UNIT-III SCHEMA REFINEMENT & NORMALIZATION

Types Of Anomalies, Concept Of Functional Dependency, Normalization, Advantages

,Types Of Normal forms(1NF, 2NF And 3NF), Boyce-Codd Normal Form(BCNF), Fourth
Normal Form(4NF) .Lossless Join And Dependency Preserving Decomposition.

SCHEMA REFINEMENT

The Schema Refinement refers to refine the schema by using some technique. The best
technique of schema refinement is decomposition. Normalisation or Schema Refinement is a
technique of organizing the data in the database. It is a systematic approach of decomposing
tables to eliminate data redundancy and undesirable characteristics like Insertion, Update and
Deletion Anomalies. Redundancy refers to repetition of same data or duplicate copies of
same data stored in different locations.
Anomalies: Anomalies refers to the problems occurred after poorly planned and normalised
databases where all the data is stored in one table which is sometimes called a flat file
database.
Problems Caused by Redundancy: Anomalies refers to the problems occurred after poorly
planned and unnormalised databases where all the data is stored in one table which is
sometimes called a flat file database. Let us consider such type of schema.
Storing the same information redundantly, that is, in more than one place within a database,
can lead to several problems:

Redundant storage: Some information is stored repeatedly.

Update anomalies: If one copy of such repeated data is updated, an inconsistency is created
unless all copies are similarly updated.
Insertion anomalies: It may not be possible to store some information unless some other
information is stored as well.
Deletion anomalies: It may not be possible to delete some information without losing some
other information as well.

Problem in updation / updation anomaly If there is updation in the fee from 5000 to 7000,
then we have to update FEE column in all the rows, else data will become inconsistent

Insertion Anomaly and Deletion Anomaly- These anomalies exist only due to redundancy,
otherwise they do not exist .

InsertionAnomalies: New course is introduced C4, But no student is there who is having C4
Subject
Because of insertion of some data, It is forced to insert some other dummy data.

Deletion Anomaly: Deletion of S3 student causes the deletion of course. Because of deletion of some
data forced to delete some other useful data.

Solutions to Anomalies: Decomposition of Tables – Schema Refinement

There are some Anomalies in this again

What is the Solution ?
Solution : decomposing into relations as shown below

To Avoid Redundancy and problems due to redundancy, we use refinement technique called
Decomposition.
Decomposition: Process of decomposing a larger relation into smaller relations. Each of smaller
relations contain subset of attributes of original relation

Rollnum Name Age Book# Subject

101 Anil 20 B1 NETWORKS

102 Abshik 21 B2 ALGORITHMS
103 Bhanu 20 B10 DBMS
101 Anil 20 B21 ECOM
NULL B30
FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCIES:

Association among attributes is called functional dependency. It is represented by AB.A

functional dependency (FD) is a kind of IC that generalizes the concept of a key. Let R be a
relation schema and let X and Y be nonempty sets of attributes in R. We say that an instance r
of R satisfies the FD X → Y 1 if the following holds for every pair of tuples t1 and t2 in r: If
t1.X = t2.X, then t1.Y = t2.Y.An FD X → Y essentially says that if two tuples agree on the
values in attributes X, they must also agree on the values in attributes Y. AB in a relation
holds true if two tuples having the same value of attribute A also have the same value of
attribute B
Example: Rnoname,Aadharnum→Ename ,Pnumber →{Pname, Plocation}, DnoDno, Dname,
Rno,nameage

Reasoning about functional dependencies:

Armstrong’s Axioms: Armstrong axioms defines the set of rules for reasoning about
functional dependencies and also to infer all the functional dependencies on a relational
database. Various axioms rules or inference rules:

Inference Rule (IR):

 The Armstrong's axioms are the basic inference rule.

 Armstrong's axioms are used to conclude functional dependencies on a relational
database.
 The inference rule is a type of assertion. It can apply to a set of FD(functional
dependency) to derive other FD.
 Using the inference rule, we can derive additional functional dependency from the
initial set.

The Functional dependency has 6 types of inference rule:

Primary axioms: If X ⊇ Y, then X → Y

1. Reflexive Rule (IR1): In the reflexive rule, if Y is a subset of X, then X determines Y.

Example: X = {a, b, c, d, e} Y = {a, b, c}
2. Augmentation Rule (IR2): If X → Y, then XZ → YZ for any Z.
The augmentation is also called as a partial dependency. In augmentation, if X determines Y,
then XZ determines YZ for any Z. Example: For R(ABCD), if A → B then AC → BC
3. Transitive Rule (IR3): If X → Y and Y → Z then X→ Z
In the transitive rule, if X determines Y and Y determine Z, then X must also determine Z.
Some additional rules or secondary or derived axioms:
4. Union Rule (IR4): If X → Y and X → Z, then X → YZ.
Union rule says, if X determines Y and X determines Z, then X must also determine Y and Z.
5. Decomposition Rule (IR5): If X → YZ, then X → Y and X → Z.
Decomposition rule is also known as project rule. It is the reverse of union rule. This Rule
says, if X determines Y and Z, then X determines Y and X determines Z separately.
6. Pseudo transitive Rule (IR6): If X → Y and YZ → W then XZ → W
In Pseudo transitive Rule, if X determines Y and YZ determines W, then XZ determines W.
Why Armstrong axioms refer to the Sound and Complete ?
By sound, we mean that given a set of functional dependencies F specified on a relation
schema R, any dependency that we can infer from F by using the primary rules of Armstrong
axioms holds in every relation state r of R that satisfies the dependencies in F.
By complete, we mean that using primary rules of Armstrong axioms repeatedly to infer
dependencies until no more dependencies can be inferred results in the complete set of all
possible dependencies that can be inferred from F.
Attribute Closure:
Attribute closure of an attribute set can be defined as set of attributes which can be
functionally determined from it.
NOTE:
To find attribute closure of an attribute set-
1) Add elements of attribute set to the result set.
2) Recursively adds elements to the result set which can be functionally determined from the
elements of result set.
Algorithm: Computing the Attribute Closure of Attribute Set X
Input: Let F be a set of FDs for relation R.
Method:
1.Closure X+ = X;
2.for each FD :YZ in F do:
if Y ⊆ X+ then // if Y is contained in X+

X+=X+ ∪ Z // add Z to X+
 end if
end for
3.Return X+ // return closure of X

Output: Closure X+ of X under F

Types of Functional dependencies:
 Non-Trivial functional dependency
 Trivial functional dependency
 Fully Functional Dependency
 Partial Functional Dependency
 Transitive functional dependency
 Multivalued functional dependency
1. Non-trivial Functional Dependency: If A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is
not a subset of A. When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called as complete non-trivial.
Completely non-trivial functional dependency:-If X->Y and X∩Y=Ф(null) then it is called
completely non-trivial functional dependency. In Non-trivial functional dependency, the
dependent is strictly not a subset of the determinant.
Example: ABC , ID → Name,
roll_no name age
42 smith 17
43 john 18
44 peter 18
42 raju 17

Here, roll_no → name is a non-trivial functional dependency, since the dependent name is not a
subset of determinant roll_no
Similarly, {roll_no, name} → age is also a non-trivial functional dependency, since age is not a
subset of {roll_no, name}
2. Trivial Functional Dependency:If A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of
A. In Trivial Functional Dependency, a dependent is always a subset of the determinant i.e. If X
→ Y and Y is the subset of X, then it is called trivial functional dependency
The following dependencies are also trivial like: A → A, B → B
AB→AB. For example,
roll_no name age
42 smith 17
43 john 18
44 peter 18
Here, {roll_no, name} → name is a trivial functional dependency, since the dependent name is a
subset of determinant set {roll_no, name}
Similarly, roll_no → roll_no is also an example of trivial functional dependency.
3. Fully Functional Dependency:
If X and Y are an attribute set of a relation, Y is fully functional dependent on X, if Y is
functionally dependent on X but not on any proper subset of X.
Example :In the relation ABC ->D, attribute D is fully functionally dependent on ABC and not
on any proper subset of ABC. That means that subsets of ABC like AB, BC, A, B, etc cannot
determine D. Example :
supplier_id item_id price
1 1 540
2 1 545
1 2 200
2 2 201
1 1 540
2 2 201
3 1 542
From the table, we can clearly see that neither supplier_id nor item_id can uniquely determine
the price but both supplier_id and item_id together can do so. So we can say that price is fully
functionally dependent on { supplier_id, item_id }. This summarizes and gives our fully
functional dependency .{ supplier_id , item_id } -> price
4. Partial Functional Dependency: A functional dependency XY is a partial dependency if Y is
functionally dependent on X and Y can be determined by any proper subset of X.A Functional
dependency XY is a partial dependency if, X is a part of candidate key and Y is a non-key
attribute(s).
Let R(A,B,C) and AB=candidate key.
A-> C is a partial dependency (where C dependson a part of the candidate key).
AB->C is a full dependency (where c depends on the entire candidate key).
Example
R(ABCDE)
F: {AB->C, C->D, B->E }. Find partial dependency.
Solution
AB+ = {A,B,C,D }
C+={ C,D }
B+= {B,E}
=>AB is the only candidate key.
=> key attributes =A,B and
=> non-key attributes = C,D,E.
Key attributes are also called prime attributes and non-key attributes are also called non-prime
attributes.AB->C is not a Partial dependency // it is full dependency.
B-> E is a partial dependency, since B is a part of the candidate key and E is a non-key attribute.
Differences between Full Functional Dependency (FFD) and Partial Functional Dependency
(PFD):
Full Functional Dependency Partial Functional Dependency
A functional dependency X->Y is a fully A functional dependency X->Y is a partial
functional dependency if Y is functionally dependency if Y is functionally dependent
dependent on X and Y is not functionally on X and Y can be determined by any
dependent on any proper subset of X. proper subset of X.
In full functional dependency, the non-prime In partial functional dependency, the non-
attribute is functionally dependent on the prime attribute is functionally dependent on
candidate key. part of a candidate key.
In fully functional dependency, if we In partial functional dependency, if we
remove any attribute of X, then the remove any attribute of X, then the
dependency will not exist anymore. dependency will still exist.
Full Functional Dependency equates to the Partial Functional Dependency does not
normalization standard of Second Normal equate to the normalization standard of
Form. Second Normal Form. Rather, 2NF
eliminates the Partial Dependency.
An attribute A is fully functional dependent An attribute A is partially functional
on another attribute B if it is functionally dependent on other attribute B if it is
dependent on that attribute, and not on any functionally dependent on any part (subset)
part (subset) of it. of that attribute.
Functional dependency enhances the quality Partial dependency does not enhance the
of the data in our database. data quality. It must be eliminated in order
to normalize in the second normal form.
4. Transitive Functional Dependency:
In transitive functional dependency, dependent is indirectly dependent on determinant.i.e. If A →
B &B →C, then according to axiom of transitivity, A → C. This is a transitive functional
dependency.
Prime and non-prime attributes: Attributes which are parts of any candidate key of relation are
called as prime attribute, others are non-prime attributes.
Candidate Key: Candidate Key is minimal set of attributes of a relation which can be used to
identify a tuple uniquely.
Consider student table: student(sno, sname,sphone,age) we can take sno as candidate key. we can
have more than 1 candidate key in a table.
Types of candidate keys:
1. simple(having only one attribute)
2. composite(having multiple attributes as candidate key)
Super Key:Super Key is set of attributes of a relation which can be used to identify a tuple
uniquely.
 Adding zero or more attributes to candidate key generates super key.
 A candidate key is a super key but vice versa is not true.
Consider student table: student(sno, sname,sphone,age).we can take sno, (sno, sname) as super
key.
Finding candidate keys problems: or Attribute Closure:
Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, M} and the set of functional
dependencies
{{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J}, {E, H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R.
What is the key for R?
Answer: Finding attribute closure of all given options, we get:
{E,F}+ = {EFGIJ}
{E,F,H}+ = {EFHGIJKLMN}
{E,F,H,K,L}+ = {{EFHGIJKLMN}
{E}+ = {E}
{EFH}+ and {EFHKL}+ results in set of all attributes, but EFH is minimal. So it will be
candidate key.
Consider a relation scheme R = (A, B, C, D, E, H) on which the following functional
dependencies hold:
{A–>B, BC–> D, E–>C, D–>A}. What are the candidate keys of R?
Normal Forms:
Normalization is the process of minimizing redundancy from a relation or set of relations.
Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database. Redundancy in relation may
cause insertion, deletion, and update anomalies. So, it helps to minimize the redundancy in
relations. Normalization divides the larger table into the smaller table and links them using
relationship.
Types of Normal Forms:
 First Normal Form(1NF)
 Second Normal Form(2NF)
 Third Normal Form(3NF)
 Boyce and Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
 Fourth Normal Form(4NF)
 Fifth normal form (5NF)
 Domain-key normal form or DKNF
 Sixth normal form or (6NF)
First Normal Form(1NF):
A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value. or It must hold only single-valued attribute. A
relation is in first normal form if every attribute in that relation is singled valued attribute. It states
that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. A relation is in first normal form if it does
not contain any composite or multi-valued attribute. First normal form disallows the multi-valued
attribute, composite attribute, and their combinations.
Example: First Normal Form.
roll_no name subject
101 Anil AWS, Python
103 smith Java
102 peter ML, AI
But out of the 3 different students in our table, 2 have opted for more than 1 subject.And we have
stored the subject names in a single column. But as per the 1st Normal form each column must
contain atomic value. Here is our updated table and it now satisfies the First Normal Form.
roll_no Name subject
101 Anil AWS
101 Anil Python
103 smith Java
102 peter ML
102 peter AI
By doing so, although a few values are getting repeated but values for the subject column are now
atomic for each record/row. using the First Normal Form, data redundancy increases, as there will
be many columns with same data in multiple rows but each row as a whole will be unique.
Example:
Domain Courses

Programming Java, C
Web designing PHP, HTML
The above table consist of multiple values in single columns which can be reduced into
atomic values by using first normal form as follows
Domain Courses

Programming Java
Programming C
Web designing PHP
Web designing HTML
Second Normal Form :(2NF) :
A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent
on the primary key. In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional
dependent on the primary key. A relation is in 2NF if it has No Partial Dependency, i.e., no non-
prime attribute (attributes which are not part of any candidate key) is dependent on any proper
subset of any candidate key of the table. In second normal form non-prime attributes should not
depend on proper subset of key attributes.
Fully Functional Dependency (FFD): If X and Y are an attribute set of a relation, Y is fully
functional dependent on X, if Y is functionally dependent on X but not on any proper subset of X.
Partial Dependency (PFD): If the proper subset of candidate key determines non-prime attribute,
it is called partial dependency.
Example: Consider following functional dependencies in relation R (A, B , C, D )
AB  C [A and B together determine C]
BC  D [B and C together determine D]
In the above relation, AB is the only candidate key and there is no partial dependency, i.e., any
proper subset of AB doesn’t determine any non-prime attribute.
Example:
Student id Student name Project Id Project name

101 smith P1 x
102 john P2 y

Here (student id, project id) are key attributes and (student name, project name) are non-prime
attributes. It is decomposed as
Student id Student name Project id
101 smith P1
102 john P2

Project id Project name

P1 x
P2 y
Third Normal Form:
A relation is said to be in third normal form , if it is already in second normal form and no
transitive dependencies exists.
3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity. If there is
no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third normal form.
Update anomaly is caused by a transitive dependency.
A relation is in third normal form, if there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes as
well as it is in second normal form.
Let R be a relation schema, X be a subset of the attributes of R, and A be an attribute of R. R is in
third normal form if for every FD X → A that holds over R, one of the following statements is
true:
•A ∈ X; that is, it is a trivial FD, or

•X is a super key, or

•A is part of some key for R

OR

A relation is in 3NF if at least one of the following condition holds in every non-trivial function
dependency X –> Y

1. X is a super key.
2. Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Transitive Functional dependency (TFD): If AB and BC are two FDs then AC is called
transitive dependency.

Transitive Dependencies
Suppose that a dependency X → A causes a violation of 3NF. There are two cases:

1.X is a proper subset of some key K. Such a dependency is sometimes called a partial
dependency.

2.X is not a proper subset of any key. Such a dependency is sometimes called a transitive
dependency because it means we have a chain of dependencies K → X → A. The problem is that
we cannot associate an X value with a K value unless we also associate an A value with an X
value.
Example: Consider relation R(A, B, C, D, E)
 A  BC
 CD  E
 BD
 EA

All possible candidate keys in above relation are {A, E, CD, BC} All attribute are on right sides
of all functional dependencies are prime.
******************************************************************************
Example: 1NF,2NF,3NF
 so to avoid the repeating groups develop the following relation.
SID sname Caddr major CID Ctitle Iname Iloc grade
111 Anil 208 west IS IS11 DBMS SB 203 east A

111 Anil 208 west IS IS22 SAD AR 204 West B

222 Adhir 104 East IT IS11 DBMS SB 203 East C
222 Adhir 104 East IT IT22 COA SB 203 East B

222 Adhir 104 East IT IT33 C HK 209 South A

Relation name: Grade Report relation in 1NF

Second Normal Form:(2NF):

in the above Grade relation there are 4 FDs
 SID-->Snsme ,Caddr,Major
 CID-->Ctitle,Iname,Iloc
 SID,CID-->Grade
 Iname-->Iloc

key: composite key is(SID,CID)

In the above grade Report relation is not in the 2NF because of there is a trival dependency exists.

To remove the partial dependencies decompose the relation into smaller relations. Decompose the
Grade Report relation into three relations they are Student Relation, Course Relation, Registration
relation.
Student Relation
SID Snsme Caddr Major
111 Anil 208 west IS
222 Adhir 104 East IT
Course Relation

CID Ctitle Iname Iloc

IS11 DBMS SB 203 east

IS22 SAD AR 204 West

IS11 DBMS SB 203 East
IT22 COA SB 203 East
IT33 C HK 209 South

Registration relation
SID CID Grade
111 IS11 A
111 IS22 B
222 IS11 C
222 IT22 B
222 IT33 A

Third Normal Form:

For the Grade report relation split into three relations
Student Relation ,Registration relation,Course Relation
1.Student relation is in 3NF.
2. Registration relation is in 3NF
3. Course Relation is not in 3NF
Functional dependencies are
 SID-->Snsme ,Caddr,Major
 CID-->Ctitle,Iname,Iloc
 SID,CID-->Grade
Iname-->Iloc

Student Relation :3NF

SID Snsme Caddr Major
111 Anil 208 west IS
222 Adhir 104 East IT

Registration relation:3NF
SID CID Grade
111 IS11 A
111 IS22 B
222 IS11 C
222 IT22 B
222 IT33 A

Course Relation

CID Ctitle Iname Iloc

IS11 DBMS SB 203 east

IS22 SAD AR 204 West

IS11 DBMS SB 203 East
IT22 COA SB 203 East
IT33 C HK 209 South

Course Relation is not in 3NF because InameIloc is transitive dependency hence course
relation not in 3NF But it is in 2NF

CIDCtitle,Iname,Iloc
InameIloc.

CID Ctitle
CIDIname
CIDIloc
InameIloc is transitive dependency hence course relation not in 3NF But it is in 2NF

Here CID determines Iname and Iname determines Iloc is the transitive Dependency.
Course relation decomposes into two relations .

R1:CIDCtitle,Iname
R2: InameIloc. Make Iname as primary key
Course Relation

CID Ctitle Iname

IS11 DBMS SB

IS22 SAD AR
IS11 DBMS SB
IT22 COA SB
IT33 C HK
Make Iname as primary key

Iname Iloc
SB 203 east

AR 204 West
SB 203 East
SB 203 East
HK 209 South