2.3.

THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

2.3 The Absolute Value

To solve problems in calculus you need to master differentiation and
integration. To solve problems in analysis you need to master
inequalities. The content of this section, mostly on inequalities, is
fundamental to everything else that follows in this book.
Given any a ∈ R, we define the absolute value of a as the number

Clearly, |a| = 0 if and only if a = 0, and 0 ≤ |a| for all a ∈ R. Below we

record some important properties of the absolute value function.

Theorem2.3.1

Let a,b ∈ R and c ≥ 0.

( i ) |ab | = |a |·| b|

( ii ) |a |2 = a 2

( iii ) |a |≤ c If and only if − c ≤ a ≤ c

( iv ) − |a |≤ a ≤| a |

Proof. Statements (i) and (ii) are trivial. To prove (iii), first suppose
that |a| ≤ c. If a > 0 then a ≤ c. Hence, −a ≥ −c and since a > 0 then

a > −a ≥ −c. Hence, −c ≤ a ≤ c. If a < 0 then −a ≤ c, and thus a ≥ −c.

Since a < 0 then a < −a ≤ c. Thus, −c ≤ a ≤ c. Now suppose that −c ≤ a ≤
 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

c. If 0 < a ≤ c then |a| = a ≤ c. If a < 0 then from multiplying the

inequality by (−1) we have c ≥ −a ≥ −c and thus |a| = −a ≤ c.

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To prove part (iv), notice that |a| ≤ |a| and thus applying (iii) we

get −|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|.

Example 2.3.2. If b 6= 0 prove that .

Example 2.3.3. From Theorem2 2.3.12 part (i), we have that2 |a2| = |a ·

a| =3 |a| · |a3| = |a| . Therefore, |a | = |a| . Similarly, one can shown n

that |a | = |a| . By induction, for each n ∈ N it holds that |a | = |a| .

Below is the most important inequality in this book.

Theorem2.3.4:TriangleInequality

Forany x,y ∈ R itholdsthat

|x + y |≤| x | + |y |.

Proof. Wehavethat

−|x| ≤ x ≤ |x| −|y| ≤

y ≤ |y|

from which it follows that

−(|x| + |y|) ≤ x + y ≤ |x| + |y|

and thus
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 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

By induction, one can prove the following corollary to the Triangle

inequality.
Corollary2.3.5

Forany x 1,x 2 ,...,x n ∈ R itholdsthat

|x 1 + x 2 + ··· + x n |≤| x 1 | + |x 2 | + ··· + |x n |.

A compact way to write the triangle inequality using summation

notation is
.

Here is another consequence of the Triangle inequality.

Corollary2.3.6

For x,y ∈ R itholdsthat

( i ) |x − y |≤| x | + |y |

( ii ) ||x |−| y ||≤| x − y |

Proof. Forpart(i),wehave

|x − y| = |x + (−y)|

≤ |x| + | − y|
= |x| + |y|.

For part (ii), consider

|x| = |x − y + y| ≤ |x − y| + |y|
 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

and therefore |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|. Switching the role of x and y we obtain

|y| − |x| ≤ |y − x| = |x − y|, and therefore multiplying this last inequality

by −1 yields −|x − y| ≤ |x| − |y|. Therefore,

which is the stated inequality.

Example 2.3.7. For a,b ∈ R prove that |a + b| ≥ |a| − |b|.

Example 2.3.8. Let f(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 7 for x ∈ [−2,2]. Find a number M

> 0 such that |f(x)| ≤ M for all −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution. Clearly, if −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 then |x| ≤ 2. Apply the triangle

inequality and the properties of the absolute value:

|f(x)| = |2x2 − 3x + 7|

≤ |2x2| + |3x| + |7|

= 2|x|2 + 3|x| + 7 ≤

2(2)2 + 3(2) + 7 =

21.
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 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

Therefore, if M = 21 then |f(x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ [−2,2].

Example 2.3.9. Let . Find a number M > 0 such that |

f(x)| ≤ M for all 2 ≤ x ≤ 3.

Solution. It is clear that if 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 then |x| ≤ 3. Using the properties of

the absolute value and the triangle inequality repeatedly on the

 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

numerator:

Now, for 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 we have that −5 ≤ 1 − 2x ≤ −3 and therefore

3 ≤ |1 − 2x| ≤ 5 and then . Therefore,

28 28
|f(x)| ≤ |1 − 2x| ≤ 3 .

Hence, we can take M = 283 .

Example 2.3.10. Let . Find a number M > 0 such that |

f(x)| ≤ M for all −3 ≤ x ≤ 2.

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 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

In analysis, the absolute value is used to measure distance

between points in R. For any a ∈ R, the absolute value |a| is the
distance from a to 0. This interpretation of the absolute value can be
used to measure the difference (in magnitude) between two points.
That is,
ℝ

Figure 2.2: The number |x − y| is the distance between x and y.

given x,y ∈ R, the distance between x and y is |x − y|. From the

properties of the absolute value, this distance is also |y − x|.

We will often be concerned with how close a given number x is to

a fixed number a ∈ R. To do this, we introduce the notion of
neighborhoodsbasedat a.

Definition2.3.11:Neighborhoods

Let a ∈ R andlet ε> 0 .The ε - neighborhoodof a ofradius is

theset

B (a) = {x ∈ R | |x − a| < ε} = (a − ε,a + ε)

Notice that if ε1 < ε2 then Bε1(a) ⊂ Bε2(a).

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 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

Example 2.3.12. Let and let ε = 0.0001. From calculus, we

know that lim . Find a natural number N such that n→∞

for every n ≥ N.

Solution. The inequality means that f(n) is within ε of

. That is,

This inequality does not hold for all n, but it will eventually hold for
some N ∈ N and for all n ≥ N. For example, 8 and

, and similarly for

In fact, . However, because we know that

, eventually for large enough n. To find

out how large, let’s analyze the magnitude :

Hence, if and only if

7
<ε

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 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

2(2n + 3)
which after re-arranging can be written as
.

With ε = 0.0001 we obtain

n > 17,498.5.

Hence, if N = 17,499 then if n ≥ N then .

Example 2.3.13. Let ε1 > 0 and ε2 > 0, and let a ∈ R. Show that Bε1(a) ∩

Bε2(a) and Bε1(a) ∪ Bε2(a) are ε-neighborhoods of a for some

appropriate value of ε.

Exercises

Exercise 2.3.1. Prove that if a < x < b and a < y < b then |x − y| < b−a.

Draw a number line with points a,b,x,y satisfying the inequalities and

graphically interpret the inequality |x − y| < b − a.

Exercise 2.3.2. Let a0,a1,a2,...,an be positive real numbers and

consider the polynomial

f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ··· + anxn.

Prove that
|f(x)| ≤ f(|x|) 2 3

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 2.3. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

for all x ∈ R. Hint: For example, if say f(x) = 2 + 3x + 7x then you are asked to prove
that

However, prove the claim for a general polynomial f(x) = a0+a1x+a2x2+···+anxn with

ai > 0.

Exercise 2.3.3. Let f(x) = 3x2 − 7x + 11 for x ∈ [−4,2]. Find analytically

a number M > 0 such that |f(x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ [−4,2]. Do not use

calculus to find M.

Exercise 2.3.4. Let 10]. Find analytically a

number M > 0 such that |f(x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ [0,10]. Do not use
calculus to find M.
Exercise 2.3.5. Let 2]. Find

analytically a number M > 0 such that−|f(x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ [0,2]. Do

not use calculus to find M. (Hint: Complete the square.)

Exercise 2.3.6. Let a,b ∈ R be distinct points. Show that there exists

neighborhoods Bε(a) and Bδ(b) such that Bǫ(a) ∩ Bδ(b) 6= ∅.

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