰ 𝑎𝑎̰�
Unit vector of any vector 𝑎𝑎̰ , 𝑎𝑎̰� =
|𝑎𝑎̰ |

For example, given a vector 𝑎𝑎̰ = 3𝚤𝚤̰ − 4𝚥𝚥̰ , then the unit vector in the
direction of 𝑎𝑎̰ is:
�3𝚤𝚤̰ − 4𝚥𝚥̰� �3𝚤𝚤̰ − 4𝚥𝚥̰� 3 4
𝑎𝑎̰� = = = 𝚤𝚤̰ − 𝚥𝚥̰
√32 + 42 5 5 5

3 2 4 2
Note |𝑎𝑎̰�| = ��5� + �5� = 1

Example 6
2
Given that 𝐹𝐹̰ is a force of magnitude 15 N and acting in the direction 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−1�. Express 𝐹𝐹̰ in
5
terms of its components.

Solution:

1 2 15 2
𝐹𝐹̰ = |𝐹𝐹̰ |𝐹𝐹̰� = 15 �−1� = �−1�
�22 + (−1)2 + 52 5 √30 5

2
15
[Answer: 𝐹𝐹̰ = �−1�]
√30
5

Direction Cosines
The angles vector 𝑣𝑣̰ makes with the positive x, y and z axes are known as direction angles. The
cosines of these angles, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾 are called the direction cosines of vector 𝑣𝑣̰ .

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾 = where 0 ≤ 𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽, 𝛾𝛾 ≤ 𝜋𝜋
|𝑣𝑣̰| |𝑣𝑣̰| |𝑣𝑣̰|

6-7
 Vectors

𝑣𝑣̰
Note that the unit vector pointing in the direction of 𝑣𝑣̰ is given by |𝑣𝑣̰ |
.
z
i.e. the unit vector
Vz
v v vy v
vˆ = % = x i + j+ z k
% v v % v % v %
% % % %
 vx v y vz  (x, y, z)
=  , ,  𝑣𝑣⃗
v
 % % % v v 
γ
=( cos α , cos β , cos γ )
β y
points in the same direction as 𝑣𝑣̰ and has a magnitude α Vy
of 1. Consequently, the following relation may be
drawn:
Vx
2 2 2
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛾𝛾 = 1 x

Example 7

3
Given 𝑎𝑎̰ = � 4 �, find the directional cosines of 𝑎𝑎̰ .
−2

Solution:

|𝑎𝑎̰ | = �32 + 42 + (−2)2 = √29

3 4 2
Thus, the directional cosines of 𝑎𝑎̰ are: cos 𝛼𝛼 = √29 , cos 𝛽𝛽 =
√29
and cos 𝛾𝛾 = −
√29

6-8
 Vectors

5.3 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Two vectors can be added geometrically using either

the triangle rule or the parallelogram rule.
y
The Triangle Rule
𝑏𝑏̰
To add two vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ we place the tail of one
arrow at the head of the other and then the vector that 𝑎𝑎̰
forms the third side of the triangle is the resultant 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ . x

The Parallelogram Rule y

If we place the tails of the arrows together and

complete the parallelogram then the diagonal of the 𝑏𝑏̰
parallelogram represents the resultant 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ . 𝑎𝑎̰
Note that vector 𝑎𝑎̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ , the subtraction of 𝑏𝑏̰ from 𝑎𝑎̰ is
defined to be 𝑎𝑎̰ + (−𝑏𝑏̰). x

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors Using Components

Suppose 𝑎𝑎̰ = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ , 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ , we can add or subtract the vectors analytically by
adding the components up, i.e.

𝑎𝑎̰ ± 𝑏𝑏̰ = (𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 )𝚤𝚤̰ + �𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 ± 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 �𝚥𝚥̰ [component form]
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥
= �𝑎𝑎 � ± � � = � � [column vectors form]
𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 ± 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

If λ is a scalar quantity, then 𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎̰ is a vector of magnitude |𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎̰ | whose direction is that of 𝑎𝑎̰ if
λ is positive and that of −𝑎𝑎̰ if λ is negative. Diagrams below show a vector 𝑎𝑎̰ together with
two vectors 2𝑎𝑎̰ and −0.5𝑎𝑎̰ .

2𝑏𝑏̰

𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰
𝑎𝑎̰ −0.5𝑎𝑎̰ −𝑎𝑎̰
2𝑎𝑎̰ 𝑏𝑏̰
𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑎𝑎̰ 𝑎𝑎̰
Adding and multiplying vectors

6-9
 Vectors

Example 8
1 2
Given that vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ = � 2 � and 𝑏𝑏̰ = �−1�. Find 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ , 𝑎𝑎̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ and hence the unit vectors in
−3 −1
the directions of 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ and 𝑎𝑎̰ − 𝑏𝑏̰ .

Solution:
1 2 3
𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 2 � + �−1� = � 1 �
−3 −1 −4

Unit vector in the direction of 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰

𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰
=
|𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ |

3
�1�
= −4
√3 + 12 + 42
2

1 3
= �1�
√26 −4

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 Vectors

5.4 Dot (or Scalar) Product of 2 Vectors

𝑏𝑏̰
The dot product is denoted by "•" between two vectors. The
dot product of vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ results in a scalar given by the θ
relation 𝑎𝑎̰

𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 (read 𝑎𝑎̰ dot 𝑏𝑏̰ )

where |𝑎𝑎̰ | = magnitude of vector 𝑎𝑎̰ ,

|𝑏𝑏̰| = magnitude of vector 𝑏𝑏̰ ,
θ = angle between 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ , and 0° ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 180°

𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ yields a scalar and hence the name scalar product.

The analogies for the dot product is “multiplication, taking direction into account”.

Properties of Dot Product

(a) The dot product is commutative. Order is not important in the dot product as can be
seen by the dot products definition.

So 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑏𝑏̰ • 𝑎𝑎̰

(b) The dot product is distributive over vector addition.

𝑎𝑎̰ • (𝑏𝑏̰ + 𝑐𝑐̰ ) = 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ + 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑐𝑐̰

The distributive law may be extended in the form

(𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ ) • (𝑐𝑐̰ + 𝑑𝑑̰ ) = 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑐𝑐̰ + 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑑𝑑̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ • 𝑐𝑐̰ + 𝑏𝑏̰ • 𝑑𝑑̰

(c) If λ is any real number (a scalar) then

𝑎𝑎̰ • (𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏̰) = 𝜆𝜆(𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ )

(d) Since the angle between a vector and itself is zero, and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0∘ = 1, the magnitude of a
vector can be written in terms of the dot product using the rule:

𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑎𝑎̰ = |𝑎𝑎̰ |2

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 Vectors

Special Cases of the Dot Product

𝑏𝑏̰ 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ =
(a) 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = 0
If 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ are non-zero vectors and 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ are 𝑎𝑎̰
perpendicular to each other, i.e. 𝜃𝜃 = 90°.

(b) 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰ | 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ =

If 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ are parallel to each other and pointing in |𝑎𝑎||𝑏𝑏 | 𝑎𝑎̰
the same direction, i.e. 𝜃𝜃 = 0° 𝑏𝑏̰

(c) 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = − |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰|

If 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ are parallel to each other but pointing in 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ =
the opposite direction, i.e. 𝜃𝜃 = 180° − |𝑎𝑎||𝑏𝑏|
𝑏𝑏̰ 𝑎𝑎̰

Dot (or Scalar) Product in Component Form

Given 𝑎𝑎̰ = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰

Using the dot product distributive property 𝑎𝑎̰ • (𝑏𝑏̰ + 𝑐𝑐̰ ) = 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ + 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑐𝑐̰ ,

𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = �𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ � • �𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ �
= 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 (𝚤𝚤̰ • 𝚤𝚤̰ ) + 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 �𝚤𝚤̰ • 𝚥𝚥̰� + 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 (𝚤𝚤̰ • 𝑘𝑘̰ )
+ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 �𝚥𝚥̰ • 𝚤𝚤̰ � + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 �𝚥𝚥̰ • 𝚥𝚥̰� + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 �𝚥𝚥̰ • 𝑘𝑘̰ �
+ 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 (𝑘𝑘̰ • 𝚤𝚤̰ ) + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 �𝑘𝑘̰ • 𝚥𝚥̰� + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 (𝑘𝑘̰ • 𝑘𝑘̰ )
= 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧

Note that 𝚤𝚤̰ • 𝚤𝚤̰ = 𝚥𝚥̰ • 𝚥𝚥̰ = 𝑘𝑘̰ • 𝑘𝑘̰ = 1 and 𝚤𝚤̰ • 𝚥𝚥̰ = 𝚥𝚥̰ • 𝑘𝑘̰ = 𝑘𝑘̰ • 𝚤𝚤̰ = 0

Example 9

Find 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ where

1 −9
(a) 𝑎𝑎̰ = 5𝚤𝚤̰ + 3𝚥𝚥̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 5𝚥𝚥̰ (b) 𝑎𝑎̰ = �0� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 4 �
7 3
Solution:

5 2
(a) 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = � � • � � = 5(2) + 3(5) = 25
3 5
1 −9
(b) 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = �0� • � 4 � = 1(−9) + 0(4) + 7(3) = 12
7 3

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 Vectors

Applications of Dot Product

(a) Angle Between Vectors

An important use of dot product is in the calculation of the angle between vectors.
If 𝑎𝑎̰ = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰

then |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰

𝑎𝑎̰ •𝑏𝑏̰ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 +𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 +𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧

⇒ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰ | =
� �𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 2 +𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 2 ��𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 2 +𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 2 �

The dot product is also used to check if 2 vectors are perpendicular to each other. From the
equation |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ we can see that if 𝜃𝜃 is 90° then cos 90° = 0. Therefore if the
vector 𝑎𝑎̰ is perpendicular to 𝑏𝑏̰ then 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = 0.

Example 10
−2 1
Find the angle between the vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−1� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 2 �.
−1 −1

Solution:

|𝑎𝑎̰ | = √4 + 1 + 1 = √6 and |𝑏𝑏̰| = √1 + 4 + 1 = √6

𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰ = (−2)(1) + (−1)(2) + (−1)(−1) = −3

Then |𝑎𝑎̰ ||𝑏𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰

1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝜃𝜃 �− 2�= 120°

Example 11
The vertices of a triangle ABC are 𝐶𝐶(4, −3). Find the angle ABC.
→ → →
1 6 −5
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � � − � � = � �
2 7 −5
→ → →
4 6 −2
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � � − � � = � �
−3 7 −10
→ −5 → −2
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 • 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵�•� � �
(−5)(−2) + (−5)(−10)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∠ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = → = −5 −10 =
→ 2 2 2 2
�𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵� �𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 � √5 + 5 √2 + 10 √50√104
60
=
√50√104
−1
60
∠𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≈ 33.7°
√50√104

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 Vectors

(b) Work Done

One application of the dot product is in the finding of the work done by a force 𝐹𝐹̰ applied over
a displacement 𝑥𝑥̰ . Note that both 𝐹𝐹̰ and 𝑥𝑥̰ are vectors.
Fy 𝐹𝐹̰
A force of 5 N is applied to a box at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal. Suppose the displacement is 2.0 m along the x-axis.
Then the work done by the force in moving the box over the θ
displacement of 2.0 m is Fx

WD = 𝐹𝐹̰ • 𝑥𝑥̰ 𝑥𝑥̰

Now |𝐹𝐹̰ | = 5 N and 𝜃𝜃 = 30° then expressing the 𝐹𝐹̰ as

5√3 5
𝐹𝐹̰ = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ = (|𝐹𝐹̰ | 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃)𝚤𝚤̰ + (|𝐹𝐹̰ | 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃)𝚥𝚥̰ = � 𝚤𝚤̰ + 2 𝚥𝚥̰�N
2

and the displacement 𝑥𝑥̰ = 2.0𝚤𝚤̰ metres

5√3
2 5√3 5
WD = 𝐹𝐹̰ • 𝑥𝑥̰ = ⎛ 2 ⎞ • � � = � � (2) + � � (0) = 5√3 J
5 0 2 2
⎝ 2 ⎠

Note that the other way of calculating the work done is

√3
WD = |𝐹𝐹̰ ||𝑥𝑥̰ | 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 3 0∘ = (5)(2) � � = 5√3 𝐽𝐽
2

Example 12
1
An object moved from point 𝐵𝐵(2, 4, −3). If the applied force is 𝐹𝐹̰ = � 3 �, find the work
−4
done by the force.

Solution:
2 3 −1
�����⃗ �����⃗ �����⃗
Displacement, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 4 − −1 = 5 �
� � � � �
−3 2 −5
1 −1
Work done,WD = 𝐹𝐹̰ • �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 3 � • � 5 � = 1(−1) + 3(5) + (−4)(−5) = 34 units
−4 −5

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 Vectors

(c) Length of Perpendicular Projection of a Vector

𝑎𝑎̰
Length of projection of 𝑎𝑎̰ onto 𝑏𝑏̰ is defined as the scalar A
component of 𝑎𝑎̰ in the direction of vector 𝑏𝑏̰ , which is
θ 𝑏𝑏̰
numerically the length of the perpendicular projection of 𝑎𝑎̰
onto the straight line along 𝑏𝑏̰ .
O

a b cos θ a •b
Length of projection of a onto b, compb a = a cos θ = %% = %%= a • bˆ
% % %% % b b %%
% %
Vector projection of a onto b, projb a=
% % %%
( %a • b%ˆ ) b%ˆ
Likewise, length of projection of 𝑏𝑏̰ onto 𝑎𝑎̰ ,

|𝑏𝑏̰ ||𝑎𝑎̰ | 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 𝑏𝑏̰ •𝑎𝑎̰

comp𝑎𝑎̰ 𝑏𝑏̰ = |𝑏𝑏̰| 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = |𝑎𝑎̰ |
= |𝑎𝑎̰ |
= 𝑏𝑏̰ • 𝑎𝑎̰� 𝑎𝑎̰
A
𝑏𝑏̰
Vector projection of 𝑏𝑏̰ onto 𝑎𝑎̰ , proj𝑎𝑎̰ 𝑏𝑏̰ = (𝑏𝑏̰ • 𝑎𝑎̰�)𝑎𝑎̰� θ

Example 13
2 1
Given that 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−3� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = �0�. Find the following:
1 5

(a) length of projection of 𝑎𝑎̰ onto 𝑏𝑏̰ ,

(b) vector projection of 𝑎𝑎̰ onto 𝑏𝑏̰ ,

(c) length of projection of 𝑏𝑏̰ onto 𝑎𝑎̰ .

Solution:

𝑎𝑎̰ •𝑏𝑏̰ (2)(1) +(−3)(0)+(1)(5) 7

(a) comp𝑏𝑏̰ 𝑎𝑎̰ = |𝑏𝑏̰ |
= √12 +52
= ≈ 1.37
√26

1 7
�0� 1 26
7 � 7 7
(b) proj𝑏𝑏̰ 𝑎𝑎̰ = �𝑎𝑎̰ • 𝑏𝑏̰� �𝑏𝑏̰� = � � 𝑏𝑏�⃗ = � � 5 = 26 �0� or � 0 �
√26 √26 √12 +52 35
5
26

(1)(2) + (0)(−3) + (5)(1) 7

(c) = = ≈ 1.87
�22 +(−3)2 +12 √14

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 Vectors

5.5 Vector (or Cross) Product of 2 Vectors

Given two vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ , the vector product (cross product) is another vector 𝒄𝒄̰ written as
𝒄𝒄̰ = 𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ such that:

(i) 𝒄𝒄̰ is at right angles to both 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ ;

(ii) |𝒄𝒄̰| = |𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ | = |𝒂𝒂̰||𝒃𝒃̰| 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽 where 𝜃𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ such that 0 ≤
𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋.

(iii) The direction of the cross product is given by the right hand
rule. The fingers point in the direction of the first vector, 𝑎𝑎̰ and
curl up to the second vector 𝑏𝑏̰ . The thumb would indicate the
direction of the cross product 𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ .

The vector product may also be written as

𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ = (|𝒂𝒂̰||𝒃𝒃̰| 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽)𝒏𝒏̰�

where 𝑛𝑛̰� is a unit vector, |𝑛𝑛̰�| = 1, in the direction of 𝒄𝒄̰ .

Properties of the Vector Product

(1) The vector product is not commutative.

𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = −(𝑏𝑏̰ × 𝑎𝑎̰ )

(2) The vector product is distributive over addition.

𝑎𝑎̰ × (𝑏𝑏̰ + 𝑐𝑐̰ ) = 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ + 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑐𝑐̰

(3) If m is a scalar, 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = (𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎̰ ) × 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑎𝑎̰ × (𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏̰) = 𝑚𝑚(𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ )

(4) If the vector product 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = 0̰ , then either or 𝑏𝑏̰ = 0̰ or 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 = 0. Thus if two non-
zero vectors have a zero vector product then they are parallel, i.e. if 𝑎𝑎̰ ≠ 0̰ , 𝑏𝑏̰ ≠ 0̰ and
𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = 0̰ , then 𝑎𝑎̰ is parallel to 𝑏𝑏̰ .

(5) If 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ are perpendicular (at right angles to each other) then 𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ = |𝒂𝒂̰||𝒃𝒃̰|𝒏𝒏
�.̰

(6) The unit vectors 𝚤𝚤̰ , 𝚥𝚥̰and 𝑘𝑘̰ of a right-handed Cartesian co-
ordinate system are mutually orthogonal and have the
following properties:

𝚤𝚤̰ × 𝚥𝚥̰ = −𝚥𝚥̰ × 𝚤𝚤̰ = 𝑘𝑘̰

𝚥𝚥̰ × 𝑘𝑘̰ = −𝑘𝑘̰ × 𝚥𝚥̰ = 𝚤𝚤̰ and 𝚤𝚤̰ × 𝚤𝚤̰ = 𝚥𝚥̰ × 𝚥𝚥̰ = 𝑘𝑘̰ × 𝑘𝑘̰ = 0̰
𝑘𝑘̰ × 𝚤𝚤̰ = −𝚤𝚤̰ × 𝑘𝑘̰ = 𝚥𝚥̰

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 Vectors

Vector Product in Component Form

If 𝑎𝑎̰ = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘̰ , then

c= a × b
% % %
=
% % % %
( % % %
) (
c ax i + a y j + az k × bx i + by j +bz k )
=
% % % %
( %
)
% % %
(
ax i × bx i + by j + bz k + a y j × bx i + by j + bz k + az k × bx i + by j + bz k
% % % %
) ( )
= ( )
a y bz − a z by i + ( a z bx − a xbz ) j + a xby − a y bx k
% % %
( )

𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦

𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧
In determinant form, 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = �𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 � = �𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 � 𝚤𝚤̰ − �𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 � 𝚥𝚥̰ + �𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 � 𝑘𝑘̰
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧
= �𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 − 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 �𝚤𝚤̰ + (𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑧𝑧 )𝚥𝚥̰ + �𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 �𝑘𝑘̰

Example 14

3 2
If 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−1� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 2 �, find 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ . Verify that 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ is perpendicular to 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ .
2 −1

Solution:
OR −2𝑘𝑘̰ +(4𝚤𝚤̰ ) +�−3𝚥𝚥̰�
𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰ 𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰ 𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = �3 −1 2 � = � � 𝚤𝚤̰ − � � 𝚥𝚥̰ + � � 𝑘𝑘̰ � 3 −1 2 3 −1
2 −1 2 −1 2 2 �
2 2 −1 2 2 −1 2 2
= (1 − 4)𝚤𝚤̰ − (−3 − 4)𝚥𝚥̰ + �6 − (−2)�𝑘𝑘̰ = −3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 8𝑘𝑘̰ 𝚤𝚤̰ +�4𝚥𝚥̰� +(6𝑘𝑘̰ )

You might want to verify (using the dot product) that the vector −3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 8𝑘𝑘̰ is
perpendicular both to 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ .

3
�−3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 8𝑘𝑘̰ � • 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 8𝑘𝑘̰ � • �−1� = 0
2
2
�−3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 8𝑘𝑘̰ � • 𝑏𝑏̰ = �−3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 8𝑘𝑘̰ � • � 2 � = 0
−1

Hence 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ is perpendicular to 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰

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 Vectors

Example 15
Find a unit vector perpendicular to 𝑎𝑎̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ + 3𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝚤𝚤̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰ .

Solution:
The vector perpendicular to 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ is given by 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ .

𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰

𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = �2 1 3�
1 0 −1

= [1(−1) − 3(0)]𝚤𝚤̰ − [2(−1) − 3(1)]𝚥𝚥̰ + [2(0) − 1(1)]𝑘𝑘̰ = − 𝚤𝚤̰ + 5𝚥𝚥̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰

|𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ | = �(−1)2 + 52 + (−1)2 = √27

𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ 1 −1
The unit vector perpendicular to 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ is = � 5 �.
|𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ | √27
−1

Geometrical Interpretation of 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰

Suppose that 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏 ̰ are represented by adjacent sides of a parallelogram PQRS, with 𝑎𝑎̰ =
→ →
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. The parallelogram then has a base of length |𝒂𝒂̰| and height of |𝑏𝑏̰| 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃.
Area of parallelogram PQRS= |𝒂𝒂̰|(height) = |𝒂𝒂̰||𝒃𝒃̰| 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽 = | |𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ |
S R

θ
Thus numerically, the length of the vector product 𝒂𝒂̰ × 𝒃𝒃̰ is P Q
the area of the parallelogram determined by 𝑎𝑎̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ .
Area of the triangle 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
1 S
area of the parallelogram R
2
1 1 → →
= |𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ | = �𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃�
2 2

To summarise, θ
P Q

Area of parallelogram 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = |𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ |

1
Area of the triangle 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = |𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ |
2

6 - 19
 Vectors

Example 16
1
Find the area of the triangle with two of its sides formed by the vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ = �2� and 𝑏𝑏̰ =
6
4
�−2�.
5

Solution:
𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰
2 6 1 6 1 2
𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = �1 2 6� = � � 𝚤𝚤̰ − � � 𝚥𝚥 + � � 𝑘𝑘̰ = 22𝚤𝚤̰ + 19𝚥𝚥̰ − 10𝑘𝑘̰
−2 5 4 5 ̰ 4 −2
4 −2 5

1 1 1
Area of triangle = 2 |𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ | = 2 �(22)2 + (19)2 + (−10)2 = 2 √945 ≈ 15.4 units2

Example 17
Find the area of the triangle with vertices at the points 𝑃𝑃(1, 3, 2), 𝑄𝑄(2, −1, 1) and
𝑅𝑅(−1, 2, 3).

→ → → 2 1 1 → → → −1 1 −2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = �−1� − �3� = �−4� 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 − 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = � 2 � − �3� = �−1�
1 2 −1 3 2 1

1 → → 1 1 −2 1 𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰

Area of the triangle = �𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 � = ��−4� × �−1�� = �� 1 −4 −1��
2 2 2
−1 1 −2 −1 1

1 −5
= �� 1 ��
2
−9

1
= �52 + 12 + 92 ≈ 5.17 units2
2

[Ans: 5.17 units2]

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 Vectors

Example 18
1 4 7
Show that the vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ = �2�, 𝑏𝑏̰ = �5� and 𝑐𝑐̰ = �8� all lie in the same plane.
3 6 9

Solution:

To show that the three vectors lie in the same plane, we shall take their triple scalar product and
show that it is equal to zero.

𝚤𝚤̰ 𝚥𝚥̰ 𝑘𝑘̰

5 6 4 6 4 5
𝑏𝑏̰ × 𝑐𝑐̰ = �4 5 6� = �8 9� 𝚤𝚤̰ − �7 9� 𝚥𝚥̰ + �7 � 𝑘𝑘̰ = −3𝚤𝚤̰ + 6𝚥𝚥̰ − 3𝑘𝑘̰
8
7 8 9

( ) (
a • b × c = i + 2 j + 3k • −3i + 6 j − 3k
%%% % % % % % %
)
= (1)( −3) + ( 2 )( 6 ) + ( 3)( −3)
=−3 + 12 − 9
=0

So, we conclude that the three vectors lie in the same plane.

Example 19

A positive charge q moving with velocity 𝑣𝑣̰ when placed in a magnetic field 𝑏𝑏̰ will experience
a force 𝐹𝐹̰ given by 𝐹𝐹̰ = 𝑞𝑞𝑣𝑣̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ . A moving charge of 1.6 × 10−19 coulomb was placed in the
region where there are two magnetic fields 𝑏𝑏̰ 1 = 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ 2 = 3𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ .

(a) Find the resultant magnetic field 𝑏𝑏̰ .

(b) If the charge is moving in the direction 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰ ,

(i) find the unit vector in this direction,

(ii) given that the speed of the charge is 3 × 106 m s -1 , state the velocity of the charge.

Hence,
(c) find the force vector 𝐹𝐹̰ acting on the charge and the magnitude of this force.

Positive
charge
q

6 - 21
 Vectors

Solution:
(a) The resultant magnetic field,
1 3 4
𝑏𝑏̰ = 𝑏𝑏̰ 1 + 𝑏𝑏̰ 2 = � 1 � + � 1 � = � 2 �
−1 −2 −3
2
2
�2� 2 3
⎛2⎞
1 1
(b) (𝑖𝑖) Unit vector in the direction 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛̰ = √22 +22 +12
= 3 �2� or ⎜3⎟
1 1
⎝3⎠
2
1
(ii) Velocity of the charge, 𝑣𝑣̰ = |𝑣𝑣̰|𝑛𝑛̰ = 3 × 106 × �2�
3
1
2 2
= 1 × 106 × �2� = 106 �2�
1 1

2 4
−19 6
(c) 𝐹𝐹̰ = 𝑞𝑞𝑣𝑣̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ = 1.60 × 10 �10 �2� × � 2 ��
1 −3

i j k
% % %
= 1.60 ×10−13 2 2 (
1 =1.60 × 10-13 −8 i + 10 j − 4k
% % %
)
4 2 −3

(
= 3.2 ×10-13 −4 i + 5 j − 2k
% % %
)
−13
F = 3.2 ×10 4 + 52 + 22 = 2.1×10−12 N
2
%

6 - 22
 Vectors

TUTORIAL 12

5.1 Introduction to Vectors and Basic Properties

→ →
Q1 Given the points 𝐴𝐴(−5, 4, −7) and 𝐶𝐶(3, −2, 5), express 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 in the
(a) 𝚤𝚤̰ , 𝚥𝚥̰, 𝑘𝑘̰ form (b) column vector (c) row vector.

Q2 A, B, C, and D are the points (1, 2, 3), (−2, 0, 4), (0, 2, −3) and (−5, 4, −1)
respectively.
(a) Write down the position vectors of A, B, C and D.
→ → → →
(b) Find the vector representing 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 , 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 and 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴.

Q3 Find the magnitude for each of the following vectors:

2
(a) 5𝚤𝚤̰ − 12𝚥𝚥̰ (b) 8𝚤𝚤̰ + 6𝑘𝑘̰ (c) 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ (d) �−6�
3

Q4 A particle P is acted on by the following four forces, measured in newtons (N):𝐹𝐹̰ 1 =

2𝚤𝚤̰ + 3𝚥𝚥̰ − 5𝑘𝑘̰ , 𝐹𝐹̰ 2 = −5𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ + 3𝑘𝑘̰ , 𝐹𝐹̰ 3 = 𝚤𝚤̰ − 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 4𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝐹𝐹̰4 = 4𝚤𝚤̰ − 3𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ .
Find (a) the resultant force,
(b) the magnitude of the resultant force.

5.2 Unit Vectors and Direction of Vectors

8 16 −8
Q5 Given 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−4�, 𝑏𝑏̰ = �−8� and 𝑐𝑐̰ = � 4 �, find the unit vectors 𝑎𝑎̰�, 𝑏𝑏̰� and 𝑐𝑐̰ ̂ .
−1 −2 1
3 −2 1
Q6 Given 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−1�, 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 4 � and 𝑐𝑐̰ = � 2 �, find a unit vector parallel to 3𝑎𝑎̰ − 2𝑏𝑏̰ +
−4 −3 −1
4𝑐𝑐̰ .

3
Q7 Find the angles which the vector 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−6� makes with the co-ordinate axes of x, y and
2
z.

Q8 Find the magnitude and inclination to each of the co-ordinate axis of a vector 𝑣𝑣̰ if
(a) 𝑣𝑣̰ = −𝚤𝚤̰ + 3𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ ,
→
(b) 𝑣𝑣̰ is represented by 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, where 𝑃𝑃(−2, 5, −1).
4 5
Q9 Points A and B are represented by the position vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ = �2� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 4 �
1 −1
respectively.
→
(a) Find the magnitude and direction cosines of 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ,
→
(b) Write down the unit vector of 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 .

6 - 23
 Vectors

5.3 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Q10 If 𝑎𝑎̰ = 3𝚤𝚤̰ − 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰ , 𝑏𝑏̰ = −2𝚤𝚤̰ + 5𝚥𝚥̰ + 4𝑘𝑘̰ , 𝑐𝑐̰ = −4𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑑𝑑̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ − 𝚥𝚥̰ + 4𝑘𝑘̰ ,
find
(a) 𝑎𝑎̰ + 2𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑐𝑐̰ (b) 3𝑏𝑏̰ − 2𝑑𝑑̰ (c) 𝑏𝑏̰ − 𝑎𝑎̰ − 𝑑𝑑̰

2 2 −1
Q11 If 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−2� , 𝑏𝑏̰ = �−2� , 𝑐𝑐̰ = � 1 � , find the values of α and β such that 𝑎𝑎̰ + 𝛼𝛼 𝑏𝑏̰ +
1 5 2
𝛽𝛽 𝑐𝑐̰ = 0.

Suggested Answers
→ →
Q2 (b) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = −3𝚤𝚤̰ − 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = −5𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 2𝑘𝑘̰
→ →
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = −3𝚤𝚤̰ + 4𝚥𝚥̰ − 5𝑘𝑘̰ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = −6𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ − 4𝑘𝑘̰

Q3 (a) 13 (b) 10 (c) 3 (d) 7

Q4 (a) 2𝚤𝚤̰ − 𝚥𝚥̰ (b) 5

8 8 −8
1 1 1
Q5 (a) 9
�−4� (b) 9
�−4� (c) 9
�4�
−1 −1 1
17
1
Q6 � −3 �
√398
−10

Q7 64.6°, 149.0°, 73.4°

Q8 (a) 14 , 105.5°, 36.7°, 122.3°

(b) 30 , 111.4°, 24.1°, 100.5°
1 2 2 1
1
Q9 (a) 3, , ,− (b) 3 � 2 �
3 3 3
−2

Q10 (a)3𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ + 11𝑘𝑘̰ (b) −10𝚤𝚤̰ + 17𝚥𝚥̰ + 4𝑘𝑘̰ (c) −7𝚤𝚤̰ + 8𝚥𝚥̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰

5 8
Q11 𝛼𝛼 = − 9 and 𝛽𝛽 = 9

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 Vectors

TUTORIAL 13

5.4 Dot (or Scalar) of Complex Numbers

Q1 Evaluate the dot product of the following vectors.

(a) 𝑎𝑎̰ = 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ = −𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰
2 3
(b) 𝑝𝑝̰ = �3� and 𝑞𝑞̰ = �−4�
1 2

Q2 Show that 𝑎𝑎̰ = 6𝚤𝚤̰ + 7𝚥𝚥̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰ is perpendicular to 𝑏𝑏̰ = 2�−𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ + 𝑘𝑘̰ �.

2 4
Q3 Find the value of a if 𝑝𝑝̰ = �𝑎𝑎� is perpendicular to 𝑞𝑞̰ = �−2�.
1 −2

Q4 Find the angle between 𝑎𝑎̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑏𝑏̰ = 6𝚤𝚤̰ − 3𝚥𝚥̰ + 2𝑘𝑘̰ .

Q5 The position vectors of points A, B and C are −3𝚤𝚤̰ + 4𝚥𝚥̰, 2𝚤𝚤̰ + 3𝚥𝚥̰ and 𝚤𝚤̰ − 2𝚥𝚥̰
respectively. Calculate the angle of BAC.

Q6 Find the work done in moving an object from point 𝐴𝐴(1, 1, 1) to 𝐵𝐵(4, 3, −6) if the
applied force is 𝐹𝐹̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ − 𝚥𝚥̰ − 𝑘𝑘̰ .

Suggested Answers

Q1 (a) 2 (b) −4
Q3 3
Q4 79.0°
𝜋𝜋
Q5 4
or 45°
Q6 11

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 Vectors

TUTORIAL 14

5.5 Vector (or Cross) Product of Complex Numbers

2 1
Q1 Given 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−3� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 4 �. Find (𝑎𝑎) 𝑎𝑎̰ × 𝑏𝑏̰ and (𝑏𝑏) 𝑏𝑏̰ × 𝑎𝑎̰ .
−1 −2

Q2 Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane defined by the vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ =
2 4
�−6� and 𝑏𝑏̰ = � 3 �.
−3 −1
→ → → → →
Q3 The position vectors, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 are defined by OA = 2 i − j + 4k , 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 3𝚤𝚤̰ + 2𝚥𝚥̰ − 4𝑘𝑘̰
→
% % %
and 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = −𝚤𝚤̰ + 3𝚥𝚥̰ − 2𝑘𝑘̰ respectively. Determine the following

→ →
(a) vectors 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ,
→ →
(b) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ,
(c) unit vector perpendicular to the plane ABC.

3
Q4 Find the area of parallelogram with two of its sides formed by 𝑎𝑎̰ = �−1� and 𝑏𝑏̰ =
2
2
� 1 �.
−1

Q5 The vectors 𝑢𝑢̰ and 𝑣𝑣̰ are given by𝑢𝑢̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ − 𝚥𝚥̰ + 2𝑘𝑘̰ and 𝑣𝑣̰ = 𝑝𝑝𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑞𝑞𝑘𝑘̰ . Given that 𝑢𝑢̰ ×
𝑣𝑣̰ = 𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝑠𝑠𝑘𝑘̰ , find p, q and s. Find also, in surd form, the cosine of the angle
between𝑢𝑢̰ and 𝑣𝑣̰ .

1 1
Q6 The points A, B, C, D have position vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ , 𝑏𝑏̰ , 𝑐𝑐̰ and 𝑑𝑑̰ given by 𝑎𝑎̰ = �2�, 𝑏𝑏̰ = �2�,
3 2
3 4 →
𝑐𝑐̰ = �2� and 𝑑𝑑̰ = �−1� respectively. The point P lies on 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 produced and is such that
→
1 → −1 →
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and the point Q is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 .
→ →
(a) Show that 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is perpendicular to 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ;
(b) Find the area of the triangle APQ;
(c) Find a vector perpendicular to plane ABC;
→ →
(d) Find the cosine of the acute angle between 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴and 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵.

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 Vectors

Q7 (S1Y15/16 Exam Q8)

A, B and C are points with position vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ = 2𝚤𝚤̰ − 4𝚥𝚥̰ − 4𝑘𝑘̰ , 𝑏𝑏̰ = −4𝚥𝚥̰ − 3𝑘𝑘̰ and
𝑐𝑐̰ = 𝚤𝚤̰ + 6𝚥𝚥̰ + 4𝑘𝑘̰ respectively.

(a) Find a unit vector in the direction of �����⃗𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 .

(b) Find the vector projection of �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 onto �����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 .
(c) Show that the vectors 𝑎𝑎̰ , 𝑏𝑏̰ and 𝑐𝑐̰ lie on the same plane.

Suggested Answers

10 −10
Q1 (a) � 3 � (b) � −3 �
11 −11

−3 −3
1 1
Q2 7
� 2 � or − � 2 �
7
−6 −6

Q3 (a) 𝚤𝚤̰ + 3𝚥𝚥̰ − 8𝑘𝑘̰ , −4𝚤𝚤̰ + 𝚥𝚥̰ + 2𝑘𝑘̰ (b) 14𝚤𝚤̰ + 30𝚥𝚥̰ + 13𝑘𝑘̰
1
(c) �14𝚤𝚤̰ + 30𝚥𝚥̰ + 13𝑘𝑘̰ �
√1265

Q4 75

2√2
Q5 p = q = s = −1, − 3

0
30
Q6 (b) 1 (c) �−2� (d) ≈ 0.990
√918
0

−2 −4
1
Q7 (a) �0� (b) proj𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
�����⃗
�����⃗
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � 0�
√5
1 2

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